Control Systems

State- Space Analysis

Learning Outcomes
• Find a mathematical model, called a state-space
representation, for a linear, time invariant system
• Model electrical and mechanical systems in state space
• Convert a transfer function to state space
• Convert a state-space representation to a transfer
function
• Obtain the State Transition Matrix
• Understand the concepts of Controllability and
Observability
• Design State Feedback controllers

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 SystemModelli
ng

Mathematicalmodels Fundamen
talPrinciplesforModelling
:
for
ElectricalSystems
• Electricalsystems • Kirchhoff’svoltage&currentlaws
• Mechanicalsystems Mechanicalsystems
• Electromecha
nicalsystem • Newton’slaws
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Introduction
Two approaches are available for the analysis and design of
feedback control systems.

§ The first one, which we had already studied is known as the classical, or
frequency-domain, technique. This approach is based on converting a
system's differential equation to a transfer function(using Laplace
Transforms), thus generating a mathematical model of the system which
algebraically relates a representation of the output to a representation of
the input.

§ The second approach, the state-space approach (also referred to as the

modern, or time-domain, approach) is a unified method for modelling,
analyzing, and designing a wide range of systems.

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Introduction
The primary disadvantage of the classical approach is its limited
applicability:

§ It can be applied only to linear, time-invariant systems or systems that

can be approximated as such.

§ Usage is confined to single-input, single-output (SISO) systems only.

§ Applicable only for zero initial condition cases.

§ Output feedback schemes are generally implemented since

instantaneous information of only the output variable is accessible.

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 Introduction
• On the other hand , the time-domain or the state-space approach can be
used to represent nonlinear systems, time-varying systems, multiple-input,
multiple-output systems besides being used for the same class of systems
modelled by the classical approach.

• The methods are applicable for non-zero initial conditions cases as well.

• Possible to implement state-feedback schemes apart from output feedback.

A distinct difference between the two approaches is that the Transfer

Function of a plant is unique where as it is possible to have many State-
Space representations of the plant.

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Underlying facts
We proceed now to establish the state-space approach as
an alternate method for representing physical systems.

• In general, an nth-order differential equation can be

decomposed into n first-order differential equations.

• Because, in principle, first-order differential equations

are simpler to solve than higher-order ones, first-order
differential equations are used in the analytical studies
of control systems.

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Definitions
State Variables
From the mathematical perspective, it is convenient to
define a set of state variables and state equations to
model dynamic systems.

The state of a system refers to the past, present, and

future conditions of the system. As it turns out, the
variables x1(t), x2(t), ...,x„(t) are the state variables of
the nth-order system.

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The General State-Space Representation

State space model comprises 2 equations;

1. State equation

State
Space Model
2. Output equation

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The General State-Space Representation

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The General State-Space Representation

Where

The state variables of a system are defined as a minimal set of variables,

x1(t),x2(t),...,xn(t),such that knowledge of these variables at any time t0
and information of the applied input at time t0 are sufficient to determine
the state of the system at any time t > t0 .

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 Example
Given 2nd order Diff Eq.
1

Above eq. can be transform into state eq;

Let

then Eq. (1) is decomposed into the following two first-order differential equations:

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Example

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 General form of state Space model
In general, the differential equation of an nth-order system is written

let us define

then the nth-order differential equation is decomposed into n first-order differential equations:

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Applying the State-Space Representation

In this section, we apply the state-space formulation to the

representation of more complicated physical systems. The first
step in representing a system is to select the state vector, which
must be chosen according to the following considerations:

1. A minimum number of state variables must be selected as

components of the state vector. This minimum number of state
variables is sufficient to describe completely the state of the
system.
2. The components of the state vector (that is, this minimum
number of state variables) must be linearly independent.

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Linearly Independent State Variables

The components of the state vector must be linearly

independent. For example, following the definition of linear
independence,if x1, x2, and x3are chosen as state variables,
but x3 = 5 x1 + 4x2, then x3 is not linearly independent of
x1 and x2, since knowledge of the values of x1 and x2 will
yield the value of x3.

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Minimum Number of State Variables

• Typically, the minimum number required equals the order

of the differential equation describing the system. For
example, if a third-order differential equation describes the
system, then three simultaneous, first-order differential
equations are required along with three state variables.

• From the perspective of the transfer function, the order of

the differential equation is the order of the denominator of
the transfer function after canceling common factors in the
numerator and denominator.

