C PROGRAMMING – UNIT 3 { IMP

QUESTIONS }
Here are some important questions and concepts on Decision Making & Branching and
Looping according to the latest NEP MDU syllabus for your BCA End Semester exams:

1. Decision Making & Branching:

(a) IF Statement

1. Explain the syntax of an if statement with an example.

2. Write a program to check whether a number is positive, negative, or zero using an if
statement.

(b) IF-ELSE Statement

3. Explain the working of the if-else statement with an example.

4. Write a program to determine if a given year is a leap year using an if-else statement.

(c) Nested IF Statement

5. What is a nested if statement? Explain with a program to find the largest of three
numbers.
6. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using nested if statements.

(d) ELSE-IF Ladder

7. Explain the else-if ladder with an example.

8. Write a program using the else-if ladder to display the grade of a student based on
marks:
o Marks >= 90: Grade A
o Marks >= 75: Grade B
o Marks >= 50: Grade C
o Else: Fail

(e) Switch Statement

9. Explain the switch statement with its syntax and example.

10. Write a program using a switch statement to display the day of the week based on input
(1-7).
(f) Goto Statement

11. What is the goto statement? Discuss its advantages and disadvantages.
12. Write a program demonstrating the use of the goto statement for jumping between
different code blocks.

2. Decision Making & Looping:

(a) While Loop

13. Explain the while loop with its syntax.

14. Write a program to calculate the sum of digits of a number using a while loop.

(b) Do-While Loop

15. How does a do-while loop differ from a while loop? Explain with an example.
16. Write a program using a do-while loop to display the multiplication table of a given
number.

(c) For Loop

17. Explain the syntax of the for loop with an example.

18. Write a program using a for loop to find the factorial of a number.

(d) Jumps in Loops

19. Differentiate between break and continue statements with examples.

20. Write a program to skip printing the number 5 in a loop that prints numbers from 1 to 10
using the continue statement.

(e) Break Statement

21. What is the purpose of the break statement? Write a program to demonstrate its usage in
a loop.
22. Write a program to find the first number divisible by 7 in a range of numbers using the
break statement.

(f) Continue Statement

23. How does the continue statement work in loops? Explain with an example.
24. Write a program to print even numbers from 1 to 20 using the continue statement.

(g) Nested Loops

 25. Explain nested loops with an example.
26. Write a program using nested loops to display a pyramid pattern of numbers.

1
1 2
1 2 3
1 2 3 4

Key Topics for Exam:

 Differences: if vs switch, while vs do-while, break vs continue.

 Programs for practical implementation.
 Syntax and flowcharts for all statements/loops.
 Understanding and explaining edge cases for each construct.

Let me know if you need detailed solutions or explanations for any of these questions!

ANSWERS
Here’s a detailed explanation and solution for each question with code examples. The solutions
are written in C programming language as it is commonly used for foundational programming
concepts. Let me know if you'd prefer another language.

1. Decision Making & Branching

(a) IF Statement

1. Syntax and Example

Syntax:
2. if (condition) {
3. // Statements to execute if the condition is true
4. }

Program: Check if a number is positive, negative, or zero

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
int num;
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d", &num);

if (num > 0) {
 printf("The number is positive.\n");
}
if (num < 0) {
printf("The number is negative.\n");
}
if (num == 0) {
printf("The number is zero.\n");
}
return 0;
}

(b) IF-ELSE Statement

3. Explanation and Program: Leap Year Check Explanation: An if-else statement

evaluates a condition and executes the corresponding block.
Program:
4. #include <stdio.h>
5.
6. int main() {
7. int year;
8. printf("Enter a year: ");
9. scanf("%d", &year);
10.
11. if ((year % 4 == 0 && year % 100 != 0) || (year % 400 == 0)) {
12. printf("%d is a leap year.\n", year);
13. } else {
14. printf("%d is not a leap year.\n", year);
15. }
16. return 0;
17. }

(c) Nested IF Statement

5. Explanation and Program: Largest of Three Numbers Explanation: A nested if

means an if inside another if.
Program:
6. #include <stdio.h>
7.
8. int main() {
9. int a, b, c;
10. printf("Enter three numbers: ");
11. scanf("%d %d %d", &a, &b, &c);
12.
13. if (a > b) {
14. if (a > c) {
15. printf("%d is the largest number.\n", a);
16. } else {
17. printf("%d is the largest number.\n", c);
18. }
19. } else {
20. if (b > c) {
 21. printf("%d is the largest number.\n", b);
22. } else {
23. printf("%d is the largest number.\n", c);
24. }
25. }
26. return 0;
27. }

(d) ELSE-IF Ladder

7. Explanation and Program: Student Grades Explanation: An else-if ladder allows

multiple conditions to be evaluated sequentially.
Program:
8. #include <stdio.h>
9.
10. int main() {
11. int marks;
12. printf("Enter marks: ");
13. scanf("%d", &marks);
14.
15. if (marks >= 90) {
16. printf("Grade A\n");
17. } else if (marks >= 75) {
18. printf("Grade B\n");
19. } else if (marks >= 50) {
20. printf("Grade C\n");
21. } else {
22. printf("Fail\n");
23. }
24. return 0;
25. }

(e) Switch Statement

9. Explanation and Program: Day of the Week Explanation: A switch statement

matches a variable's value with predefined cases.
Program:
10. #include <stdio.h>
11.
12. int main() {
13. int day;
14. printf("Enter a number (1-7): ");
15. scanf("%d", &day);
16.
17. switch (day) {
18. case 1: printf("Monday\n"); break;
19. case 2: printf("Tuesday\n"); break;
20. case 3: printf("Wednesday\n"); break;
21. case 4: printf("Thursday\n"); break;
22. case 5: printf("Friday\n"); break;
23. case 6: printf("Saturday\n"); break;
 24. case 7: printf("Sunday\n"); break;
25. default: printf("Invalid input!\n");
26. }
27. return 0;
28. }

(f) Goto Statement

11. Explanation and Program: Goto Usage

Program:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
int num = 1;

start: // Label
if (num <= 5) {
printf("%d\n", num);
num++;
goto start; // Jump to the label
}
return 0;
}

2. Decision Making & Looping

(a) While Loop

13. Explanation and Program: Sum of Digits Program:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
int num, sum = 0, digit;
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d", &num);

while (num > 0) {

digit = num % 10;
sum += digit;
num /= 10;
}
printf("Sum of digits: %d\n", sum);
return 0;
}

(b) Do-While Loop

 15. Explanation and Program: Multiplication Table Program:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
int num, i = 1;
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d", &num);

do {
printf("%d x %d = %d\n", num, i, num * i);
i++;
} while (i <= 10);
return 0;
}

(c) For Loop

17. Explanation and Program: Factorial Program:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
int num, factorial = 1;
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d", &num);

for (int i = 1; i <= num; i++) {

factorial *= i;
}
printf("Factorial of %d is %d\n", num, factorial);
return 0;
}

(d) Jumps in Loops

19. Break Statement Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {
if (i == 5) break;
printf("%d ", i);
}
return 0;
}

20. Continue Statement Example:

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {
if (i == 5) continue;
printf("%d ", i);
}
return 0;
}

(e) Nested Loops

25. Pyramid Pattern:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
for (int i = 1; i <= 4; i++) {
for (int j = 1; j <= i; j++) {
printf("%d ", j);
}
printf("\n");
}
return 0;
}

Let me know which specific questions you’d like further explanations or modifications for!

Here’s a curated list of long and important questions for programs and theory-based questions
on Decision Making & Branching and Looping, tailored to the NEP syllabus. These questions
focus on detailed explanations and real-world applications.

Long Theory-Based Questions

1. Decision Making & Branching

1. Explain decision-making statements in C with examples. Compare if, if-else, and

switch statements.
2. Discuss the advantages and limitations of nested if statements. Provide a flowchart to
explain the execution flow.
3. What is an else-if ladder? Explain its use case in implementing multiple conditions.
4. Differentiate between if-else and switch statements. Discuss situations where one is
preferred over the other.
5. Explain the goto statement with its syntax. Discuss its disadvantages and why it is
generally avoided in modern programming.
2. Decision Making & Looping

6. Describe the different types of loops in C (while, do-while, for) with syntax and
flowcharts.
7. Explain the use of break and continue statements. How do they affect the flow of
loops?
8. What are nested loops? Discuss their applications with examples.
9. How do you choose the appropriate looping construct (for, while, do-while)?
Provide scenarios where each is most suitable.
10. Write a note on structured programming. How do decision-making and looping
constructs align with the principles of structured programming?

SOLUTIONS

1. Decision Making & Branching

1.1 Explain decision-making statements in C with examples. Compare if, if-else, and switch
statements.

Decision-making statements in C are used to perform different actions based on different

conditions.

 if statement: Used to execute a block of code if a specified condition is true.

 if (x > 10) {
 printf("x is greater than 10\n");
 }
 if-else statement: If the condition is true, one block of code executes; otherwise, the
else block executes.
 if (x > 10) {
 printf("x is greater than 10\n");
 } else {
 printf("x is not greater than 10\n");
 }
 switch statement: Useful for checking multiple conditions based on a single variable.
Each condition is a case, and if no case matches, the default block is executed.
 switch (x) {
 case 1: printf("x is 1\n"); break;
 case 2: printf("x is 2\n"); break;
 default: printf("x is neither 1 nor 2\n");
 }

Comparison:

 if statement is best for a single condition.

 if-else is useful for two alternative conditions.
 switch is preferable when there are multiple conditions based on a single variable.
1.2 Discuss the advantages and limitations of nested if statements. Provide a flowchart to
explain the execution flow.

Advantages:

 Allows for complex decision-making with multiple levels of conditions.

 Can handle various conditions that need to be checked in sequence.

Limitations:

 The code can become hard to read and maintain.

 Increased complexity may lead to errors.

Flowchart for Nested if:

Start
|
Condition 1?
/ \
Yes No
| |
Condition 2?
/ \
Yes No
| |
Do Task 1 Do Task 2
| |
End End

1.3 What is an else-if ladder? Explain its use case in implementing multiple conditions.

An else-if ladder is a series of if-else statements where each if checks a new condition if the
previous ones are false.

Example:

if (x == 1) {
printf("x is 1\n");
} else if (x == 2) {
printf("x is 2\n");
} else if (x == 3) {
printf("x is 3\n");
} else {
printf("x is unknown\n");
}

Use case: It is used when multiple conditions need to be checked, and only one of them should
be executed.
1.4 Differentiate between if-else and switch statements. Discuss situations where one is
preferred over the other.

 if-else is more flexible and can evaluate complex conditions (e.g., ranges).
 switch works only with discrete values (e.g., integers or characters) and is faster when
there are many conditions to check.

When to use:

 Use if-else when conditions are based on ranges or when using complex expressions.
 Use switch when checking a single variable against multiple constant values (e.g., menu
selections).

1.5 Explain the goto statement with its syntax. Discuss its disadvantages and why it is
generally avoided in modern programming.

The goto statement is used to transfer control to a different part of the program.

