AEE 207 Aircraft Electronic Instrument Systems

EMC-Electromagnetic Compatibility EMI-Electromagnetic

Interference HIRF-High Intensity Radiated Field
Lightning/lightning protection.

2024-2025 Fall Semester

General Information

❑ EMC-Electromagnetic Compatibility EMI-Electromagnetic Interference

❑ HIRF-High Intensity Radiated Field Lightning/lightning protection

2
INTRODUCTION
Electro-Magnetic Phenomena

• Electromagnet Compatibility (EMC) is a branch of science and engineering

concerned with the design and operation of equipment in a manner, which
makes them immune to certain amounts of electromagnetic interference,
while at the same time keeping equipment generated interference within
specified limits.
• The scope of EMC is very wide and includes virtually all equipment powered
by electrical supplies. With few exceptions, all engineering systems
incorporate a form of power conditioning and information processing unit
and therefore fall within the realms of EMC.
• It is true to say that every electronic circuit operating with alternating current
radiates unintentional signals and therefore all electronic circuits radiate
some noise.
• The amount of radiation depends on several factors that will include the,
size of the circulating current, the size and shape of the wires conducting
the current and the frequencies being used in the circuit.
• With modern equipment, when radiation cannot be eliminated, the use of
shielding is implemented where the circuits are completely surrounded in a
conductive enclosure.
3
INTRODUCTION
Electro-Magnetic Phenomena
• Fortunately most modern electronic and avionic components do not have
high current consumption and interconnect wiring is kept short to avoid
acting as an antenna and so the amount of radiation is usually not high.
• Unfortunately though, at higher frequencies, even short cable runs can start
to behave like an antenna and so shielding is common in radio equipment.
This not only prevents energy from radiating out of the unit but also
prevents the ingress of external energy into sensitive receivers. This
process of preventing signal radiation and signal ingression is called
Electromagnetic Compatibility, or EMC
• As already mentioned, all electrical and electronic equipment can suffer
from interference problems from Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) caused
by other electrical devices and other forms of noise.
• The wide variation of avionic devices and the environments where they are
mounted makes them vulnerable to different forms of EM energy that can
cause EMI.

4
INTRODUCTION
Electro-Magnetic Phenomena

• EMC is also the capability of aircraft systems to operate without degradation

due to EMI.
• During initial aircraft certification, EMC testing looks at the world inside the
aircraft, i.e. intra-system EMC, to examine the capability of subsystems to
operate without interfering with each other. It also looks at the world outside
the aircraft, i.e. inter-system EMC, to study the capability of each subsystem
in the aircraft, and the aircraft as a total system, to operate in its intended
EM environment without degradation.

5
Intra-System EMC

• Intra-system EMC testing determines if operation of one or more systems

within an aircraft causes degraded performance, unacceptable response, or
malfunction to other aircraft systems. Each component is individually
operated, while each of the remaining systems is monitored for evidence of
EMI through visual, instrumentation and databus monitoring.
• Testing is conducted in a specialist shielded hangar or anechoic chamber,
each of which provides a controlled test environment.
• If and when EMI is discovered, investigations are initiated to determine
degradation thresholds and the path of EMI entry, and to correlate its impact
on the aircraft's intended use.
• Once ground tests are complete, manufacturers compile an EMC flight test
programme to establish equipment and subsystem performance during
genuine operating conditions of actual flight.

6
 Inter-System EMC
• Today's military and civilian aircraft cannot help encountering higher effective
radiated power from transmitters, and the number and density of these are
increasing daily.
• Emissions can come from many sources including Air Traffic Control (ATC), search
and military radars, navigation aids, electronic jamming signals, RF signals from
commercial radio and TV stations, etc located wherever aircraft fly throughout the
world.
• New and sophisticated technologies being integrated into aircraft avionic systems
combined with the increasing use of composite material, increases intersystem
susceptibilities unless proper EMC design and protection techniques are
implemented early in the aircraft's initial design.
• Examples of these susceptibilities are component burnout, navigation and
communication system degradation, loss of engine or flight controls, computer
memory or data losses, etc.
• Therefore, to prevent EMI affecting an operational aircraft, the aircraft and system
component manufacturers conduct intersystem EMC testing, which are also known
as Electromagnetic Vulnerability (EMV), Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR), or
High Intensity Radiated Fields (HIRF) testing. In scientific circles, the terms EMC
and EMI are used almost interchangeably.
• EMC simply describes efforts to control or eliminate the problems created by EMI.
7
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)

• Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) is defined as any electromagnetic

disturbance that interrupts, obstructs or otherwise degrades or limits the
effective performance of electronic and electrical equipment. It can be
induced intentionally, as in some forms of electronic warfare, or
unintentionally, as a result of spurious emissions and responses,
intermodulation products, i.e. The production of frequencies corresponding
to the sum and difference of the fundamentals and harmonics transmitted
through a component.
• EMI has received a lot of attention in recent years due to the presence of
Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) magnetic fields called H fields, which
may be produced by video display units (VDU).
• There are a variety of other sources, which produce H fields such as
photocopiers, air conditioning units, fluorescent lights and electric wiring.
• Electromagnetic interference may come from inside or outside an aircraft.
• The internal sources include computers, headsets, radios and navigation
aids as well as the electrical power distribution system of the aircraft.
Although they only
• emit relatively small fields , these could be close to the aircrafts aerials and
possibly sensitive equipment.
8
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)

• External sources include ground transmitters such as radio, radar, television

and telephone.
• Some of these have very high power levels and even though the signals
may travel large distances, they can still have serious effects on the aircraft.
• Ground and airborne installations are sometimes referred to as fixed and
intermittent transmitters respectively. Because a ground transmitter fixed its
location is marked on most aviation maps and can be avoided.
• External signals may also come from airborne transmitters such as high -
• powered radar or radio on military aircraft. If a military aircraft were to
transmit in close proximity to a civil aircraft there would be no possibility of
• avoidance.
• The increase use of digital equipment in aircraft has meant the avtatton
• industry has had to increase the amount of attention paid to the problem of
High Intensity Radiated Fields (HIRF), and has had to increase the level
of shielding on aircraft.

9
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)

• The strength of EMI is influenced by all the electrical and electronic signals
that are in the atmosphere.
• An example of this can be seen when two electromagnetic waves of equal
frequency combine in space, the resultant magnetic and electrical field
strength at any point of space and time will be equal to the sum of these
fields. When these fields combine, both the magnitude and the direction of
the fields need to be considered, which means that they sum like vectors.
• When two equally strong waves have their fields in the same direction in
space and time, in other words, when they are in phase, the resultant field
is twice that of each individual wave.
• The resultant intensity; being proportional to the square of the field strength,
is therefore not two but four times the intensity of each of the two
superimposing waves.
• By contrast, the superposition of a wave that has an electric field in one
direction, i.e. positive, in space and time with a wave of the same frequency
having an electric field in the opposite direction i.e. negative, in space and
time leads to cancellation and no resultant wave at all, i.e. zero intensity;
two waves of this sort are termed out of phase.

10
EMI GENERATION

• As an example of how EMI can be produced from even the most basic of
electronic circuits, consider the simple DC power supply consisting of
nothing more than a transformer, bridge rectifier, reservoir capacitor and
load resistor (see following Figure).
• At first sight a simple circuit of this type may look somewhat benign, but just
take a look at the waveforms shown in the next Figure.
• The primary and secondary voltage waveforms are both sinusoidal and, as
you might expect, the load voltage comprises a DC level (just less than the
peak secondary voltage) onto which is superimposed a ripple component at
800 Hz.
• What’s more significant (in terms of EMC and EMI) is the waveform of the
current that flows in both the secondary and primary circuits. Rather than
being sinusoidal (as you might have thought) this current comprises a series
of fast rise-time rectangular pulses as each pair of diodes conducts
alternately in order to replace the lost charge in the reservoir capacitor.
Unfortunately, these rectangular pulses contain numerous harmonics.

11
Circuit diagram of a simple regulated DC power supply
12
Voltage and current waveforms for the circuit

13
Harmonics

• An integer multiple of a fundamental frequency is known as a harmonic.

• In addition, we often specify the order of the harmonic (second, third, and so
on).

• Thus the second harmonic has twice the frequency of the fundamental, the
third harmonic has three times the frequency of the fundamental, and so on.

• Consider, for example, a fundamental signal at 1 kHz.

• The second harmonic would have a frequency of 2 kHz, the third harmonic
a frequency of 3 kHz and the fourth harmonic a frequency of 4 kHz.