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Minimum Number of State Variables
• In most cases, another way to determine the number of state
variables is to count the number of independent energy-
storage elements in the system.
• The number of these energy-storage elements equals the
order of the differential equation and the number of state
variables.

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 Example
Find state model of
System shown in the Fig.

Solution

• A practical approach is to assign the current in the inductor L, i(t), and

the voltage across the capacitor C, ec(t), as the state variables.
• The reason for this choice is because the state variables are directly
related to the energy-storage element of a system. The inductor stores
kinetic energy, and the capacitor stores electric potential energy.
• By assigning i(t) and ec(t) as state variables, we have a complete
description of the past history (via the initial states) and the present and
future states of the network.

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Example
The state equation:

This format is also known as the state form if we set

OR

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 Example
Write the state equations of the electric network shown in the Fig.

Solution: The state equations of the network are obtained by writing the
voltages across the inductors and the currents in the capacitor in terms of the three
state variables. The state equations are

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Example
In vector-matrix form, the state equations are written as

Where

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Example
PROBLEM: Given the electrical network of Figure shown, find
a state-space representation if the output is the current through
the resistor.

Solution
Select the state variables by writing the derivative equation for all energy storage
elements, that is, the inductor and the capacitor. Thus,

1
2
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Example
Apply network theory, such as Kirchhoffs voltage and current
laws, to obtain ic and vL in terms of the state variables, vc and iL.
At Node 1,

which yields ic in terms of the state variables, vc and iL . Around the outer
loop,
4

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Example
Substitute the results of Eqs. (3) and (4) into Eqs. (1) and (2) to
obtain the following state equations:

OR

Find the output eq. since the output is iR(t)

The final result for the state-space representation is

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Example
Find the state eq. of the
mechanical system shown

Solution

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Converting a Transfer Function to State
Space
In the last section, we applied the state-space representation to
electrical and mechanical systems. We learn how to convert a
transfer function representation to a state-space representation in
this section.
One advantage of the state-space representation is that it can be
used for the simulation of physical systems on the digital
computer. Thus, if we want to simulate a system that is
represented by a transfer function, we must first convert the
transfer function representation to state space.

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Converting T.F to S.S

• System modeling in state space can take on many

representations
• Although each of these models yields the same output for a
given input, an engineer may prefer a particular one for
several reasons.
• Another motive for choosing a particular set of state
variables and state-space model is ease of solution.

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Converting T.F to S.S

There are many ways of converting T.F into S.S but the
most useful and famous are:

1. Direct Decomposition
2. Cascade Decomposition
3. Parallel Decomposition

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Direct Decomposition

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Direct Decomposition

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Direct Decomposition

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Direct Decomposition
From State diagram

In vector-matrix form,

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Direct Decomposition

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Cascade (Series) Decomposition

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Cascade (Series) Decomposition

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Cascade (Series) Decomposition

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Cascade (Series) Decomposition
Now write the state equations for the new representation of the system.

The state-space representation is completed by rewriting above

Eqs in vector-matrix form:

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Parallel Decomposition
Parallel subsystems have a common input and an output formed
by the algebraic sum of the outputs from all of the subsystems.

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Parallel Decomposition
Example

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Parallel Decomposition

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Parallel Decomposition

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Converting from State Space to a
Transfer Function

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Converting From S.S to T.F

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Example

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Example

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Example
PROBLEM: Given the system defined below, find the transfer
function, T(s) = Y(s)/U(s),

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Example

we obtain the final result for the transfer function:

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Linearization

• A prime advantage of the state-space representation over the

transfer function representation is the ability to represent
systems with nonlinearities.

• A linearized model is valid only for limited range of

operation, and often only at the operating point at which the
linearized is carried out.

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Why Linearization
• Lack of systematic design methodology for direct
design of nonlinear control system.

• Linear analysis methodology available

• The Laplace transform cannot be used to solve

nonlinear Diff. EQ.

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Linearization Steps

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Linear Approximation

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Example of Nonlinear

• Because nonlinear systems are usually difficult to analyze and

design, it is desirable to perform a linearization whenever the
situation justifies it.
• A linearization process that depends on expanding the
nonlinear state equations into a Taylor series about a nominal
operating point or trajectory

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Linearization

where

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Example
Given nonlinear system below, find linearized model

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Example

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Example

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Example
Solution

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Example
• Linearize the nonlinear state equation
• Equilibrium at 0

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Example
Solution

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