Geographical Information

Systems
Introduction
• A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-based system
designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present all
types of spatial or geographical data.
• GIS is a set of tools (or technology) that allow for the processing of spatial
data into information. This set of tools is open ended, but will include data
input, data storage, data manipulation, and a reporting system.
• The GIS is sometimes used for geographical information science or
geospatial information studies to refer to the academic discipline or career
of working with geographic information systems and is a large domain
within the broader academic discipline of Geoinformatics.
History of GIS
• The first known use of the term "geographic information system" was by Roger
Tomlinson in the year 1968 in his paper "A Geographic Information System for
Regional Planning". Tomlinson is also acknowledged as the "father of GIS".
• Previously, one of the first applications of spatial analysis in epidemiology is the
1832. The French geographer Charles Picquet represented the 48 districts of the
city of Paris by halftone color gradient according to the percentage of deaths by
cholera per 1,000 inhabitants.
• In 1854 John Snow depicted a cholera outbreak in London using points to
represent the locations of some individual cases, an early successful use of a
geographic methodology in epidemiology.
• While the basic elements of topography and theme existed previously in cartography, the
John Snow map was unique, using cartographic methods not only to depict but also to
analyze clusters of geographically dependent phenomena.
Components of GIS
• Hardware: Hardware is the computer system on which a GIS operates.
Today, GIS software runs on a wide range of hardware types, from
centralized computer servers to desktop computers used in stand-alone or
networked configurations.
• Software : GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store,
analyze, and display geographic information.
• Data: Perhaps the most important component of a GIS is the data.
Geographic data and related tabular data can be collected in-house,
compiled to custom specifications and requirements, or occasionally
purchased from a commercial data provider.
• A GIS can integrate spatial data with other existing data resources, often stored in a
corporate DBMS. The integration of spatial data (often proprietary to the GIS
software), and tabular data stored in a DBMS is a key functionality afforded by GIS.
Cont.
• People: GIS technology is of limited value without the people who
manage the system and develop plans for applying it to real world
problems.
• GIS users range from technical specialists who design and maintain
the system to those who use it to help them perform their everyday
work. The identification of GIS specialists versus end users is often
critical to the proper implementation of GIS technology.
• Methods: A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed
implementation plan and business rules, which are the models and
operating practices unique to each organization.
GIS Subsystems
• Data Input: A data input subsystem allows the user to capture,
collect, and transform spatial and thematic data into digital form. The
data inputs are usually derived from a combination of hard copy
maps, aerial photographs, remotely sensed images, reports, survey
documents, etc.
• Data Storage and Retrieval: The data storage and retrieval subsystem
organizes the data, spatial and attribute, in a form which permits it to
be quickly retrieved by the user for analysis, and permits rapid and
accurate updates to be made to the database.
• This component usually involves use of a database management system
(DBMS) for maintaining attribute data. Spatial data is usually encoded and
maintained in a proprietary file format.
Cont.
• Data Manipulation and Analysis: The data manipulation and analysis
subsystem allows the user to define and execute spatial and attribute
procedures to generate derived information.
• This subsystem is commonly thought of as the heart of a GIS, and usually
distinguishes it from other database information systems and computer-aided
drafting (CAD) systems.
• Data Output: The data output subsystem allows the user to generate
graphic displays, normally maps, and tabular reports representing
derived information products.
GIS Application Areas
• Urban planning management and policy: Zoning, economic development,
land acquisition, code enforcement, crime analysis, emergency response
etc
• Environmental science: modeling storm water runoff, Impact analysis,
management of wetlands, monitoring environmental risk etc.
• Political science: predictive modeling, elections results analysis,
• Engineering: designing alignment for freeways, coordinating infrastructure
management.
• Business: demographic analysis, market segmentation, supply chain
optimization etc
GIS Datatypes
• Spatial Data: A GIS deals with spatial data (e.g., parcels, rivers, wells,),
their attributes and characteristics (e.g., location, area, length, name,
depth …) and the relationships between the objects (e.g., a parcel
boundary follows a river, a well is located in a certain parcel …).
• The objects are stored in the database with geometric primitives
(volumes, areas, lines, and points) and the relationships between
them (topology).
Characteristics of Spatial Data
GIS Datatypes Cont.
• Attribute data: describes characteristics of the spatial features. These
characteristics can be quantitative and/or qualitative in nature.
Attribute data is often referred to as tabular data.
• The coordinate location of a forestry stand would be spatial data,
while the characteristics of that forestry stand, e.g. cover group,
dominant species, crown closure, height, etc., would be attribute
data.
