SCHOOL OF ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

ANALOG CIRCUIT DESIGN
Course Code:
Course code: ECE3013
ECE204

Laboratory manual
Laboratory Manual

Winter 2013-14

Semester IV (B.Tech. / Electronics and Communication Engineering)

VIT UNIVERSITY
VELLORE-632014

1
 SCHOOL OF ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
ANALOG CIRCUIT DESIGN
Course code : ECE3013
Course code: ECE204

Laboratory manual

Name:________________________

Register No:___________________

Semester IV (B.Tech Electronics and Communication Engineering)

VIT UNIVERSITY
VELLORE-632014

2
 VIT
UNIVERSITY
(Estd. u/s 3 of UGC Act 1956)

SCHOOL OF ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Subject Name: ______________________________

Subject Code: _______________________________

Reg No: _________________________________

Certified that this is a bonafide of record work done by ________________________

of Electronics and communication Engineering during the academic year 2016
2013 to
–
2014 at VIT University, Vellore.
2017

Staff In - Charge

This record is submitted for the practical examination held on __________________

Internal Examiner External Examiner

3
Expt.No Title of the Experiment
Design of Closed loop amplifiers using Operational amplifier
1 µA741TC
i) Inverting amplifier
ii) Non Inverting Amplifier
iii) Voltage Follower
DC characteristics of Operational amplifier µA741TC
2
AC characteristics of Operational amplifier µA741TC
3
4 Mathematical Operations using Operational amplifier µA741TC
i) Addition
ii) Subtraction
iii) Scaling
iv) Averaging
5 Design of Integrator and Differentiator using op-amp µA741TC
Design of Instrumentation amplifiers for signal conditioning
6 using Operational amplifier µA741TC
Design of Precision Rectifiers using Operational amplifier
7 µA741TC (Half wave and Full wave Rectifier)
8 Design of Comparator circuits using Operational amplifier
µA741TC
i) Comparator Circuits
ii) Schmitt Trigger
Design of Waveform generators using Operational amplifier
9 µA741TC
i) Sine wave
ii) Square wave
Design of Filters using Operational amplifier µA741TC
10 i) Low pass filter
ii) High Pass filter
11 Design of Astable multivibrator circuit using Timer IC 555

4
 Pin details of IC 741

Note:
This lab manual contains ONLY the circuit, necessary design and procedure for each
experiment. It does NOT contain the theory behind the experiment. Students are
advised to become familiar with the necessary theory from textbook/class notes
before coming to the Lab.

5
Ex.No.:1 Date:

Design of Closed Loop Amplifiers

[Inverting, Non- inverting amplifier and Voltage follower]
Objective:
The purpose of this experiment is to construct different closed loop amplifiers
using op-amp and to test its response for DC or AC inputs.

Pre lab questions:

1. What is the basic internal configuration of op-amp?
2. List any 3 important Characteristics of the op-amp.
3. Which type of feedback is used in the inverting amplifier?

Components & Equipments required:

1. Operational amplifier - µA 741
2. Resistors
3. Signal generator
4. CRO
5. Bread board
6. Power supply
7. Connecting wires

Non inverting amplifier:

Circuit and Design:

 Rf 
Gain = 1 +  
 R1 
  Rf  
Vout = 1 +    × Vin

  1 R
Choose Rf =10 kΩ and R1 = 1 kΩ

Phase difference between input and output = 0 degree

6
Procedure:
1) Connect the circuit as shown.
2) Set the power supply to + 12V. Apply 100mV, 1 kHz sinusoidal signal from FG.
3) Adjust the CRO to view the input and the output sinusoids in the two channels.
4) Record the output amplitude and note the phase relationship between Vin and Vout
5) Verify the theoretical and practical gain. Plot the signals in graph sheet.

Inverting amplifier
Circuit and Design:

Choose Rf =10 kΩ, R1= 1 kΩ

Phase shift between input and output = 180o

7
Procedure:
1) Connect the circuit as shown.
2) Set the power supply to + 12V. Apply 100mV, 1 kHz sinusoidal signal from FG.
3) Adjust the CRO to view the input and the output sinusoids in the two channels.
4) Record the output amplitude and note the phase relationship between Vin and Vout
5) Verify the theoretical and practical gain. Plot the signals in graph sheet.