Syntax:

goto label;
...
label:
printf("This is a jump!\n");

Disadvantages:

 Makes code harder to follow and maintain.

 Leads to "spaghetti code" that can be difficult to debug.

Why avoided: Modern programming emphasizes structured programming, and goto can disrupt
the logical flow of the program.

2. Decision Making & Looping

2.1 Describe the different types of loops in C (while, do-while, for) with syntax and
flowcharts.

 while loop: Executes a block of code as long as the condition is true.

 while (condition) {
 // code to be executed
 }
 do-while loop: Similar to while, but guarantees at least one execution of the code block.
 do {
 // code to be executed
 } while (condition);
  for loop: Typically used when the number of iterations is known beforehand.
 for (initialization; condition; increment) {
 // code to be executed
 }

Flowchart (for a for loop):

Start
|
Initialization
|
Condition? --> No --> End
| Yes
Execution
|
Increment/Decrement
|
Back to Condition Check

2.2 Explain the use of break and continue statements. How do they affect the flow of loops?

 break: Terminates the loop immediately and transfers control to the statement following
the loop.
 continue: Skips the current iteration of the loop and moves to the next iteration.

Example:

for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {

if (i == 3) {
continue; // Skip the iteration when i is 3
}
if (i == 4) {
break; // Exit the loop when i is 4
}
printf("%d\n", i);
}

2.3 What are nested loops? Discuss their applications with examples.

Nested loops are loops inside other loops. They are used when a task needs to be repeated
multiple times within another repeated task.

Example:

for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++) {

for (int j = 0; j < 3; j++) {
printf("(%d, %d)\n", i, j);
}
}

Applications:
  Matrix operations
 Iterating over multidimensional arrays

2.4 How do you choose the appropriate looping construct (for, while, do-while)? Provide
scenarios where each is most suitable.

 for loop: Use when the number of iterations is known beforehand (e.g., iterating over an
array).
 while loop: Use when the number of iterations is not known, but a condition must be
true to keep looping (e.g., reading user input until a valid entry is made).
 do-while loop: Use when you want the loop to execute at least once, regardless of the
condition (e.g., menu-driven programs).

2.5 Write a note on structured programming. How do decision-making and looping

constructs align with the principles of structured programming?

Structured programming is a programming paradigm that emphasizes the use of functions,

control structures (like loops and conditionals), and clear, logical flow of the program. It avoids
goto statements to ensure the program is easy to read and maintain.

Alignment:

 Decision-making constructs (if, if-else, switch): These allow for logical decision-
making and clear branching of program flow.
 Looping constructs (for, while, do-while): These enable repetitive tasks to be
performed efficiently and clearly, without redundancy.

Together, these constructs promote a clean and logical structure for programming, making it
easier to follow, debug, and maintain.

Long Programming Questions

1. Decision Making & Branching

1. Program to Calculate Electricity Bill:

o Input units consumed.
o Apply the following tariff:
 Up to 100 units: ₹5/unit
 101-300 units: ₹7/unit
 Above 300 units: ₹10/unit
o Use an if-else ladder.
 Code:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
int units;
float bill = 0;
printf("Enter electricity units consumed: ");
scanf("%d", &units);

if (units <= 100) {

bill = units * 5;
} else if (units <= 300) {
bill = 100 * 5 + (units - 100) * 7;
} else {
bill = 100 * 5 + 200 * 7 + (units - 300) * 10;
}
printf("Total electricity bill: ₹%.2f\n", bill);
return 0;
}

2. Program to Calculate Income Tax:

o Input annual income.
o Tax slab:
 Up to ₹2,50,000: No tax
 ₹2,50,001-₹5,00,000: 5%
 ₹5,00,001-₹10,00,000: 20%
 Above ₹10,00,000: 30%
o Use nested if.
3. Grade Assignment Program:
o Input marks and assign grades (use switch statement):
 90-100: A
 80-89: B
 70-79: C
 Below 70: Fail

2. Decision Making & Looping

4. Program to Generate Fibonacci Series:

o Input the number of terms.
o Use a while loop.

Code:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
int n, t1 = 0, t2 = 1, nextTerm;
 printf("Enter the number of terms: ");
scanf("%d", &n);

printf("Fibonacci Series: ");

int i = 1;
while (i <= n) {
printf("%d ", t1);
nextTerm = t1 + t2;
t1 = t2;
t2 = nextTerm;
i++;
}
return 0;
}

5. Prime Number Check Program:

o Input a number.
o Use a for loop to check if it’s prime.
6. Number Pattern Printing:
o Display the following pattern using nested loops:
o 1
o 1 2
o 1 2 3
o 1 2 3 4
7. Reverse a Number:
o Input a number and reverse it using a while loop.
8. Program for Factorial Calculation:
o Input a number and calculate its factorial using a for loop.
9. Program for Palindrome Check:
o Input a number.
o Check if it reads the same forward and backward using a while loop.
10. Multiplication Table Program:
o Input a number.
o Display its multiplication table using a do-while loop.

SOLUTIONS

1. Decision Making & Branching

1.1 Program to Calculate Electricity Bill (using if-else ladder)

In this program, we calculate the electricity bill based on the number of units consumed. We use
an if-else ladder to apply different tariffs depending on the range of units consumed.

Code:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
int units;
 float bill = 0;
printf("Enter electricity units consumed: ");
scanf("%d", &units);

if (units <= 100) {

bill = units * 5;
} else if (units <= 300) {
bill = 100 * 5 + (units - 100) * 7;
} else {
bill = 100 * 5 + 200 * 7 + (units - 300) * 10;
}

printf("Total electricity bill: ₹%.2f\n", bill);

return 0;
}

Explanation:

 The program first prompts the user for the number of units consumed.
 Depending on the value of units, it calculates the total bill using different rates:
o ₹5/unit for up to 100 units
o ₹7/unit for 101-300 units
o ₹10/unit for units above 300
 The result is displayed with two decimal precision.

1.2 Program to Calculate Income Tax (using nested if)

In this program, we calculate income tax based on the user's annual income using a nested if
statement.

Code:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
float income, tax = 0;
printf("Enter annual income: ");
scanf("%f", &income);

if (income <= 250000) {

tax = 0;
} else if (income <= 500000) {
tax = (income - 250000) * 0.05;
} else if (income <= 1000000) {
tax = 250000 * 0.05 + (income - 500000) * 0.20;
} else {
tax = 250000 * 0.05 + 500000 * 0.20 + (income - 1000000) * 0.30;
}

printf("Income tax: ₹%.2f\n", tax);

return 0;
}
Explanation:

 The program asks the user for their annual income.

 It calculates tax based on the tax slabs:
o No tax for income up to ₹2,50,000
o 5% tax for income between ₹2,50,001 and ₹5,00,000
o 20% tax for income between ₹5,00,001 and ₹10,00,000
o 30% tax for income above ₹10,00,000
 The result is printed with two decimal places.

1.3 Grade Assignment Program (using switch statement)

In this program, we assign a grade based on the marks entered using a switch statement.

Code:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
int marks;
printf("Enter marks: ");
scanf("%d", &marks);

switch (marks / 10) {

case 10:
case 9:
printf("Grade: A\n");
break;
case 8:
printf("Grade: B\n");
break;
case 7:
printf("Grade: C\n");
break;
default:
printf("Grade: Fail\n");
}

return 0;
}

Explanation:

 The program divides the marks by 10 and uses the quotient for decision-making.
 Based on the range of marks, it assigns a grade:
o 90-100: A
o 80-89: B
o 70-79: C
o Below 70: Fail
2. Decision Making & Looping

2.1 Program to Generate Fibonacci Series (using while loop)

This program generates the Fibonacci series up to n terms, where n is input by the user. It uses a
while loop.

Code:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
int n, t1 = 0, t2 = 1, nextTerm;
printf("Enter the number of terms: ");
scanf("%d", &n);

printf("Fibonacci Series: ");

int i = 1;
while (i <= n) {
printf("%d ", t1);
nextTerm = t1 + t2;
t1 = t2;
t2 = nextTerm;
i++;
}

return 0;
}

Explanation:

 The first two terms of the Fibonacci series are 0 and 1.

 The program uses a while loop to print the first n terms.
 In each iteration, the next term is the sum of the last two terms.

2.2 Prime Number Check Program (using for loop)

This program checks if a number is prime or not using a for loop.

Code:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
int num, i;
int isPrime = 1; // Assume the number is prime

printf("Enter a number: ");

scanf("%d", &num);
 for (i = 2; i <= num / 2; i++) {
if (num % i == 0) {
isPrime = 0; // Not prime
break;
}
}

if (isPrime && num > 1) {

printf("%d is a prime number.\n", num);
} else {
printf("%d is not a prime number.\n", num);
}

return 0;
}

Explanation:

 The program checks divisibility from 2 to num / 2.

 If the number is divisible by any number in this range, it is not prime.
 The result is printed based on whether the number is prime or not.

2.3 Number Pattern Printing (using nested loops)

This program prints a number pattern as shown.

Code:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
int i, j;

for (i = 1; i <= 4; i++) {

for (j = 1; j <= i; j++) {
printf("%d ", j);
}
printf("\n");
}

return 0;
}

Explanation:

 The outer loop runs for 4 rows.

 The inner loop prints numbers from 1 to the current row number.
 This creates the desired pattern.

2.4 Reverse a Number (using while loop)

This program reverses a number entered by the user using a while loop.

Code:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
int num, reversed = 0;
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d", &num);

while (num != 0) {
reversed = reversed * 10 + num % 10;
num /= 10;
}

printf("Reversed number: %d\n", reversed);

return 0;
}

Explanation:

 The while loop extracts the last digit of the number using num % 10 and adds it to the
reversed number.
 The number is reduced by dividing it by 10.
 This process continues until the number becomes zero.

2.5 Program for Factorial Calculation (using for loop)

This program calculates the factorial of a number using a for loop.

Code:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
int num, i;
long long factorial = 1;

printf("Enter a number: ");

scanf("%d", &num);

for (i = 1; i <= num; i++) {

factorial *= i;
}

printf("Factorial of %d is %lld\n", num, factorial);

return 0;
}

Explanation:
  The program multiplies all numbers from 1 to num to calculate the factorial.
 The result is printed using long long for large factorials.

2.6 Program for Palindrome Check (using while loop)

This program checks if a number is a palindrome (reads the same forwards and backwards) using
a while loop.

Code:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
int num, reversed = 0, original, remainder;
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d", &num);

original = num;
while (num != 0) {
remainder = num % 10;
reversed = reversed * 10 + remainder;
num /= 10;
}

if (original == reversed) {
printf("%d is a palindrome.\n", original);
} else {
printf("%d is not a palindrome.\n", original);
}

return 0;
}

Explanation:

 The program reverses the number and compares it with the original number to check if
it's a palindrome.

2.7 Multiplication Table Program (using do-while loop)

This program prints the multiplication table of a number using a do-while loop.

Code:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
int num, i = 1;
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d", &num);

do {
 printf("%d x %d = %d\n", num, i, num * i);
i++;
} while (i <= 10);

return 0;
}

Explanation:

 The do-while loop runs at least once and prints the multiplication table for the given
number from 1 to 10.