• Relationships (rules or behavior): topological relationship such as
coincidence, adjacency and connectivity
Spatial Data Models (Formats)
• Vector Model (Format): Vector model uses discrete points, lines and/or
areas corresponding to discrete objects with name or code number of
attributes
• Raster Model (Format): Raster model uses regularly spaced grid cells in
specific sequence. An element of the grid cell is called a pixel which
contains a single value of attributes.
• Image data utilizes techniques very similar to raster data, however typically
lacks the internal formats required for analysis and modeling of the data.
Images reflect pictures or photographs of the landscape.
• The data model represents a set of guidelines to convert the real world
(called entity) to the digitally and logically represented spatial objects
consisting of the attributes and geometry.
GIS Spatial Data Analysis
Introduction
• Geographical analysis allows the study of real-world processes by
developing and applying models to illuminate underlying trends in the
geographical data and thus make new information available.
• A GIS enhances this process by providing tools, which can be combined in
meaningful sequences to develop new models. These models may reveal
new or previously unidentified relationships within and between data sets,
thus increasing our understanding of the real world.
• Results of geographical data analysis can be communicated with maps,
reports, or both. A map is best used to display geographical relationships
whereas a report is most appropriate for summarizing the tabular data and
documenting any calculated values. Charts can also be used
Cont.
• Geographic Information Systems is a spatial analysis tool, which is used in
the Spatial Analysis to include a spatial perspective.
✓Whereby GIS data description answers the question "where?" GIS data
analysis answers the question "why is it there?"
✓GIS Analysis is the process of deriving information from one or more
layers of spatial data. It can involve multiple steps and processes and it is
perhaps the most important capability of a GIS.
✓It allows discovering relationships between various spatial data that
might not have been apparent otherwise.
✓Spatial analysis is where all the hard work of digitizing, building a
database, checking for errors, and dealing with the details of projections
and coordinate systems finally pays off in results and better decisions.
Scope of Analysis in GIS
• Analysis sub-component of GIS software does four important functions:
• Selection is a rather simple operation, but it is important because all
subsequent work is based on the results of the selection process.
• Manipulation has to do with aggregation, buffering, overlaying and
interpolation.
• Exploration is the first step in discovering any new kind of pattern or
cluster in a data set. Explorative spatial data analysis (ESDA) uses the data
in an inductive way to get new insight about spatial patterns and relations -
"we let the data speak for themselves”. {Spatial statistics such as Moran's I
and the G statistics are important tools in explorative spatial data analysis}.
• Confirmation can be seen as tools for estimation of process models,
simulation and forecasting.
Analysis Procedure
• Establish the objectives and criteria for the analysis. Define the problem
and then identify a sequence of operations to produce meaningful results
• Prepare the data for spatial operations. Prepare all map coverages for the
proposed data analysis. Add one or more attributes to coverages in the
database if necessary.
• Perform the spatial operations. Perform the spatial operations and
combine the coverages, e.g. creating buffering zones around features,
manipulating spatial features and performing polygon overlay.
Cont.
• Prepare the derived data for tabular analysis. Make sure the feature
attribute table contains all the items needed to hold the new values
to be created.
• Perform the tabular analysis. Calculation and query the relational
database using the model defined in step 1.
• Evaluate and interpret the results. Examine the results and
determine whether the answers are valid. Simple map displays and
reports can help in this evaluation.
• Refine the analysis if needed and repeat the analysis.
Types of GIS Analysis
• Spatial measurements : GIS makes spatial measurements easy to perform.
Spatial measurements can be the distance between two points, the area of
a polygon or the length of a line or boundary. Calculations can be of a
simple nature, such as measuring areas on one map, or more complex,
such as measuring overlapping areas on two or more maps.
• Information Retrieval With a GIS we can point at a location, object, or
area on the screen and retrieve recorded information about it from the
Database Management System (DBMS) which holds the information about
the map’s features.
• In order for a GIS to answer the question "what is where?" we need to
carry out retrieval or selection. "Geographic search or selection is the
secret to GIS data retrieval" so GIS systems have embedded DBMSs, or link
to a commercial DBMS
Methods of Retrieval
• Searches by Attribute :All DBMS include functions for basic data display.
Searches by attribute are then controlled by the capabilities of database
manager. Find is the basic attribute search. Find is intended to get a single
record. Find can be browse or by searches.
• Searches by geography : The form of select used most is buffer operation.