Voltage follower:
Circuit and design:

Vout / Vi = 1
Procedure:
1) Connect the circuit as shown.
2) Set the power supply to + 12V. Apply 100mV, 1 kHz sinusoidal signal from FG.
3) Adjust the CRO to view the input and the output sinusoids in the two channels.
4) Record the output amplitude and note the phase relationship between Vin and Vout
5) Verify the theoretical and practical gain. Plot the signals in graph sheet.

Observations:

Post lab questions:

1. What is the phase difference between input and output in inverting amplifier?

2. What is the phase difference between input and output in non inverting amplifier?

Inference/Result:

8
Ex.No.:2 Date:

DC characteristics of Operational amplifiers

[Input bias current, offset current and offset voltage]

Objective:
To determine the dc parameters like input bias current, offset current and offset voltage.

Pre lab questions:

1. What is input bias current?
2. What is the input offset voltage?
3. What should be the ideal value of input bias current and input offset voltage?

Components & Equipments required:

1. Operational amplifier - µA 741
2. Resistors
3. Capacitors
4. Bread board
5. Power supply
6. Multimeter
7. Connecting wires

Input bias current ( IB+ )

Circuit and Design:
IB+ = Vo / R1, where R1=1MΩ resistance as shown below

9
Procedure:
1) Connect the circuit as shown.
2) Measure Vo using DC multimeter and hence calculate IB+

Input bias current (IB- )

Circuit and Design:

IB- =Vo / Rf where Rf =1MΩ resistance as shown below.

Procedure:
1) Connect the circuit as shown.
2) Measure Vo using DC multimeter and hence calculate IB-

Calculation of input bias current(mean) and input offset current:

I B+ + I B−
IB =
2

I io = I B+ − I B−

10
Input offset voltage:
Circuit and Design:

Procedure:
1) Connect the circuit as shown.
2) The effect of bias current is compensated by Rcomp. The output voltage is given by
Vo = [1 + (Rf / R1) ] Vios +Iio Rf
where Vios is the input offset voltage and Iio is input offset current.
Vo = [1 + (Rf / R1) ] Vios for negligible Iio
3) Hence Vios can be calculated using the Vo measured in the above circuit.

Post lab questions:

1. What is the typical value of input bias current and input offset current?
2. What is the effect of adding Rcomp on the total output offset voltage?

Inference/Result:

11
Ex.No.:3 Date:
AC characteristics of Operational amplifiers
[Slew rate and Frequency Response]

Objective:
To find the slew rate of op-amp
To find the frequency response of op-amp

Pre lab questions:

1. What is slew rate of an op-amp?
2. For a sinusoidal input, what are the factors the slew rate depends on?
3. What is 3dB frequency?

Components & Equipments required:

1. Operational amplifier - µA 741
2. Resistors
3. Signal generator
4. CRO
5. Bread board
6. Power supply
7. Connecting wires

Slew rate:
Circuit and Design:

12
Procedure:
1) Connect the circuit as shown above.
2) Adjust the FG to apply 1V peak, 1 kHz Square wave to the non-inverting input.
3) Observe both the input and output Vo using the 2 channels of CRO.
4) Increase the frequency slowly. You will observe that while the input is a square wave,
the output is NOT a square wave, but has a finite slope as shown below.

Slew Rate = ∆V / ∆t volts/µsec

Frequency response:
Circuit and Design:

13
Procedure:
1) Connect the circuit as shown above.
2) Apply 100mV peak, 100 Hz sinusoidal signal as Vi. Observe the output amplitude in
the CRO.
3) Keeping the input amplitude fixed (100mV peak), vary the frequency from 100Hz to 1
MHz and note down the output amplitude in each case.
4) Calculate the gain as shown in the table below and plot the frequency response on a
semi-log graph sheet.

Observation:
Vi = _______mV
Frequency Output voltage Vo Gain = 20 log Vo/Vi
Hz Volts dB

Post lab questions:

1. Why does the gain fall off after certain high frequency?
2. At what rate does it fall (dB/decade)?

Inference/Result:

14
Ex.No.:4 Date:

Mathematical operation of Operational amplifiers

[Summing, Scaling, Averaging and subtraction]
Objective:
To study the mathematical operations like addition, scaling, averaging and subtraction
using op-amp.