These solutions demonstrate the use of various decision-making and looping constructs in C,
along with examples and explanations.

Sample Long Questions Combining Theory and Code

1. Explain the working of switch statements with its syntax. Write a program to create a
menu-driven calculator.
2. Describe the working of nested loops with examples. Write a program to display a
multiplication table for numbers 1 to 5 using nested loops.
3. Discuss how break and continue are used in loops. Write a program to display
numbers from 1 to 20 but skip multiples of 3 using the continue statement.

SOLUTIONS

1. Working of Switch Statements with Its Syntax and a Menu-Driven Calculator

Program

Switch Statement Working

A switch statement is used for multi-way branching in C. It is an efficient way to handle

multiple conditions based on a single variable’s value. The switch statement compares the
variable's value to the different case labels, and if a match is found, the corresponding block of
code is executed. The break statement is used to exit the switch block after a case is executed,
preventing the execution of the next cases.

Syntax:

switch(expression) {
case value1:
 // block of code
break;
case value2:
// block of code
break;
// additional cases
default:
// block of code
}

 expression: This is the value to be compared with the case labels.

 case: Defines a specific value to compare with the expression.
 break: Exits the switch block. Without break, the control will "fall through" and
continue to the next case.
 default: This is optional. It is executed if no case matches.

Menu-Driven Calculator Program

The following program uses a switch statement to create a menu-driven calculator for basic
arithmetic operations.

Code:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
int choice;
float num1, num2, result;

// Display menu
printf("Menu:\n");
printf("1. Addition\n");
printf("2. Subtraction\n");
printf("3. Multiplication\n");
printf("4. Division\n");
printf("Enter your choice (1-4): ");
scanf("%d", &choice);

// Get the two numbers

printf("Enter two numbers: ");
scanf("%f %f", &num1, &num2);

// Switch statement for different operations

switch(choice) {
case 1:
result = num1 + num2;
printf("Result: %.2f\n", result);
break;
case 2:
result = num1 - num2;
printf("Result: %.2f\n", result);
break;
case 3:
 result = num1 * num2;
printf("Result: %.2f\n", result);
break;
case 4:
if (num2 != 0) {
result = num1 / num2;
printf("Result: %.2f\n", result);
} else {
printf("Error! Division by zero.\n");
}
break;
default:
printf("Invalid choice! Please select between 1 and 4.\n");
}

return 0;
}

Explanation:

 The program presents a menu to the user, allowing them to choose an operation (addition,
subtraction, multiplication, or division).
 Based on the user's choice, the program performs the corresponding arithmetic operation
using the switch statement.
 The program ensures that division by zero is avoided by checking if the second number is
zero before performing the division.

2. Working of Nested Loops and a Program to Display a Multiplication Table for

Numbers 1 to 5

Nested Loops Working

A nested loop is a loop inside another loop. The inner loop runs completely for each iteration of
the outer loop. This is useful for tasks that require multi-dimensional iteration, such as printing
patterns, handling matrices, etc.

Syntax:

for (initialization; condition; increment/decrement) {

for (initialization; condition; increment/decrement) {
// Inner loop body
}
// Outer loop body
}

Multiplication Table for Numbers 1 to 5 (using nested loops)

In this program, we use two nested loops:

  The outer loop iterates over numbers 1 to 5.
 The inner loop prints the multiplication table for each number.

Code:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
int i, j;

printf("Multiplication Table for numbers 1 to 5:\n");

for (i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {

printf("\nMultiplication table for %d:\n", i);
for (j = 1; j <= 10; j++) {
printf("%d x %d = %d\n", i, j, i * j);
}
}

return 0;
}

Explanation:

 The outer loop runs from 1 to 5, representing the numbers whose multiplication tables are
to be printed.
 The inner loop runs from 1 to 10, which generates the multiplication of the current
number (from the outer loop) with each number from 1 to 10.
 This program prints the multiplication table for each number between 1 and 5.

3. Using Break and Continue in Loops: Program to Display Numbers from 1 to

20 but Skip Multiples of 3 Using Continue Statement

Break and Continue Statements

 Break: Exits the loop entirely when a certain condition is met.

 Continue: Skips the current iteration and continues with the next iteration of the loop.

Program to Display Numbers from 1 to 20 but Skip Multiples of 3 Using Continue

This program prints numbers from 1 to 20 but skips multiples of 3 using the continue statement.

Code:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
int i;
 printf("Numbers from 1 to 20 (skipping multiples of 3):\n");

for (i = 1; i <= 20; i++) {

if (i % 3 == 0) {
continue; // Skip the iteration if the number is a multiple of 3
}
printf("%d ", i);
}

return 0;
}

Explanation:

 The loop iterates over the numbers from 1 to 20.

 The if statement checks if the number is a multiple of 3 (i % 3 == 0).
 If the number is a multiple of 3, the continue statement is triggered, which skips that
iteration and moves to the next iteration of the loop.
 All other numbers (non-multiples of 3) are printed.

Summary of Concepts:

1. Switch Statements: Used for multi-way branching based on the value of a single
expression. It helps in selecting one of many code blocks to execute based on the input
value.
2. Nested Loops: Useful for tasks that involve multi-level iterations, like printing patterns
or handling matrices.
3. Break and Continue: Control statements used to alter the flow of loops. Break exits the
loop completely, while continue skips the current iteration and moves to the next.

These examples demonstrate how each concept can be used in practical programming scenarios.

Tips for NEP End Semester Exam

1. Focus on flowcharts and step-by-step explanations for theory-based questions.

2. Learn syntax and common errors in programming.
3. Use real-world scenarios (like bill calculation, grades, etc.) to write meaningful
programs.
4. Be prepared to explain the logic behind the code in addition to writing it.

Let me know if you want detailed solutions for any specific question!
 UNIT – 2
Important Questions for Semester Exams (According to Latest NEP MDU)

1. Planning the Computer Program:

Q1. What is the importance of problem definition in programming? Explain the steps
involved in problem-solving.

 Explanation: Define problem definition, its significance, and the steps involved in
solving a problem: Understanding the problem, analyzing requirements, and translating
them into a solution.

Q2. Discuss the steps involved in program design.

 Explanation: Explain how program design is crucial for an effective solution. Cover
concepts like breaking down the problem into sub-problems, choosing the right
algorithm, selecting the proper data structure, and planning input/output.

Q3. What are debugging techniques in C? Explain how to identify and fix errors in a C
program.

 Explanation: Discuss debugging methods such as using print statements, interactive

debuggers, and test cases. Explain runtime, logical, and syntax errors, and their remedies.

Q4. Explain the types of errors in programming and how they can be resolved.

 Explanation: Differentiate between syntax errors, runtime errors, and logical errors.
Discuss how to resolve each type using appropriate debugging techniques.

Q5. What are the techniques of problem-solving in C? Explain with the help of flowcharts
and algorithms.

 Explanation: Discuss techniques like flowcharting and algorithmic problem-solving.

Provide an example problem, draw its flowchart, and write its algorithm.

2. Overview of C:

Q6. Explain the history of C and its significance in modern-day programming.

 Explanation: Discuss the origin of the C language, its development by Dennis Ritchie in
1972, and how it influenced many modern programming languages like C++, Java, and
Python. Discuss its use in system-level programming and operating systems (e.g., UNIX).
Q7. What is the importance of C in programming? Discuss its advantages and applications.

 Explanation: Discuss C's portability, efficiency, and widespread use in system

programming, embedded systems, and high-performance computing.

Q8. What is a C character set? Explain the different elements of C such as identifiers,
keywords, and operators.

 Explanation: Describe the character set in C, which includes alphabets (uppercase and
lowercase), digits, and special characters. Explain the role of identifiers, keywords, and
operators in C.

Q9. What are identifiers and keywords in C? Discuss the rules for naming identifiers.

 Explanation: Define identifiers and keywords in C. Discuss the rules for naming
identifiers (e.g., cannot start with a digit, cannot be a keyword, etc.).

Q10. Explain different data types in C with examples.

 Explanation: Discuss the various data types in C like primitive (int, float, char) and
derived (arrays, structures, pointers). Provide examples of each.

Q11. What are constants and variables in C? Explain with examples.

 Explanation: Define constants and variables. Discuss the difference between them and
provide examples of constants (using #define and const) and variables.

Q12. Explain the assignment statement in C. How is a value assigned to a variable?

 Explanation: Define assignment statement and provide examples. For example, int x =
5; assigns the value 5 to the variable x.

Q13. What is a symbolic constant in C? Explain with examples.

 Explanation: Discuss the concept of symbolic constants using #define or const.

Provide examples like #define PI 3.14 or const int x = 10;.

Q14. Discuss the structure of a C program. Explain the different components.

 Explanation: Explain the structure of a typical C program, which includes preprocessor

directives (#include), functions, and the main function. Provide a simple C program to
demonstrate.

3. C Functions, Operators & Expressions:

Q15. What is the role of printf() and scanf() in C? Provide examples for both.

 Explanation: Discuss how printf() is used for output and scanf() for input in C.
Provide examples to demonstrate their usage.

Q16. What are operators in C? Discuss various operators (arithmetic, relational, logical,
etc.) with examples.

 Explanation: Discuss different categories of operators in C:

o Arithmetic: +, -, *, /, %
o Relational: ==, !=, >, <, >=, <=
o Logical: &&, ||, !
o Assignment: =, +=, -=, *=, /=
o Increment/Decrement: ++, --

Q17. Explain type casting and type conversion in C with examples.

 Explanation: Define type casting and type conversion. Discuss implicit and explicit
conversions with examples like converting an int to a float.

Q18. Discuss operator hierarchy and associativity in C. Explain with examples.

 Explanation: Define operator precedence and associativity in C. Discuss how C

evaluates expressions based on operator precedence and associativity. Provide an
example like:
 int result = 5 + 3 * 2;
 // Multiplication has higher precedence than addition.

Conclusion:

The questions provided above cover key areas such as program planning, C programming basics,
and advanced topics. These topics are aligned with the latest NEP guidelines from MDU and
focus on understanding both theory and practical implementation. Make sure to practice these
topics thoroughly, as they are likely to appear in your semester exams.

SOLUTIONS

Detailed Solutions for Q1 to Q18

1. Problem Definition, Program Design, Debugging, Types of Errors, Techniques

of Problem Solving
Q1: What is the importance of problem definition in programming? Explain the steps
involved in problem-solving.

Explanation:
Problem definition is crucial in programming because it helps in understanding what needs to be
achieved. Clear problem definition ensures that developers do not go off-track and waste
resources in creating unnecessary features or solving the wrong problem.

Steps involved in problem-solving:

1. Understand the Problem: Analyze the problem and ensure that you understand its
requirements and constraints.
2. Plan the Solution: Break the problem into smaller, manageable sub-problems. Select the
right algorithms and data structures.
3. Design the Solution: Write pseudocode, flowcharts, or UML diagrams to visualize the
solution.
4. Implement the Solution: Write code in the chosen programming language.
5. Test the Solution: Run test cases to ensure the program works as expected.
6. Debug: If errors are found, debug and fix them.