Buffering is a spatial retrieval around points, lines, or areas based on
distance
• The query interface: The user must interact with the data in appropriate
way, to do that, we need the query interface. Most GIS packages are fully
integrated with the WIMP (windows, icons, menus, and pointers) and use
the GUI (graphical user interface) of the computer's operating system
Types of GIS Analysis Cont.
• Spatial overlay: One basic way to create or identify spatial
relationships is through the process of spatial overlay. Spatial overlay
is accomplished by joining and viewing together separate data sets
that share all or part of the same area.
• The result of this combination is a new data set that identifies the
spatial relationships.
• Spatial overlay allow combining two or more (different) layers and
applying the set theoretic operations of intersection, union,
difference, and complement
Types of GIS Analysis Cont.
• Boundary analysis: Boundary analysis, which is often referred to as
districting, helps define regions according to certain criteria. This
procedure is used to define area of specific demographic characteristic
• Since districting is normally an iterative process involving the development
of numerous scenarios based on various combinations of desired criteria,
the computing power of the GIS proves to be a real timesaver.
• Rather than struggling with paper maps and adding machines, it is able to
interactively define proposed boundaries
Types of GIS Analysis Cont.
• Buffer analysis: Buffer analysis is used for identifying areas
surrounding geographic features. The process involves generating a
buffer around existing geographic features and then identifying or
selecting features based on whether they fall inside or outside the
boundary of the buffer.
• This process is used to identify neighborhood.
Types of GIS Analysis Cont.
• Connectivity Operations: Connectivity functions involve traversing an area
and accumulating values: Contiguity measures, Proximity, Network
functions, and Visibility functions.
• Contiguity measures: evaluate characteristics of spatial units that are contiguous
(are connected with unbroken adjacency). An example would be the search for a
contiguous piece of forest of a certain area and shape.
• Proximity functions: The best known example of a proximity function is the buffer
zone generation (or buffering).
• Visibility functions: are used to compute the points that are visible from a given
location (viewshed modeling or viewshed mapping) from a digital terrain model.
• Network Analysis: Network analysis is used for identifying the most efficient routes
or paths for allocation of services, and for evaluation of it. Identifying an efficient
DATA VISUALISATION AND MAP PRODUCTION
• Data visualization refers to the techniques used to communicate data
or information graphically, by encoding it as visual objects (e.g.,
points, lines or bars) contained in graphics.
• The goal is to communicate information clearly and efficiently to
users. It is one of the steps in spatial data analysis.
• The "main goal of data visualization is to communicate information
clearly and effectively through graphical means, usually as maps,
graphic impressions, charts, etc
• In previous topics we looked at data visualization so in this topic we
will look at mapping
Map Production
• Map production is the process of arranging map elements on a sheet
of paper in a way that, even without many words, the average person
can understand what it is all about.
• Maps are usually produced for presentations and reports. a map has
to be effective in communicating spatial information. Maps can be
hardcopy or digital (display, pdf, images, web maps)
• Maps are graphic representations of the real world or part of it,
where all some of the features may be exaggerated to show them.
• It is a GIS visualization technique, in addition to reports, charts and tables.
Map elements, which are components of a map, should be well
arranged/designed for effective communication.
Key Elements of a MAP
• Map body: The map body is, of course, the most important part of
the map because it contains the map information.
• The other elements support the communication process and help the map
reader to orientate himself and understand the map topic. For example, the
title describes the subject matter and the legend relates map symbols to the
mapped data.
• Map Title: The map title is very important because it is usually the
first thing a reader will look at on a map. It can be compared with a
title in a newspaper. It should be short but give the reader a first idea
of what the map is about.
Key Elements of a MAP Cont.
• Map Border: The map border is a line that defines exactly the edges
of the area shown on the map. When printing a map with a graticule
(which we describe further down), you often find the coordinate
information of the graticule lines along the border lines
• Map Legend: A map is a simplified representation of the real world
and map symbols are used to represent real objects. Without
symbols, we wouldn’t understand maps.
• To ensure that a person can correctly read a map, a map legend is
used to provide a key to all the symbols used on the map. It contains
icons, each of which will represent a type of feature represented in
the map
Key Elements of a MAP Cont.
• North arrow: A north arrow (sometimes also called a compass rose) is
a figure displaying the main directions, North, South, East and West.
On a map it is used to indicate the direction of North.
• Scale: The scale of a map is the value of a single unit of distance on
the map, representing distance in the real world. The values are
shown in map units (meters, feet or degrees). The scale can be
expressed in several ways, for example, in words, as a ratio or as a
graphical scale bar
Key Elements of a MAP Cont.