Pre lab questions:

1. What is the input impedance and output impedance of an ideal op-amp?
2. What is the application of voltage follower circuit?
3. How can a summing amplifier be used as an averaging amplifier?

Components & Equipments required:

1. Operational amplifier - µA 741
2. Resistors
3. Bread board
4. Power supply
5. Multimeter
6. Connecting wires

Circuit and Design:

15
 1. Summing amplifier:
Vo = - [ If Rf=R1=1 kΩ,

Vo= - (V1+V2)

2. Scaling amplifier:
Vo = 0.1 V1 + 0.5 V2

3. Averaging amplifier:
Vo = (V1 + V2) / 2
R1 = R2 = R,
(Rf / R) = (1/N)
N = number of inputs

Procedure:
1) Connect the circuit as shown.
2) Set the power supply to + 12V. Apply two DC voltages, V1 and V2.
3) Measure the output voltage Vo using a digital multimeter.

Differential amplifier (Subtractor)

Circuit and design:

16
Vout =
Rf
(V2 − V1 )
R

Procedure:
1) Connect the circuit as shown.
2) Set the power supply to + 12V. Apply two DC voltages for V1 and V2.
3) Measure the output voltage Vo using a digital multimeter. Verify the output with the
theoretical value calculated.

Observation:

Post lab questions:

1. How to obtain a linear combination of inputs? (For example, If V1, V2 &V3 are the
inputs obtain V0 = 2V1+4V2+0.5V3)?

2. What is the meaning of “Virtual Ground”. In the summing amplifier circuit above,
which pin is at virtual ground?

Inference/Result:

17
Ex.No.:5 Date:

Integrator and differentiator

Purpose:
To configure the op-amp as a circuit that can differentiate or integrate signals.

Pre lab questions:

1. State the equation for the output of the differentiator
2. State the equation for the output of the integrator
3. What is an element that is used in the feedback path in an integrator?

Components & Equipments required:

1. Operational amplifier - µA 741
2. Resistor
3. Capacitor
4. Signal generator
5. CRO
6. Bread board
7. Power supply
8. Connecting wires

Differentiator:
Circuit and Design:
Let us design a differentiator which can differentiate signals with frequency up to 100 Hz
(ie 100 Hz is the highest frequency that this circuit can differentiate accurately)

Let fa = fmax=100 Hz

Let

Now choose
18
Procedure:
1) Connect the circuit as shown above.
2) Apply 1V peak, 100 Hz sine signal.
3) Observe the output using CRO. Observe the input and output simultaneously. Plot
your observation.
4) Apply 1V peak Square wave and repeat step3

Integrator:
Circuit and Design:
Let us design a integrator whose lower frequency limit of integration is 159 Hz (ie the
circuit integrates only frequencies above 159 Hz (fa).The circuit will integrate signals 10
times fa with 99% accuracy)
We know that fa = [1 / (2πRfCf)]
So [1 / (2πRfCf)] = 159 Hz
Let Cf =10 nF
So Rf =100KΩ

19
Lets choose fb=10 (fa)
This implies [1 / (2πR1Cf)] =1590 Hz
Since Cf=10nF, R1= 10 kΩ

Procedure:
1) Connect the circuit as shown above.
2) Apply 1V peak, 5 kHz sine signal.
3) Observe the output using CRO. Observe the input and output simultaneously. Plot
your observation.
4) Apply 1V peak, 5 kHz Square wave and repeat step3

Observations:

Post lab questions:

1. Plot the gain Vs frequency characteristic of the practical differentiator you designed.
What do you observe?
2. Plot the gain Vs frequency characteristic of the practical integrator you designed. What
do you observe

Inference/Result:

20
Ex.No.:6 Date:

Design of Instrumentation Amplifier for signal conditioning

application

Purpose:
To design an instrumentation amplifier for a specified gain and to make a signal
conditioning circuit using wheatstone bridge.

Pre lab questions:

1. What are the characteristics of instrumentation amplifier?
2. What is the need for instrumentation amplifier?
3. What do you mean by signal conditioning?