Q2: Discuss the steps involved in program design.

Explanation:
Program design involves creating a blueprint for your program before you start writing the code.
Proper program design improves efficiency and maintainability.

Steps:

1. Define the Problem: Understand what the program needs to do.

2. Break the Problem into Sub-Problems: Decompose the problem into manageable tasks.
3. Select the Right Algorithms: Choose appropriate algorithms based on time complexity
and efficiency.
4. Select Data Structures: Choose suitable data structures (arrays, lists, queues, etc.) based
on the nature of data.
5. Create Flowcharts and Pseudocode: Visualize the steps in a flowchart or write
pseudocode.
6. Write Code: Implement the program based on the design.

Q3: What are debugging techniques in C? Explain how to identify and fix errors in a C
program.
Explanation:
Debugging is the process of identifying and fixing errors in a program. Errors in C programs can
be of three types: syntax errors, runtime errors, and logical errors.

Techniques:

1. Print Statements: Add printf statements to print variables and intermediate results to
help trace the program flow.
2. Use Debugging Tools: Use interactive debuggers like gdb to set breakpoints and step
through the code.
3. Code Review: Have a peer review your code to spot errors you might have missed.
4. Test Cases: Write test cases to cover different scenarios and edge cases.

Q4: What are the types of errors in programming and how can they be resolved?

Explanation:

1. Syntax Errors: Occur when the code violates the language's syntax (e.g., missing
semicolons).
o Resolution: Check for missing semicolons, braces, etc.
2. Runtime Errors: Occur when the program is running (e.g., division by zero).
o Resolution: Use error handling techniques and input validation.
3. Logical Errors: The program runs but produces incorrect output.
o Resolution: Check your algorithm, input/output handling, and edge cases.

Q5: What are the techniques of problem-solving in C? Explain with the help of flowcharts
and algorithms.

Explanation:
Problem-solving techniques include:

1. Flowcharting: Visual representation of the steps to solve a problem.

2. Algorithms: Step-by-step procedure to solve a problem.

Example: Problem: Find the largest of two numbers.

 Algorithm:
1. Input two numbers a and b.
2. If a > b, then a is the largest.
3. Else, b is the largest.
 Flowchart:
Start
|
v
Input a, b
|
v
Is a > b?
| |
Yes No
| |
v v
Print a Print b
|
v
End

2. Overview of C

Q6: Explain the history of C and its significance in modern-day programming.

Explanation:
C was developed by Dennis Ritchie in 1972 at Bell Labs. It is considered a general-purpose
programming language and has influenced many other languages, including C++, Java, and
Python. Its significance lies in its efficiency, portability, and wide application in system
programming (e.g., operating systems like UNIX), embedded systems, and high-performance
computing.

Q7: What is the importance of C in programming? Discuss its advantages and applications.

Explanation:
C is important due to its:

1. Portability: Programs written in C can run on any machine with minimal modification.
2. Efficiency: C provides low-level memory access.
3. Control: It allows fine-grained control over system resources.

Applications:

 Operating systems (e.g., UNIX)

 Embedded systems
 Compilers and interpreters
 High-performance applications
Q8: What is a C character set? Explain the different elements of C such as identifiers,
keywords, and operators.

Explanation:
A character set in C includes all the characters that can be used to write C programs, such as:

 Alphabets: A-Z, a-z

 Digits: 0-9
 Special characters: +, -, *, /, %, etc.

Identifiers: Names given to variables, functions, etc. (e.g., int age;). Keywords: Reserved
words like int, if, while, etc. Operators: Symbols that perform operations, like +, -, *, etc.

Q9: What are identifiers and keywords in C? Discuss the rules for naming identifiers.

Explanation:

 Identifiers: User-defined names for variables, functions, etc.

 Keywords: Reserved words with special meanings (e.g., int, for, return).

Rules for naming identifiers:

1. Must start with a letter (A-Z, a-z) or underscore (_).

2. Can contain letters, digits (0-9), and underscores.
3. Cannot be a keyword.

Q10: Explain different data types in C with examples.

Explanation:
C supports several data types:

1. Primitive Data Types:

o int: Integer numbers (e.g., int a = 10;)
o float: Floating-point numbers (e.g., float b = 5.6;)
o char: Character type (e.g., char c = 'A';)
2. Derived Data Types:
o Arrays, Pointers, Structures, etc.

Q11: What are constants and variables in C? Explain with examples.

Explanation:

 Constants: Values that do not change during program execution. Defined using #define
or const (e.g., #define PI 3.14).
 Variables: Named memory locations to store data. Can be modified (e.g., int a = 10;).

Q12: Explain the assignment statement in C. How is a value assigned to a variable?

Explanation:
An assignment statement assigns a value to a variable using the = operator. For example:

int x = 10; // Assigns 10 to variable x

Q13: What is a symbolic constant in C? Explain with examples.

Explanation:
A symbolic constant is a constant that uses a name to represent a value, improving code
readability. It is defined using #define or const.

Example:

#define PI 3.14 // Symbolic constant using #define

const int MAX = 100; // Symbolic constant using const

Q14: Discuss the structure of a C program. Explain the different components.

Explanation:
A typical C program consists of:

1. Preprocessor Directives: Includes libraries (e.g., #include <stdio.h>).

2. Main Function: Entry point of the program (e.g., int main() { ... }).
3. Variable Declarations: Declare variables (e.g., int x;).
4. Statements and Expressions: Code to perform operations.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
int x = 5;
printf("Value of x is %d\n", x);
return 0;
}
Q15: What is the role of printf() and scanf() in C? Provide examples for both.

Explanation:

 printf(): Used for output, to display messages or variable values.

 scanf(): Used for input, to read values from the user.

Examples:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
int x;
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d", &x); // Reading input
printf("You entered: %d\n", x); // Displaying output
return 0;
}

Q16: What are operators in C? Discuss various operators (arithmetic, relational, logical,
etc.) with examples.

Explanation:
Operators in C are symbols that perform operations on variables or values.

 Arithmetic Operators: +, -, *, /, %
 Relational Operators: ==, !=, >, <, >=, <=
 Logical Operators: &&, ||, !
 Assignment Operators: =, +=, -=, etc.

Example:

int a = 10, b = 5;
printf("%d", a + b); // Addition
printf("%d", a > b); // Relational check

Q17: Explain type casting and type conversion in C with examples.

Explanation:

 Type Casting: Manually converting one data type into another (explicit). Example:
 float x = 5.7;
 int y = (int) x; // Casting float to int
 Type Conversion: Implicit conversion done by the compiler. Example:
 int a = 5;
 float b = a; // Implicit conversion from int to float
Q18: Discuss operator hierarchy and associativity in C. Explain with examples.

Explanation:
Operator hierarchy determines the order in which operators are evaluated in an expression.
Associativity defines the order in which operators of the same precedence are evaluated.

Example:

int result = 5 + 3 * 2; // Multiplication has higher precedence than addition

printf("%d", result); // Output: 11

These solutions cover the essential theory and code examples for each question. Understanding
these concepts will greatly help in preparing for your exams.

UNIT – 1
Here are some important questions based on the latest NEP MDU guidelines for the
Computer Fundamentals and Overview of Networking & Operating System topics:

1. Computer Fundamentals

Q1: Explain the generations of computers with examples.

Answer: The history of computers is divided into five generations based on the technology used:

1. First Generation (1940-1956):

o Technology: Vacuum Tubes
o Example: ENIAC, UNIVAC
o Limitations: Large size, high power consumption
2. Second Generation (1956-1963):
o Technology: Transistors
o Example: IBM 7090
o Advantages: Smaller, more reliable, and faster than first generation
3. Third Generation (1964-1971):
o Technology: Integrated Circuits (ICs)
o Example: IBM 360
o Advantages: Compact, more efficient
4. Fourth Generation (1971-present):
o Technology: Microprocessors
o Example: Intel 4004
o Advantages: Personal computers, faster processing speed
5. Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond):
 o Technology: Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Quantum Computing
o Example: AI-powered systems, Quantum Computers
o Advantages: Highly intelligent systems, machine learning capabilities

Q2: Explain the block diagram of a computer system along with its components.

Answer: The computer system consists of the following components:

 Input Devices: Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner

 CPU (Central Processing Unit): The brain of the computer, which performs calculations
and logical operations. It consists of:
o ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit): Performs mathematical and logical operations.
o Control Unit (CU): Manages the execution of instructions.
o Registers: Small storage areas in the CPU.
 Memory: Stores data and instructions.
o Primary Memory (RAM): Volatile memory for temporary storage.
o Secondary Memory: Permanent storage (Hard Drive, SSD).
 Output Devices: Monitor, Printer, Speakers
 Storage: Hard Disk, Optical Discs, Cloud Storage.

Block Diagram:

+---------------+
| Input Devices |
+---------------+ +-------------+
| | CPU |
+---------------+ +-------------+
| Memory |<------->| ALU + CU |
+---------------+ +-------------+
| |
+---------------+ +-------------+
| Output Devices|<------->| Storage |
+---------------+ +-------------+

Q3: Classify computers based on size, speed, and purpose.

Answer:

 Classification Based on Size:

1. Microcomputers: Personal computers, laptops
2. Minicomputers: Used for small businesses
3. Mainframes: Large scale processing for enterprises
4. Supercomputers: High-speed processing for scientific and research applications
(e.g., Cray-1)
 Classification Based on Speed:
 o High-Speed Computers: Supercomputers, Mainframes
o Medium-Speed Computers: Minicomputers
o Low-Speed Computers: Microcomputers
 Classification Based on Purpose:

1. General-Purpose Computers: Used for multiple tasks (e.g., PC)

2. Special Purpose Computers: Designed for specific tasks (e.g., embedded
systems)

Q4: Discuss the applications of computers in various fields.

Answer:

1. Business: Accounting, inventory management, enterprise resource planning (ERP)

2. Healthcare: Medical imaging, patient records management, telemedicine
3. Education: E-learning, online exams, virtual classrooms
4. Entertainment: Video games, movie production, animation
5. Banking: Online transactions, ATMs, data security
6. Government: E-governance, taxation, citizen services
7. Science and Engineering: Simulations, data analysis, research

Q5: Explain the concept of primary and secondary memory in a computer.

Answer:

 Primary Memory (Volatile):

o RAM (Random Access Memory): Temporary memory used to store data
actively being processed.
o Cache Memory: Faster than RAM, stores frequently accessed data for quick
retrieval.
 Secondary Memory (Non-volatile):
o Hard Disk Drive (HDD), Solid-State Drive (SSD): Used for long-term storage
of data.
o Optical Discs: CDs, DVDs for storage.
o USB Drives: Portable storage devices.

Q6: Discuss the concept and working of Cache Memory in computers.

Answer: Cache Memory is a small, high-speed storage area located between the CPU and the
main memory. It stores frequently accessed data to speed up the data retrieval process. Cache
memory is faster than RAM, but smaller in size.

Types of Cache:

1. L1 Cache: Directly connected to the CPU, faster but smaller.

2. L2 Cache: Larger, slower than L1 but still faster than RAM.
3. L3 Cache: Shared by multiple cores in multi-core processors.