• Acknowledgment: In the acknowledgment area of a map it is possible to
add text with important information. For example information about the
quality of the used data can be useful to give the reader an idea about
details such as how, by whom and when a map was created.
• Graticule and Grids: A graticule is a network of curved lines overlain on a
map to make spatial orientation easier for the reader. The lines can be used
as a reference. As an example, the lines of a graticule can represent the
earth’s parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude for geographical
coordinate system.
• Grids can also be applied for projected coordinate system instead of
graticules. Grids are networks of parallel and orthogonal straight lines of
Eastings and northings in projected cylindrical projections
Remote Sensing
Introduction
• At its core, remote sensing involves the collection of information
about an object or phenomenon without direct physical contact.
Instead, it relies on the detection and measurement of
electromagnetic radiation, often in the form of light, that interacts
with the target.
• This process facilitates the acquisition of valuable data about Earth's
features and conditions, opening up a realm of possibilities for
scientific research, resource management, and decision-making.
Technological Foundations
• Satellite Imaging: Satellites play a pivotal role in remote sensing. Orbiting
the Earth, they capture high-resolution images across the electromagnetic
spectrum. These images provide crucial insights into land cover, vegetation
health, and changes in the Earth's surface over time.
• Aerial Photography: Before the era of satellites, remote sensing relied
heavily on aerial photography. Aircraft equipped with specialized cameras
captured images of the Earth's surface, enabling detailed analyses and
mapping.
• LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging): LiDAR employs laser beams to
measure distances and create highly accurate three-dimensional
representations of the Earth's surface. This technology is particularly
valuable for terrain mapping, forest structure analysis, and urban planning.
Cont.
• RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging): RADAR systems use radio
waves to detect and map surface features. They are particularly
effective in penetrating clouds and darkness, making them invaluable
for applications such as monitoring sea ice and mapping topography.
Benefits of Remote Sensing
• Spatial and Temporal Coverage: Remote sensing provides a unique
advantage in terms of spatial and temporal coverage. Satellites and other
platforms can capture data over large geographical areas, and frequent
revisits allow for the monitoring of changes over time.
• Environmental Monitoring and Conservation: Remote sensing is
instrumental in environmental monitoring and conservation efforts. It aids
in assessing the health of ecosystems, tracking wildlife habitats, and
identifying areas at risk of degradation or illegal activities.
• Precision Agriculture: In agriculture, remote sensing helps optimize crop
management. Farmers can use satellite or drone imagery to assess crop
health, monitor soil conditions, and identify areas that may need specific
interventions, leading to improved yields and resource efficiency.
Cont.
• Natural Resource Management: The technology is widely used in the management of
natural resources such as forests, water bodies, and minerals. It assists in inventorying
resources, monitoring their exploitation, and implementing sustainable management
practices.
• Disaster Response and Recovery: Remote sensing plays a critical role in disaster
management. It enables rapid assessment of the impact of natural disasters, aids in
planning and executing emergency responses, and facilitates post-disaster recovery
efforts.
• Climate Change Studies: Monitoring and understanding the impacts of climate change
on the Earth's surface and atmosphere are crucial. Remote sensing provides valuable
data for climate change studies, including the measurement of temperature changes,
glacial retreat, and sea level rise.
• Infrastructure Planning and Development: Remote sensing technologies, particularly
LiDAR and satellite imagery, contribute to effective urban planning and infrastructure
development. They provide detailed information on land use, topography, and changes in
the built environment.
Open-source GIS tools
• QGIS (Quantum GIS): QGIS is a user-friendly, open source desktop GIS
software that allows users to create, edit, visualize, and analyze spatial
data. It supports a wide range of data formats and offers a robust set of
features for GIS professionals and enthusiasts.
• GRASS GIS: GRASS GIS (Geographic Resources Analysis Support System) is a
powerful open source GIS software for geospatial data management and
analysis. It provides tools for spatial modeling, geostatistics, and raster
manipulation.
• GDAL (Geospatial Data Abstraction Library): GDAL is a library for reading
and writing raster and vector geospatial data formats. It provides a set of
tools for data translation and processing, making it a fundamental
component for many GIS applications.
Cont.
• GeoServer: GeoServer is an open source server software that allows
users to share, process, and edit geospatial data. It supports
standards like Web Map Service (WMS) and Web Feature Service
(WFS).
Questions:

1. How can computer vision and generative artificial intelligence help

in G.I.S
2. How do wireless sensor networks aid in GIS data collection
3. How does edge computing aid in GIS data analysis
4. How can high performance computing technology help in GIS