Components & Equipments required:

1. Operational amplifier - µA 741
2. Resistors
3. Signal generator
4. CRO
5. Bread board
6. Power supply
7. Connecting wires

Circuit and Design:

Design the instrumentation amplifier for a gain of 30.
AV = (R2 / R1) (1 + 2Rf / Rg)

Procedure:
1). Connect the circuit as shown below.
2) Apply two ac signals at the input terminals and observe the output waveform.
3) Calculate the practical gain of the amplifier.

21
Signal Conditioning:

Assume the excitation voltage to be 5V and R = 100 Ω.

Procedure:
1) Connect the circuit as shown above.
2) Vary the resistance of fourth arm and observe the output voltage.
5) Plot the graph between changes in resistance versus amplifier output voltage.

22
Observations:

Change in resistance (∆R) Bridge output voltage (V) Amplifier output voltage
Ω (V)

Post Lab questions:

1). What do you mean by linearity?
2). whether linearity is achieved in the signal conditioning circuit designed above?
3). How will sense the temperature variation in an environment.

Inference & Result:

23
Ex.No.:7 Date:
Design of Precision Rectifiers
[Half wave and Full wave Rectifiers]

Purpose:
To design half wave and full wave precision rectifiers using op-amps.

Pre lab questions:

1. What is the difference between an ordinary rectifier and a precision rectifier using op-
amps?
2. Identify the diode which will be ON during the positive half cycle in the half wave
rectifier circuit below.
3. Identify the diode/diodes which will be ON during the positive half cycle in the full
wave rectifier circuit below.

Components & Equipments required:

1. Operational amplifier - µA 741
2. Resistors
3. Diodes
4. Signal generator
5. CRO
6. Bread board
7. Power supply
8. Connecting wires

Half wave rectifier:

Circuit and Design:

24
Procedure:
1) Connect the circuit as shown above.
2) Apply a small signal say 500mV, 1 kHz sine signal as Vi
3) Observe the output Vo and input Vi simultaneously in the two channels of CRO. Verify
if the negative cycle of the input signal is getting rectified as shown below.
4) Plot your observations in a graph sheet.

25
Full wave rectifier:
Circuit and Design:

Procedure:
1) Connect the circuit as shown above.
2) Apply a small signal, say 500mV, 1kHz sine signal as Vi
3) Observe the output Vo and input Vi simultaneously in the two channels of CRO. Verify
if both positive and negative half cycles of the input signal are getting rectified as shown
below.
4) Plot your observations in a graph sheet.

26
Post lab questions:
1. Apply triangular / square wave as inputs to the rectifier circuits and observe the
outputs.
2. Does your full wave rectifier rectify ac signals of amplitude less than 1 volt?

Inference/Result:

27
Ex.No.:8 Date:

Design of Comparator and Schmitt trigger

Purpose:
To study the operation of 741 op-amp as a comparator and a Schmitt trigger.

Pre lab questions:

1. Name the configuration in which the op-amp is used in a comparator.
2. How can a comparator be converted into a zero crossing detector?
3. What is the feedback employed in a Schmitt trigger?

Components & Equipments required:

1. Operational amplifier - µA 741
2. Resistors
3. Signal generator
4. Potentiometer
5. CRO
6. Bread board
7. Power supply
8. Connecting wires

Comparator - Circuit and Design:

28
Model Graph:

Procedure:
1) Connect the circuit as shown and adjust the 10K potentiometer so that Vref = 1V
2) Adjust the FG so that Vi = 3V peak, 1 kHz sine wave
3) Using the CRO, observe the input and output waveforms simultaneously. Plot them in
a graph sheet.
4) If Vref is made 0 Volts in the above circuit, it functions as a Zero crossing
detector(The output switches between Vsat and –Vsat every time the input sine wave
crosses zero)

Schmitt Trigger:
Circuit and Design:

29
Model graph:

For Schmitt trigger circuit,

VUT = R2/(R1+R2) . (+Vsat)
For Vcc=12 V, Vsat will be 10V approximately.
VUT = 2Volts
Similarly VLT = R2/(R1+R2) . (-Vsat)
VLT = -2Volts

Procedure:
1) Connect the circuit as shown above.
2) Apply 4V peak, 1 kHz sine wave as input from FG.
3) Using the CRO, observe the input and output waveforms simultaneously. Verify if you
are getting the output waveform as shown below. Plot them in a graph sheet.