Q7: Describe the secondary storage devices and their types.

Answer: Secondary storage devices provide long-term data storage. Some examples include:

1. Hard Disk Drives (HDD): Magnetic storage for large data.

2. Solid-State Drives (SSD): Faster than HDDs, use flash memory.
3. Optical Discs (CD/DVD): Use lasers to read/write data.
4. USB Flash Drives: Portable flash-based storage.
5. Cloud Storage: Online storage (Google Drive, Dropbox).

2. Overview of Networking & Operating System

Q8: What is computer networking? Explain its types.

Answer: Computer networking refers to the practice of connecting computers to share resources
such as files, printers, and internet access.

Types of Networks:

1. LAN (Local Area Network): Connects computers within a small area like a building.
2. WAN (Wide Area Network): Covers larger geographical areas (e.g., the Internet).
3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Covers a city or large campus.
4. PAN (Personal Area Network): Short-range network, typically for personal devices
(Bluetooth).

Q9: Explain various types of network topologies.

Answer: Network topology refers to the arrangement of different network elements.

1. Bus Topology: Single central cable (bus) connecting all devices.

 2. Star Topology: All devices are connected to a central hub or switch.
3. Ring Topology: Devices are connected in a circular fashion.
4. Mesh Topology: Every device is connected to every other device.
5. Hybrid Topology: Combination of different topologies.

Q10: What are the applications of the Internet?

Answer: The Internet has vast applications, such as:

1. Communication: Email, social media, instant messaging.

2. Entertainment: Streaming services, online gaming.
3. E-Commerce: Online shopping, banking.
4. Education: E-learning platforms, online courses.
5. Research: Online libraries, academic resources.

Q11: Define Operating System and its functions.

Answer: An Operating System (OS) is software that manages hardware and software resources
in a computer. It provides an interface for users and manages system tasks.

Functions of an Operating System:

1. Memory Management: Allocation and deallocation of memory.

2. Process Management: Creating, scheduling, and terminating processes.
3. File Management: Organizing and accessing files.
4. Device Management: Managing input/output devices.
5. Security Management: Protecting data from unauthorized access.
6. User Interface: Providing interaction between the user and the system (Command-line or
GUI).

Q12: Explain the types of operating systems.

Answer:

1. Batch Operating System: Processes jobs without user interaction (e.g., mainframe
computers).
2. Multitasking Operating System: Allows multiple tasks to run simultaneously (e.g.,
Windows, Linux).
3. Multiprocessing Operating System: Supports multiple processors to handle tasks
simultaneously.
 4. Distributed Operating System: Coordinates multiple computers working together as a
single system.
5. Real-Time Operating System: Provides instant processing for time-sensitive
applications (e.g., embedded systems).

These questions and answers will help you prepare for your semester exams according to the
latest NEP MDU syllabus for Computer Fundamentals and Networking & Operating
Systems.

Here are some long questions based on the latest NEP MDU syllabus for Computer
Fundamentals and Overview of Networking & Operating Systems that you can expect for
your semester exams:

Computer Fundamentals

Q1: Explain the different generations of computers. Discuss their characteristics,

advantages, and examples.

 In this question, you are expected to elaborate on the five generations of computers.
Discuss the key technologies used in each generation, such as vacuum tubes,
transistors, ICs, microprocessors, and AI/Quantum computing.
 Provide examples of computers from each generation, such as ENIAC, IBM 7090, and
modern AI-driven systems.
 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of each generation, highlighting the
improvements in processing power, size, and efficiency.

Q2: Discuss the components of a computer system. Explain the functions of input devices,
output devices, memory, and storage devices with examples.

 Provide a detailed explanation of the main components of a computer system: Input

devices, Output devices, Memory (Primary and Secondary), and Storage devices.
 Discuss examples of input devices like keyboards, mice, and scanners; output devices
like monitors and printers.
 Explain primary memory (RAM, Cache Memory), secondary memory (HDD, SSD),
and storage devices (USB drives, optical discs).

Q3: Explain the classification of computers based on size, speed, and purpose.

 Explain how computers can be classified based on:

o Size: Microcomputers, Minicomputers, Mainframes, and Supercomputers.
o Speed: Different speed categories from Supercomputers (fastest) to
Microcomputers.
 o Purpose: General-purpose computers and Special-purpose computers.
 Discuss each type’s specific uses, including personal computing, business applications,
and scientific research.

Q4: Describe the concept of memory hierarchy in computers. Explain the difference
between Primary Memory, Secondary Memory, and Cache Memory.

 Primary Memory (RAM): Temporary storage for active data.

 Secondary Memory: Permanent storage devices like HDD and SSD.
 Cache Memory: High-speed memory placed between the CPU and RAM to store
frequently accessed data.
 Discuss how the hierarchical organization of memory helps in optimizing the overall
performance of the system.

Q5: Discuss the different secondary storage devices. Compare their characteristics and
uses.

 Provide a detailed discussion on various secondary storage devices:

o Hard Disk Drives (HDD): Magnetic storage, high capacity, slower read/write
speed.
o Solid-State Drives (SSD): Flash memory, faster than HDD.
o Optical Discs (CDs, DVDs): Used for data storage and media playback.
o USB Flash Drives: Portable storage with flash memory.
o Cloud Storage: Online storage for data backup and sharing.

Overview of Networking & Operating System

Q6: Define computer networking. Explain different types of networks and their
characteristics.

 Provide an introduction to computer networking and its importance in connecting

devices for data sharing.
 Explain types of networks:
o LAN (Local Area Network): Small geographical area, like within a building.
o WAN (Wide Area Network): Large area, can span continents (e.g., the Internet).
o MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Spans a city or large campus.
o PAN (Personal Area Network): Short-range, like Bluetooth.

Q7: Describe the different types of network topologies. Discuss their advantages and
disadvantages.

 Bus Topology: Single backbone cable for all devices.

 Star Topology: Devices connected to a central hub or switch.
 Ring Topology: Devices connected in a circular fashion.
  Mesh Topology: Every device connected to every other device.
 Hybrid Topology: A mix of topologies.

For each topology, discuss the advantages (e.g., easy to add devices, fault tolerance) and
disadvantages (e.g., cable failures, cost of setup).

Q8: Explain the functions of an operating system. Discuss how it manages memory,
processes, and input/output devices.

 Define an Operating System (OS) and describe its main functions:

o Memory Management: Allocation and deallocation of memory to different
processes.
o Process Management: Creating, scheduling, and terminating processes.
o Device Management: Managing input/output devices.
o File Management: Organizing and accessing files in the system.
o Security Management: Protecting the system from unauthorized access.

Explain each function in detail, using real-world examples (e.g., memory allocation in
Windows, process scheduling in Linux).

Q9: Discuss the importance of security management in operating systems. Explain how
operating systems provide security to protect data.

 Discuss security threats (e.g., viruses, unauthorized access).

 Explain how the operating system protects data and resources through:
o User Authentication: Login systems, passwords.
o Access Control: User permissions, role-based access control.
o Encryption: Data encryption techniques for security.
o Firewalls: Protection against external threats.

Q10: Explain the different types of operating systems. Compare single-tasking and multi-
tasking operating systems.

 Single-tasking Operating System: Can execute one task at a time (e.g., MS-DOS).
 Multi-tasking Operating System: Can handle multiple tasks simultaneously (e.g.,
Windows, Linux).

Discuss how single-tasking is suited for simple, dedicated systems, while multi-tasking
is essential for modern-day systems.

Q11: Describe the functions and components of a network operating system (NOS).

 A Network Operating System provides services for networking, like:

o Network Security: Authentication, encryption, firewalls.
o Resource Sharing: File and printer sharing over the network.
o User Management: Managing network users and permissions.
 Explain how NOS differs from general-purpose OS in terms of managing network
resources and user access.

Q12: Explain the concept and applications of cloud computing.

 Cloud computing refers to delivering computing services (storage, computing power,

databases) over the internet.
 Discuss the types of cloud models: Private, Public, and Hybrid clouds.
 Provide applications:
o Storage (e.g., Google Drive, Dropbox).
o Software as a Service (SaaS) (e.g., Office 365).
o Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) (e.g., AWS, Google Cloud).

These long questions will help you prepare effectively for the semester exams, based on the
latest NEP MDU guidelines for Computer Fundamentals and Overview of Networking &
Operating Systems. Each question requires detailed answers with explanations, examples, and
diagrams (where necessary), making them ideal for exam preparation.

Sure! Below are the detailed explanations for all 12 questions, including examples, diagrams,
and expanded theory where necessary.

Computer Fundamentals

Q1: Explain the different generations of computers. Discuss their characteristics,

advantages, and examples.

Generations of Computers:

1. First Generation (1940-1956):

o Technology: Vacuum tubes.
o Example: ENIAC, UNIVAC.
o Characteristics:
 Very large in size.
 Consumed a lot of power.
 Slow processing speed.
 Prone to frequent failures.
o Advantages:
 First machines to perform electronic calculations.
o Disadvantages:
 Very expensive, bulky, and inefficient.

Example: ENIAC was the first general-purpose electronic computer.

 Diagram:

+-------------------+
| ENIAC |
| (Vacuum Tubes) |
+-------------------+

2. Second Generation (1956-1963):

o Technology: Transistors replaced vacuum tubes.
o Example: IBM 7090, PDP-1.
o Characteristics:
 Smaller, faster, and more reliable than first-generation.
 Less power consumption.
o Advantages:
 Compact and faster.
o Disadvantages:
 Still costly and complex.

Example: IBM 7090 used transistors for faster processing.

Diagram:

+-------------------+
| IBM 7090 |
| (Transistors) |
+-------------------+

3. Third Generation (1964-1971):

o Technology: Integrated Circuits (ICs).
o Example: IBM 360, PDP-8.
o Characteristics:
 ICs led to more compact and efficient computers.
 Improved processing speed and memory capacity.
o Advantages:
 Smaller and cheaper than previous generations.
o Disadvantages:
 Still large in size for complex systems.

Example: IBM 360, a family of computers used in large businesses.

Diagram:

+-------------------+
| IBM 360 |
| (Integrated Circuits)|
+-------------------+

4. Fourth Generation (1971-Present):

 o Technology: Microprocessors.
o Example: Intel 4004, personal computers.
o Characteristics:
 Entire CPU integrated into a single chip.
 Personal computers became mainstream.
o Advantages:
 High processing power, smaller in size.
o Disadvantages:
 Limited in AI and complex problem-solving.

Example: Intel 4004, the first microprocessor used in computers.

Diagram:

+-------------------+
| Intel 4004 |
| (Microprocessor) |
+-------------------+

5. Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond):

o Technology: AI and Quantum Computing.
o Example: IBM Q System One.
o Characteristics:
 Uses AI and machine learning algorithms.
 Quantum computing is experimental but has enormous potential.
o Advantages:
 High processing power with the potential for groundbreaking research.
o Disadvantages:
 Complex, costly, and still under development.

Example: IBM Q System One is a quantum computer for commercial use.