Observation:

Post lab questions:

1. What is hysteresis plot of a Schmitt trigger circuit? Plot it for the circuit you designed.
2. Think of how comparators can be used to design an A-D converter. Design a 2 bit
ADC using comparators.

Inference/Result:

30
Ex.No.:9 Date:

Design of Waveform generators

[Square wave generation using Astable circuit]

Purpose:
To design an astable multivibrator circuit using op-amp that will generate a square wave.

Pre lab questions:

1. Why is this circuit called an ‘astable’ multivibrator?
2. What is the formula for frequency of oscillation of this astable multivibrator?
3. How does β affect the ON time and OFF time of the square wave?

Components & Equipments required:

1. Operational amplifier - µA 741
2. Resistors
3. Capacitor
4. CRO
5. Bread board
6. Power supply
7. Connecting wires

Circuit and Design:

Let us design a circuit which will generate square wave of 1 kHz frequency.
Feedback factor β = R2/(R1+R2)
Time period of the square wave T =2RC ln[(1+β)/(1-β)]
Let R1 =R2 10 k, then β=0.5
Assume C = 0.1µF
Now for β=0.5
T= 2RC ln 3

31
For T=1ms,
R = 4.55k (use R = 4.7 k standard value)

Procedure:
1) Connect the circuit as shown above.
2) Observe the waveform at the output using CRO. Also observe the voltage across the
capacitor Vc in the other channel simultaneously. Verify if they are as shown in the
model graph below.
3) Calculate the frequency of the square wave .Plot the output square wave and voltage
across the capacitor in graph sheet.

Observation:

Post lab questions:

1. Modify the circuit to generate a square wave of 5 kHz frequency.
2. Can this circuit generate a square wave of very high frequency (in MHz)? What will be
the limiting factor?

Inference/Result:

32
 Sine wave generation using Wien bridge oscillator
Purpose:
To design a Wien bridge oscillator using op-amp

Pre lab questions:

1. What is Barkhausen’s criteria for oscillation?
2. What is the frequency of oscillation of a RC phase shift oscillator?
3. What do you mean by stability of an oscillator?

Components & Equipments required:

1. Operational amplifier - µA 741
2. Resistors
3. Capacitors
4. CRO
5. Bread board
6. Power supply
7. Connecting wires

Circuit and Design:

33
The frequency of oscillation fo is exactly the resonant frequency of the balanced Wien
bridge and is given by fo= 1/(2πRC). Assuming that the resistors and capacitors are equal
in value in the reactive leg of the Wien bridge. At this frequency, the gain required for
sustained oscillations is given by
Av =1/B =3
that is , 1+(Rf/R1) =3
or Rf = 2R1

Procedure:
1) Connect the circuit as shown.
2) After giving the power supply to the chip, connect Vout, the output to the CRO
3) Now adjust the 50 k potentiometer such that Rf = 2R1, ie. 24 k. When it is exactly so,
you will find sustained oscillations at the output.
4) Measure the amplitude and frequency. Verify the frequency with the theoretical
frequency.
5) Plot the output in graph sheet.

Observation:

Post lab questions:

1. Modify the wein bridge oscillator to generate a 1kHz sine wave.
2. What is the purpose of using a potentiometer instead of resistor for Rf?

Inference/Result:

34
Ex.No.:10 Date:

Design of Active Filters

[Low pass and High pass filter]

Purpose:
To design and test the low pass and high pass filters using operational amplifier IC741.

Pre lab questions:

1. The most desirable features of filters are ___________
2. What is selectivity of a filter?
3. The Butterworth filter has _____ passband and ________ stopband

Components & Equipments required:

1. Operational amplifier - µA 741
2. Resistors
3. Signal generator
4. CRO
5. Bread board
6. Power supply
7. Connecting wires

Low Pass Filter:

Circuit and Design:
Let us design the first order low pass filter for passband gain AV = 2 and cutoff frequency
= 5 kHz
Passband gain AV = 1+ (Rf /Ri),
AV = 2
Hence Rf = Ri = 10 kΩ
Cutoff frequency fC = 1/(2πRC) = 5 kHz
Choose C = 0.01µF, find R.

35
Model Graph:

Procedure:
1) Connect the circuit as shown.
2) Apply 100 mV, 100 Hz sinusoidal signal as the input to the circuit.
3) Measure the output voltage. Vary the frequency from 100Hz to 30 kHz and measure the output
voltage for various frequencies of input signal.
4) Plot the frequency response graph and calculate the cutoff frequency.