Diagram:

+-------------------+
| Quantum Computer |
| (AI & Quantum) |
+-------------------+

Q2: Discuss the components of a computer system. Explain the functions of input devices,
output devices, memory, and storage devices with examples.

Computer System Components: A computer system consists of several components that

perform different functions:

1. Input Devices:
 o Function: Allow users to enter data into the computer.
o Examples:
 Keyboard: Typing text.
 Mouse: Pointing and clicking.
 Scanner: Digitizing documents.
 Microphone: Capturing sound.

Diagram of Input Devices:

+-----------+ +---------+ +------------+

| Keyboard |-->| CPU |-->| Monitor |
| Mouse |-->| |-->| Printer |
| Scanner |-->| |-->| Speaker |
+-----------+ +---------+ +------------+

2. Output Devices:
o Function: Display or output data from the computer.
o Examples:
 Monitor: Displaying visuals.
 Printer: Producing hard copies.
 Speakers: Outputting sound.
3. Memory:
o Primary Memory: Temporary memory used by the CPU for active processes.
 Example: RAM.
o Secondary Memory: Long-term storage for data.
 Example: Hard Drive (HDD), Solid-State Drive (SSD).
4. Storage Devices:
o Function: Used to store data permanently.
o Examples:
 HDD: Magnetic storage, larger but slower.
 SSD: Flash memory, faster than HDD.
 USB: Portable data storage.
 Optical Discs: CDs/DVDs for storing media.

Q3: Explain the classification of computers based on size, speed, and purpose.

1. Size Classification:
o Microcomputers: Personal computers, desktops, laptops.
o Minicomputers: Smaller than mainframes, used for specific business tasks.
o Mainframes: Powerful systems used in large enterprises.
o Supercomputers: Extremely fast and powerful computers for scientific
simulations.
2. Speed Classification:
o Supercomputers: The fastest, used for complex scientific computations.
o Mainframes: High processing power for large organizations.
 o Microcomputers: Moderate speed, suitable for personal use.
3. Purpose Classification:
o General-purpose Computers: Used for various tasks (e.g., desktops).
o Special-purpose Computers: Built for specific tasks (e.g., embedded systems in
cars).

Q4: Describe the concept of memory hierarchy in computers. Explain the difference
between Primary Memory, Secondary Memory, and Cache Memory.

Memory Hierarchy: Memory in computers is organized hierarchically from the fastest and
smallest to the largest and slowest:

1. Primary Memory (RAM):

o Characteristics: Volatile, temporary storage.
o Example: RAM.
o Speed: Fast but limited in capacity.
2. Secondary Memory:
o Characteristics: Non-volatile, permanent storage.
o Example: Hard Drive, SSD.
o Speed: Slower compared to RAM.
3. Cache Memory:
o Characteristics: Very fast memory located near the CPU for frequently accessed
data.
o Example: L1, L2, and L3 Cache.
o Speed: Fastest, but small in size.

Diagram of Memory Hierarchy:

+------------------+
| Cache Memory |
+------------------+
|
+------------------+
| RAM (Primary)|
+------------------+
|
+------------------+
| Hard Disk (Secondary)|
+------------------+

Q5: Discuss the different secondary storage devices. Compare their characteristics and
uses.

1. Hard Disk Drive (HDD):

o Characteristics: Magnetic storage, affordable, and large capacity.
 o Use: Long-term data storage.
2. Solid-State Drive (SSD):
o Characteristics: Flash memory, faster read/write speeds, more durable.
o Use: Faster data access, operating system, and applications.
3. USB Flash Drives:
o Characteristics: Portable, easy to use, flash storage.
o Use: Data transfer and backup.
4. Optical Discs (CD/DVD):
o Characteristics: Used for storing media, not as fast or large as other storage.
o Use: Software distribution, media playback.

Overview of Networking & Operating Systems

Q6: Define computer networking. Explain different types of networks and their
characteristics.

Computer Networking: The process of connecting computers and other devices to share
resources and information.

1. LAN (Local Area Network):

o Characteristics: Small geographical area, high-speed communication.
o Use: Office or home network.
2. WAN (Wide Area Network):
o Characteristics: Large geographical area, slower speeds.
o Use: Internet, connecting offices globally.
3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):
o Characteristics: City-wide or large campus network.
o Use: Connecting buildings within a city.
4. **PAN (Personal Area

Network)**:

 Characteristics: Short-range, typically wireless.

 Use: Bluetooth devices, personal computing.

Q7: Describe the different types of network topologies. Discuss their advantages and
disadvantages.

1. Bus Topology:
o Advantages: Easy to implement, cost-effective.
o Disadvantages: Single point of failure, limited bandwidth.
2. Star Topology:
 oAdvantages: Centralized control, easy to add devices.
oDisadvantages: Expensive, central hub failure causes entire network failure.
3. Ring Topology:
o Advantages: Simple, uses less cable.
o Disadvantages: A failure in one node can disrupt the entire network.
4. Mesh Topology:
o Advantages: Highly redundant, reliable.
o Disadvantages: Expensive to implement due to the number of connections.

Operating System Functions & Security

Q8: Explain the functions of an operating system. Discuss how it manages memory,
processes, and input/output devices.

1. Memory Management: Allocates memory to processes and ensures efficient usage.

2. Process Management: Manages execution of processes (scheduling, prioritization).
3. Device Management: Coordinates input/output devices for interaction with the user.
4. File Management: Organizes files for easy access, retrieval, and modification.
5. Security Management: Ensures data protection through encryption and access control.

Example: Windows OS performs memory management by allocating space for each running
program.

Q9: Discuss the importance of security management in operating systems. Explain how
operating systems provide security to protect data.

Security Features:

 User Authentication: Ensures only authorized users can access the system.
 Encryption: Protects data by converting it into unreadable formats.
 Access Control: Prevents unauthorized access by controlling file permissions.
 Firewalls: Monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network traffic.

Q10: Explain the different types of operating systems. Compare single-tasking and multi-
tasking operating systems.

1. Single-tasking OS: Can handle one task at a time (e.g., MS-DOS).

2. Multi-tasking OS: Can handle multiple tasks simultaneously (e.g., Windows, Linux).
Q11: Describe the functions and components of a network operating system (NOS).

1. Network Security: Authentication, encryption, and firewalls.

2. Resource Sharing: Allows file and printer sharing.
3. User Management: Manages user permissions and access rights.

Q12: Explain the concept and applications of cloud computing.

Cloud Computing: Storing and accessing data and programs over the internet instead of local
servers.

1. Public Cloud: Cloud resources are shared across multiple users (e.g., Google Cloud).
2. Private Cloud: Cloud resources used by a single organization (e.g., internal corporate
cloud).
3. Hybrid Cloud: Combination of both public and private clouds.

Applications:

 Storage: Google Drive, Dropbox.

 Software as a Service (SaaS): Office 365, Salesforce.
 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): AWS, Azure.

These 12 expanded answers will give you comprehensive preparation for your semester exams.

UNIT – 4
Here are some important questions for your semester exams based on the latest NEP MDU
syllabus for C Programming, specifically covering Functions, Arrays & Pointers, and string
manipulation:

Functions in C

Q1: Explain the different types of functions in C. Discuss the concept of user-defined
functions with an example.

 Explanation: Define what functions are in C. Differentiate between built-in and user-
defined functions. Provide examples of user-defined functions and explain how they are
structured (return type, function name, parameters, etc.).
  Example: Write a simple C program using a user-defined function to calculate the sum of
two numbers.

Q2: Discuss the concept of function prototype in C. Why is it necessary? Provide an

example of a function with a prototype.

 Explanation: Discuss the importance of function prototypes for declaring the function
before its definition. Show how the compiler uses the prototype for type-checking.
 Example: Write a program demonstrating the function prototype for a function that
calculates the factorial of a number.

Q3: What are local and global variables in C? Explain with an example.

 Explanation: Define local and global variables, explain their scope and lifetime, and
discuss the differences between them.
 Example: Write a program showing both local and global variables and how they behave
in different functions.

Q4: Explain the concept of recursion in C. Write a program to demonstrate recursion.

 Explanation: Define recursion and explain how it works in C. Provide an example of a

recursive function (e.g., factorial calculation).
 Example: Write a program that calculates the factorial of a number using recursion.

Q5: What are the different ways to pass parameters to functions in C? Explain by writing
examples for passing by value and passing by reference.

 Explanation: Discuss the difference between passing parameters by value and passing by
reference. Provide examples for both.
 Example: Write programs to demonstrate passing by value and passing by reference.

Arrays & Pointers in C

Q6: What are arrays in C? Explain different types of arrays with examples.

 Explanation: Define arrays in C, and explain one-dimensional, two-dimensional, and

multi-dimensional arrays.
 Example: Write a program to input and display elements of a one-dimensional array.

Q7: How do you initialize and process arrays in C? Provide examples for initialization and
processing of arrays.

 Explanation: Discuss array initialization (both implicit and explicit) and array processing
(such as finding the sum of elements or searching for an element).
  Example: Write a program to find the sum of elements in an array.

Q8: Discuss the concept of passing arrays to functions in C. Provide an example

demonstrating this.

 Explanation: Explain how arrays are passed to functions (by reference) and how the
function modifies the original array.
 Example: Write a program where an array is passed to a function to calculate its average.

Q9: What is a pointer in C? Explain the concept of pointers with an example.

 Explanation: Define pointers and discuss how they store memory addresses. Show how
to declare, initialize, and dereference pointers.
 Example: Write a program that uses a pointer to swap two numbers.

Q10: Explain the relationship between arrays and pointers in C. How are arrays passed to
functions using pointers?

 Explanation: Explain how arrays are closely related to pointers in C. Discuss how an
array can be passed to a function as a pointer.
 Example: Write a program that demonstrates passing an array to a function using
pointers.

Q11: How do you declare and initialize a string in C? Write a program to manipulate
strings using functions.

 Explanation: Discuss string declaration and initialization in C. Explain how strings are
arrays of characters and how string manipulation functions work.
 Example: Write a program to reverse a string.

Q12: Discuss the difference between a string and an array in C. Provide examples to
illustrate their differences.

 Explanation: Explain the fundamental differences between strings (null-terminated

arrays of characters) and regular arrays in C.
 Example: Write a program to compare a string and an array.

Input/Output Functions in C

Q13: Explain the difference between formatted and unformatted I/O functions in C.
Provide examples of each.

 Explanation: Discuss the difference between formatted I/O (using printf() and
scanf()) and unformatted I/O (using getchar(), putchar(), getch(), putch()).
  Example: Write a program demonstrating the use of printf() and getchar().

Q14: Discuss various string manipulation functions available in C. Provide examples of

strlen(), strcpy(), strcat(), and strcmp().

 Explanation: Explain the commonly used string manipulation functions in C and how
they work.
 Example: Write a program that demonstrates the use of these string functions.

Q15: Write a C program to take formatted input from the user and display the output in a
formatted manner.

 Explanation: Use the scanf() function for formatted input and printf() for formatted
output.
 Example: Write a program to take input for a student's name, age, and grade, and display
it in a specific format.

These questions cover C programming concepts related to functions, arrays, pointers,

input/output, and string manipulation, based on the latest NEP MDU syllabus. Preparing
answers to these questions will help you perform well in your semester exams.

SOLUTIONS

Certainly! Here’s an in-depth explanation of the 15 questions based on Functions, Arrays &
Pointers, and Input/Output Functions in C programming. These solutions include examples,
code, and diagrams where necessary.

1. Explain the different types of functions in C. Discuss the concept of user-

defined functions with an example.

Answer:

In C, functions are classified into two main categories:

1. Standard Library Functions: These are built-in functions provided by C like printf(),
scanf(), strlen(), etc.
2. User-Defined Functions: These are functions created by the programmer to perform
specific tasks. The syntax for a user-defined function is:

return_type function_name(parameter_list) {
// Function body
return value; // if return type is not void
}

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

// User-defined function to calculate the sum of two numbers

int add(int a, int b) {
return a + b;
}

int main() {
int result = add(5, 10); // Function call
printf("Sum: %d\n", result);
return 0;
}

Explanation:

 add() is a user-defined function that takes two integers as parameters and returns their
sum.
 It is called in the main() function with values 5 and 10.

2. Discuss the concept of function prototype in C. Why is it necessary? Provide

an example of a function with a prototype.

Answer:

A function prototype is a declaration of a function that tells the compiler about the function’s
name, return type, and parameters before its actual definition. This helps the compiler in type
checking during function calls.

Syntax:

return_type function_name(parameter_list);

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

// Function prototype
int add(int, int);

int main() {
int result = add(5, 10);
printf("Sum: %d\n", result);
return 0;
}
// Function definition
int add(int a, int b) {
return a + b;
}

Explanation:

 The function prototype int add(int, int); tells the compiler that the function add
will take two integers and return an integer.
 This allows the function to be used before its definition in the main() function.

3. What are local and global variables in C? Explain with an example.

Answer:

 Local Variables: Variables declared inside a function or block. Their scope is limited to
the function/block in which they are declared.
 Global Variables: Variables declared outside all functions, typically at the top of the
program. Their scope is throughout the program.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int global_var = 10; // Global variable

void func() {
int local_var = 5; // Local variable
printf("Local Variable: %d\n", local_var);
}

int main() {
printf("Global Variable: %d\n", global_var);
func();
return 0;
}

Explanation:

 global_var is accessible throughout the program.

 local_var is only accessible within the func().

4. Explain the concept of recursion in C. Write a program to demonstrate

recursion.
Answer:

Recursion is a process in which a function calls itself to solve a smaller instance of the problem.
It is useful for problems that can be divided into similar sub-problems.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

// Recursive function to calculate factorial

int factorial(int n) {
if (n == 0) // Base case
return 1;
else
return n * factorial(n - 1); // Recursive case
}

int main() {
int result = factorial(5);
printf("Factorial: %d\n", result);
return 0;
}

Explanation:

 factorial() is a recursive function that calls itself to calculate the factorial of a number.
 The base case is when n == 0, which returns 1.

5. What are the different ways to pass parameters to functions in C? Explain by

writing examples for passing by value and passing by reference.

Answer:

In C, parameters can be passed in two ways:

1. Pass by Value: A copy of the actual parameter is passed to the function.

2. Pass by Reference: The memory address of the actual parameter is passed, so changes
affect the original variable.

Example of Pass by Value:

#include <stdio.h>

void add(int a, int b) {

printf("Sum: %d\n", a + b);
}

int main() {
 int x = 5, y = 10;
add(x, y); // Passing by value
return 0;
}

Example of Pass by Reference:

#include <stdio.h>

void swap(int *a, int *b) {

int temp = *a;
*a = *b;
*b = temp;
}

int main() {
int x = 5, y = 10;
swap(&x, &y); // Passing by reference
printf("Swapped values: x = %d, y = %d\n", x, y);
return 0;
}

Explanation:

 In pass by value, x and y are passed as copies.

 In pass by reference, the addresses of x and y are passed, allowing the original values to
be modified.

6. What are arrays in C? Explain different types of arrays with examples.

Answer:

An array is a collection of variables of the same type that are stored in contiguous memory
locations. Arrays are used to store multiple values in a single variable.

Types of Arrays:

1. One-Dimensional Array: A simple list of elements.

2. Two-Dimensional Array: An array of arrays, representing a matrix.
3. Multi-Dimensional Array: Arrays with more than two dimensions.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
int arr[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}; // One-dimensional array
 // Accessing and displaying elements
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
printf("%d ", arr[i]);
}
return 0;
}

Explanation:

 The above code defines a one-dimensional array with 5 elements.

7. How do you initialize and process arrays in C? Provide examples for

initialization and processing of arrays.

Answer:

Initialization: Arrays can be initialized in two ways:

1. Static Initialization: Specifying the values at the time of declaration.

2. Dynamic Initialization: Assigning values during runtime.

Example of Static Initialization:

int arr[3] = {1, 2, 3};

Example of Dynamic Initialization:

int arr[3];
for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
arr[i] = i + 1;
}

Processing Arrays: You can process arrays by accessing their elements through loops. For
example, summing the elements of an array:

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
int arr[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
int sum = 0;

for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {

sum += arr[i];
}
printf("Sum: %d\n", sum);
return 0;
}

8. Discuss the concept of passing arrays to functions in C. Provide an example

demonstrating this.

Answer:

In C, arrays are passed to functions by reference. This means that when an array is passed to a
function, the function works directly with the original array.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

void display(int arr[], int size) {

for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
printf("%d ", arr[i]);
}
printf("\n");
}

int main() {
int arr[] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
display(arr, 5); // Passing the array to a function
return 0;
}

Explanation:

 The function display() takes an array and its size as parameters and prints the elements
of the array.

9. What is a pointer in C? Explain the concept of pointers with an example.

Answer:

A pointer is a variable that stores the memory address of another variable. Pointers allow you to
work directly with memory locations.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
int x = 5;
int *p = &x; // Pointer storing the address of x
 printf("Value of x: %d\n", *p); // Dereferencing the pointer to get value
printf("Address of x: %p\n", p); // Address stored in pointer

return 0;
}

Explanation:

 *p is used to dereference the pointer and access the value at the address stored in p.

10. Explain the relationship between arrays and pointers in C. How are arrays
passed to functions using pointers?

Answer:

Arrays and pointers are closely related in C. An array name represents a pointer to the first
element of the array. Thus, when an array is passed to a function, the function receives the
memory address of the array, not a copy of the array.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

void modify(int *arr, int size) {

for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
arr[i] = arr[i] * 2;
}
}

int main() {
int arr[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
modify(arr, 5);

for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {

printf("%d ", arr[i]);
}
return 0;
}

Explanation:

 arris a pointer to the first element, and when it is passed to the function, the array is
modified in place.

11. How do you declare and initialize a string in C? Write a program to

manipulate strings using functions.
Answer:

A string in C is an array of characters terminated by a null character ('\0'). Strings can be

declared and initialized as:

char str[] = "Hello";

Example (String Manipulation):

#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

int main() {
char str1[20] = "Hello, ";
char str2[] = "World!";

// Concatenate strings
strcat(str1, str2);
printf("Concatenated String: %s\n", str1);

// Find length of string

printf("Length of str1: %lu\n", strlen(str1));

// Compare strings
if (strcmp(str1, "Hello, World!") == 0) {
printf("Strings are equal.\n");
}
return 0;
}

Explanation:

 strcat() concatenates two strings.

 strlen() returns the length of the string.
 strcmp() compares two strings.

12. Discuss the difference between a string and an array in C. Provide examples
to illustrate their differences.

Answer:

A string in C is an array of characters ending with the null character '\0'. An array is simply a
collection of elements of the same type.

Example:

 String:
char str[] = "Hello"; // Null-terminated array of characters

 Array:

int arr[] = {1, 2, 3}; // Array of integers

13. Explain the difference between formatted and unformatted I/O functions in
C. Provide examples of each.

Answer:

 Formatted I/O: Functions like printf() and scanf() allow formatted input and output.
They can handle various data types and format them accordingly.
 Unformatted I/O: Functions like getchar(), putchar(), getch(), and putch()
perform input/output without any format control.

Example (Formatted I/O):

int num;
scanf("%d", &num); // Input
printf("%d\n", num); // Output

Example (Unformatted I/O):

char ch;
ch = getchar(); // Input a character
putchar(ch); // Output a character

14. Discuss various string manipulation functions available in C. Provide

examples of strlen(), strcpy(), strcat(), and strcmp().

Answer:

The standard string functions in C are used to manipulate strings.

 strlen(): Returns the length of a string.

 strcpy(): Copies one string to another.
 strcat(): Concatenates two strings.
 strcmp(): Compares two strings.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

int main() {
 char str1[20] = "Hello";
char str2[20] = "World";

printf("Length of str1: %lu\n", strlen(str1));

strcpy(str1, str2); // Copy str2 to str1
printf("str1 after copy: %s\n", str1);

strcat(str1, "!");
printf("str1 after concatenation: %s\n", str1);

if (strcmp(str1, "World!") == 0) {
printf("Strings are equal.\n");
}
return 0;
}

15. Write a C program to take formatted input from the user and display the
output in a formatted manner.

Answer:

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
char name[50];
int age;
float grade;

printf("Enter your name: ");

scanf("%s", name);

printf("Enter your age: ");

scanf("%d", &age);

printf("Enter your grade: ");

scanf("%f", &grade);

printf("\nStudent Information:\n");
printf("Name: %s\n", name);
printf("Age: %d\n", age);
printf("Grade: %.2f\n", grade);

return 0;
}

This concludes the detailed solutions for all 15 questions with explanations, examples, code, and
diagrams where applicable.
 LONG QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Below are the detailed answers to the long questions based on Functions, Arrays & Pointers,
and Input/Output Functions in C programming. The answers include examples, explanations,
and code for a thorough understanding.

1. Explain the concept of functions in C. Discuss the different types of functions

in detail, including standard library functions and user-defined functions.
Provide examples for both types, including the concept of function prototypes.

Answer:

Functions in C: A function in C is a self-contained block of code designed to perform a specific

task. It helps in dividing a program into smaller and manageable units. Functions improve
readability, reusability, and maintainability of the code.

Types of Functions:

1. Standard Library Functions: These are predefined functions in C, provided by the

standard C library. Examples include printf(), scanf(), strlen(), etc.
o printf(): Used for output formatting.
o scanf(): Used for formatted input.
2. User-Defined Functions: These are functions defined by the programmer to perform
specific tasks. A function is defined with a return type, function name, and parameters.
o Example:
o #include <stdio.h>
o
o int add(int a, int b) {
o return a + b; // Function that returns the sum
o }
o
o int main() {
o int result = add(5, 3); // Function call
o printf("Sum: %d", result);
o return 0;
o }

Function Prototype: A function prototype is a declaration of the function that specifies its
return type, function name, and parameters, but without the function body. It allows the function
to be called before its definition in the code.

int add(int, int); // Function prototype

2. Describe recursion in C programming. Write a program to compute the
factorial of a number using recursion. Explain the working of the recursive
function step by step.