36
Observations:
Vi = ______mV

Frequency Hz Output Voltage Voltage gain (dB)

Vo (Volts)

High Pass filter

Circuit and Design:

37
Let us design the first order high pass filter for pass band gain AV = 2 and cutoff
frequency = 5 kHz
Passband gain AV = 1+ (Rf /Ri),
AV = 2
Hence Rf = Ri = 10 kΩ
Cutoff frequency fC = 1/(2πRC) = 5 kHz
Choose C = 0.01µF, find R.

Model Graph:

Observations:
Vi = _______ mV

Frequency Hz Output Voltage Voltage gain dB

38
Procedure:
1) Connect the circuit as shown.
2) Apply 100mV, 100 Hz sinusoidal signal as the input to the circuit.
3) Measure the output voltage. Vary the frequency from 100Hz to 30 kHz and measure
the output voltage for various frequencies of input signal.
4) Plot the frequency response graph and calculate the cutoff frequency.

Second order high pass filter:

Circuit and design:

Let us design the second order High pass filter for passband gain Av=2 and cutoff
frequency = 5 kHz
Pass band gain Av=1 + (Rf/Ri)
Av = 2, Hence Rf = Ri = 10kΩ
Cutoff frequency fc =
1
2π R1R 2C1C 2 = 5 kHz

Let R1=R2=R, C1=C2=C

So fc =1/(2πRC)
Choose C=0.01µF, Find R.

39
Procedure:
1) Connect the circuit as shown.
2) Apply 100mV, 100 Hz sinusoidal signal as the input to the circuit.
3) Measure the output voltage. Vary the frequency from 100Hz to 30 kHz and measure
the output voltage for various frequencies of input signal.
4) Plot the frequency response graph and calculate the cutoff frequency. Compare the
slope of first order and second order high pass filter graphs. Record your observations.

Observations:
Vi = _______ mV

Frequency Hz Output Voltage Voltage gain dB

Post lab questions:

1. As the order of the filter is increased, what happens to the roll off rate?
2. How can you construct a bandpass filter from low pass and high pass filters?
3. How can you construct a bandstop filter from low pass and high pass filters?

Inference / Result:

40
Ex.No.:11 Date:

Design of Astable Multivibrator using Timer

Purpose:
To design an astable multivibrator using timer that will produce a square wave of
frequency 1 kHz.

Pre lab questions:

1. The frequency of osculation of the output waveform is given by __________
2. Where the threshold pin and Trigger pin connected internally? What is its function?
3. Where are the 3 equal resistors connected in the 555 chip?

Components & Equipments required:

1. Operational amplifier – IC 555
2. Resistors
3. Capacitors
4. CRO
5. Bread board
6. Power supply
7. Connecting wires

Circuit and Design:

Lets design an astable multivibrator which will produce a square wave of frequency 1
kHz.
Ton = 75% (Ton is the percentage of time for which the output is high)
Ton = 0.69(R1+R2) C
Toff = 0.69(R2) C
Time Period, T = 0.69(R1+2R2) C
Frequency, f= 1.45 / ((R1+2R2) C)
Toff = 0.69(R2)*C=0.25 ms
41
Let C = 0.1µF
R2=3.6 k (Put 3.3 k and 330Ω in series)
Similarly, Ton = 0.69(R1+R2) C = 0.75 ms
Substituting R2 and C, we get R1= 7.2 k (Put 6.8 k and 470Ω in series)

Procedure:
1) Connect the circuit as shown above.
2) Use VCC = 5V.Use R1, R2 and C as calculated above.
3) Observe the output at pin no.3 using CRO. Measure the amplitude and frequency of
the square wave you got.
4) Observe the capacitor voltage at pin no.6 using CRO. You will be able to see the
capacitor charging and discharging as shown in the figure below.
5) Verify the theoretical time period with the practical time period. Plot the waveforms in
a graph sheet.

42
Observations:

Post lab questions:

1. Redesign the astable mutivibrator to generate square wave of frequency 2 kHz, Ton =
60%
2. How can you achieve 50% duty cycle in an astable multivibrator?

Inference / Result:

43