Answer:

Recursion in C: Recursion is a process where a function calls itself directly or indirectly. It has
two important parts:

1. Base case: A condition to stop the recursion.

2. Recursive case: The function calls itself with modified arguments.

Factorial Program Using Recursion: The factorial of a number n is defined as:

 n! = n * (n-1) * (n-2) * ... * 1

 0! = 1 (base case)

Example code:

#include <stdio.h>

int factorial(int n) {
if (n == 0) {
return 1; // Base case
} else {
return n * factorial(n - 1); // Recursive case
}
}

int main() {
int num = 5;
int result = factorial(num);
printf("Factorial of %d is: %d", num, result);
return 0;
}

Working:

1. factorial(5) calls factorial(4), factorial(4) calls factorial(3), and so on.

2. The base case is reached when factorial(0) returns 1.
3. The recursion then unravels, and the factorial value is computed as 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 1
= 120.

3. Discuss the various ways of passing parameters to functions in C. Compare

passing by value and passing by reference. Illustrate with code examples and
their differences.
Answer:

Passing Parameters in C:

1. Passing by Value: The function gets a copy of the argument's value. Modifications to the
parameter inside the function do not affect the original variable.
o Example:
o void add(int a, int b) {
o printf("Sum: %d", a + b); // Just prints the sum
o }
o
o int main() {
o int x = 5, y = 3;
o add(x, y); // Pass by value
o return 0;
o }
2. Passing by Reference: The function gets the address (reference) of the argument,
allowing it to modify the original variable.
o Example:
o void swap(int *a, int *b) {
o int temp = *a;
o *a = *b;
o *b = temp;
o }
o
o int main() {
o int x = 5, y = 3;
o swap(&x, &y); // Pass by reference
o printf("After swapping: x = %d, y = %d", x, y); // x = 3, y =
5
o return 0;
o }

Differences:

 By value: The function works on copies of the arguments, and the original variables
remain unchanged.
 By reference: The function modifies the actual variables, reflecting changes in the
calling function.

4. Explain the concept of arrays in C. Discuss different types of arrays, their

initialization, and their processing with examples. How are arrays passed to
functions?

Answer:

Arrays in C: An array is a collection of elements of the same type, stored in contiguous memory
locations. The array allows accessing individual elements using an index.
Types of Arrays:

1. One-Dimensional Array: A simple list of elements.

o Example:
o int arr[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
2. Two-Dimensional Array: An array of arrays (matrix).
o Example:
o int matrix[2][3] = {{1, 2, 3}, {4, 5, 6}};
3. Multi-Dimensional Arrays: Arrays with more than two dimensions.
o Example:
o int cube[2][2][2] = {{{1, 2}, {3, 4}}, {{5, 6}, {7, 8}}};

Array Initialization:

 Arrays can be initialized at the time of declaration or afterward.

o Example:
o int arr[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}; // Declaration with initialization

Passing Arrays to Functions: Arrays are passed to functions by reference. Instead of passing
the array itself, the address of the first element is passed.

 Example:
 void printArray(int arr[], int size) {
 for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
 printf("%d ", arr[i]);
 }
 }

 int main() {
 int arr[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
 printArray(arr, 5); // Passing array to function
 return 0;
 }

5. What is a pointer in C? Discuss the concept of pointers in detail, including

pointer arithmetic, and how pointers are used to manipulate arrays and strings.
Provide examples with explanations.

Answer:

Pointers in C: A pointer is a variable that stores the memory address of another variable.
Instead of holding a value, pointers hold the location where the value is stored in memory.

Pointer Arithmetic: Pointers support arithmetic operations like increment (++), decrement (--),
and addition/subtraction. These operations affect the address stored in the pointer, not the value.

 Example:
 int arr[] = {10, 20, 30};
  int *ptr = arr; // ptr points to the first element of arr

 printf("%d\n", *ptr); // Output: 10
 ptr++; // Move pointer to next element
 printf("%d\n", *ptr); // Output: 20

Pointers and Arrays: An array name is a constant pointer to the first element of the array. We
can use pointers to traverse and manipulate arrays.

 Example:
 void printArray(int *arr, int size) {
 for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
 printf("%d ", *(arr + i)); // Using pointer arithmetic
 }
 }

 int main() {
 int arr[3] = {1, 2, 3};
 printArray(arr, 3); // Passing array to function using pointer
 return 0;
 }

Pointers and Strings: In C, strings are arrays of characters terminated by a null character ('\
0'). We can use pointers to manipulate strings.

 Example:
 #include <stdio.h>
 #include <string.h>

 int main() {
 char str[] = "Hello";
 char *ptr = str; // Pointer to the first character of str

 printf("%s\n", ptr); // Output: Hello
 ptr[1] = 'a'; // Modifying the second character
 printf("%s\n", ptr); // Output: Hallo
 return 0;
 }

6. Explain the difference between formatted and unformatted I/O functions in C.

Provide examples for both types of functions, explaining their usage and
differences.

Answer:

Formatted I/O Functions: Formatted I/O functions allow you to input and output data in a
specific format. These functions support formatting specifiers to control how the data is
displayed.

 Example:
  #include <stdio.h>

 int main() {
 int age = 25;
 printf("Age: %d\n", age); // Formatted output
 return 0;
 }

Unformatted I/O Functions: Unformatted I/O functions work without any formatting options.
They simply handle input or output of raw data.

 Example:
 #include <stdio.h>

 int main() {
 char ch;
 printf("Enter a character: ");
 ch = getchar(); // Unformatted input
 printf("You entered: ");
 putchar(ch); // Unformatted output
 return 0;
 }

Differences:

 Formatted I/O: Provides control over the input/output format (e.g., width, precision).
 **

Unformatted I/O**: Works with raw data, offering no formatting options.

7. What is the role of string manipulation functions in C? Discuss the commonly

used string functions such as strlen(), strcpy(), strcat(), and strcmp(). Provide
examples to demonstrate their usage.

Answer:

String Manipulation Functions in C allow us to perform various operations on strings like

measuring length, copying, concatenating, and comparing strings.

1. strlen(): Returns the length of the string (excluding the null character).
o Example:
o #include <stdio.h>
o #include <string.h>
o
o int main() {
o char str[] = "Hello";
o printf("Length of string: %lu", strlen(str)); // Output: 5
o return 0;
 o }
2. strcpy(): Copies a string to another string.
o Example:
o #include <stdio.h>
o #include <string.h>
o
o int main() {
o char src[] = "Hello";
o char dest[20];
o strcpy(dest, src); // Copy src to dest
o printf("Copied string: %s", dest); // Output: Hello
o return 0;
o }
3. strcat(): Concatenates (appends) one string to another.
o Example:
o #include <stdio.h>
o #include <string.h>
o
o int main() {
o char str1[20] = "Hello";
o char str2[] = " World";
o strcat(str1, str2); // Concatenate str2 to str1
o printf("Concatenated string: %s", str1); // Output: Hello
World
o return 0;
o }
4. strcmp(): Compares two strings lexicographically.
o Example:
o #include <stdio.h>
o #include <string.h>
o
o int main() {
o char str1[] = "Hello";
o char str2[] = "Hello";
o if (strcmp(str1, str2) == 0) {
o printf("Strings are equal.\n");
o } else {
o printf("Strings are not equal.\n");
o }
o return 0;
o }

These answers with detailed explanations, examples, and code snippets should help you
thoroughly understand each topic.

DIAGRAMS FOR SUMMARY PURPOSE

Here are the diagrams and summaries for each of the major topics discussed above:

1. Functions in C
Summary:

A function in C is a block of code that performs a specific task. Functions help in organizing
code, making it reusable and easier to understand.

Diagram:

+--------------------------+
| Function Call |
+--------------------------+
|
+--------------------------+
| Function Definition |
+--------------------------+
|
+--------------------------+
| Return to Calling Code |
+--------------------------+

2. Recursion in C

Summary:

Recursion is a method where a function calls itself to solve smaller instances of the same
problem. It is important to have a base case to terminate the recursion.

Diagram (Factorial Example):

factorial(5) -> 5 * factorial(4)

factorial(4) -> 4 * factorial(3)
factorial(3) -> 3 * factorial(2)
factorial(2) -> 2 * factorial(1)
factorial(1) -> 1 (Base case reached)
factorial(2) -> 2 * 1 = 2
factorial(3) -> 3 * 2 = 6
factorial(4) -> 4 * 6 = 24
factorial(5) -> 5 * 24 = 120

3. Passing Parameters to Functions (By Value vs By Reference)

Summary:

1. By Value: The function gets a copy of the argument. Modifying the parameter inside the
function does not affect the original variable.
2. By Reference: The function gets the memory address of the argument, allowing
modifications to the original variable.

Diagram:
By Value:
+---------+ +---------+
| x=5 | | x=5 |
+---------+ +---------+
| |
Function Call No Change to x

By Reference:
+---------+ +---------+
| x=5 | | x=10 |
+---------+ +---------+
| |
Function Call Changes x to 10

4. Arrays in C

Summary:

Arrays in C store multiple elements of the same type. They allow random access to any element
using an index. Arrays are passed to functions by reference (using pointers).

Diagram (1D Array):

+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| arr[0] | arr[1] | arr[2] | arr[3] | arr[4] |
+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

Diagram (Array Passed to Function):

Main Function Called Function

+---------+ +---------+
| arr[5] | | arr[5] |
+---------+ +---------+
| |
+-------------------->+

5. Pointers in C

Summary:

A pointer is a variable that stores the memory address of another variable. Pointer arithmetic
allows navigating through arrays and manipulating data at memory addresses.

Diagram:

int x = 5;
+-------+ +-----------+
| x=5 | | ptr |
+-------+ +-----------+
|
Points to the address of x

Pointer Arithmetic:

int arr[3] = {10, 20, 30};

ptr = arr; // Points to arr[0]

ptr++ // Points to arr[1]

*ptr // Access value at arr[1]

6. Formatted vs Unformatted I/O Functions in C

Summary:

 Formatted I/O functions allow formatted input/output using specifiers (e.g., printf(),
scanf()).
 Unformatted I/O functions handle raw input/output (e.g., getchar(), putchar()).

Diagram:

Formatted I/O:
+--------------+ Format Specifiers +------------------+
| printf("%d") | <-----------------> | Output |
+--------------+ +------------------+

Unformatted I/O:
+------------+ Input/Output Data +-------------+
| getchar() | <-----------------> | Output Char |
+------------+ +-------------+

7. String Manipulation Functions in C

Summary:

String manipulation functions allow operations on strings such as length calculation, copying,
concatenation, and comparison.

Diagram:

| "Hello" | +---------+ +-------------------+

| str | --> | strcpy() | --> | "World" |
+---------+ +-------------------+

String Comparison:
| "Hello" | +---------+ +------------+
| str1 | --> | strcmp() | --> | Equal/Not Equal |
+---------+ +------------+

These diagrams help summarize the core concepts discussed above. By using these, you can
visualize the flow of execution and data in C programming, which will help in understanding
how functions, recursion, arrays, pointers, and I/O operations work in C.