• Note that, in musical terms, the relationship between notes that are one
octave apart is simply that the two frequencies have a ratio of 2:1 (in other
words, the higher frequency is double the lower frequency).

14
Harmonics
• All complex waveforms (of which rectangular pulses and square waves are
examples) comprise a fundamental component together with a number of
harmonic components, each having a specific amplitude and with a specific
phase relative to the fundamental.
• The mathematical study of complex waves is known as ‘Fourier analysis’
and this allows us to describe a complex wave using an equation of the
form:

• where v is the instantaneous voltage of the complex waveform at time, t.

V1 is the amplitude of the fundamental, V2 is the amplitude of the second
harmonic, V3 is the amplitude of the third harmonic, and so on.
• Similarly, 2 is the phase angle of the second harmonic (relative to the
fundamental),  3 is the phase angle of the third harmonic (relative to the
fundamental), and so on.
• The important thing to note from this is that all of the individual
components that go to make up a complex waveform have a sine wave
shape.
• Putting this another way, a complex wave is made up from a number of
sine waves. 15
Frequency spectrum of a pulse

• A rectangular pulse comprises a fundamental component together with an

infinite series of harmonics.
• Taking a square wave as an extreme example of a rectangular pulse, the
composite waveform can be analysed into the following components:

• a fundamental component at a frequency, f, and amplitude, V;

• a third harmonic component at a frequency, 3f, and amplitude V/3;
• a fifth harmonic component at a frequency, 5f, and amplitude, V/5;
• a seventh harmonic component at a frequency, 7f, and amplitude, V/7;

• and so on, ad-infinitum!

16
Frequency spectrum of a pulse

• This process (up to the seventh harmonic) is shown in the following Figure.
• The corresponding frequency spectrum (showing amplitude plotted against
frequency) appears in the next Figure.
• Note that, to produce a perfect square wave, the amplitude of the harmonics
should decay in accordance with their harmonic order and they must all be in
phase with the fundamental.
• Using Fourier analysis, the equation for a square wave voltage is:

where V is the amplitude of the fundamental and w is the angular

frequency of the fundamental (note that ω = 2πf , where f is the
frequency of the fundamental).

17
Constituents of a square wave

18
The modified DC power supply with significantly improved EMC performance
19
EMC and Avionic Equipment

• In recent years, EMC and EMI have become a very important consideration for
avionic equipment designers.
• To ensure compliance with increasingly demanding standards, it has become
essential for designers to consider the effects of unwanted signals generated by
avionic equipment, as well as the susceptibility of the equipment to interference
from outside.
• To illustrate this important point we will again use the example of the simple low-
voltage DC power supply that we met in the first Figure.
• For this unit to meet stringent EMC requirements it needs to be modified as shown
in the following Figure.

20
EMC and avionic equipment

• The additional components have the following functions:

1.C5, C6, C7 and C8 provide additional decoupling (effective at high

frequencies) in order to prevent instability in IC1 and IC2. Without these
components, and depending upon circuit layout (stray reactances) the
regulator circuits may oscillate at a high frequency.

2. C9 and C10 provide additional high-frequency decoupling to remove

noise present on the output voltage rails.

3. C11, L1, L2, C12 and C13 provide a low-pass supply filter to remove
noise and spurious signals resulting from the harmonics of the switching
action of the diode rectifiers. This filter also reduces supply-borne noise that
would otherwise enter the equipment from the supply.

4. A low-resistance ground connection is introduced to ensure that there is

an effective connection between aircraft ground and the equipment chassis
(note that there is also an earth connection to the laminations and internal
screening on the mains transformer). 21
The frequency spectrum of a square wave

22
 Lightning & Lightning Protection

• Lightning is another potential source of interference and can even be

dangerous when encountered unexpectedly. Research in the USA showed
that lightning kills nearly one hundred people every year just in the USA and
injures hundreds more.
• Lightning tends to travel the path of least resistance and often seeks out tall
or metal objects.
• With lightning however, it is all relative, as in general, a «tall» object can be
an office block, a chimney, a golfer standing on a fairway or an aircraft's
wings and tailfm. Although there has been thousands of hours spent on
research into lightning and its affect it is still a simple fact that lightning is
unpredictable and can and does strike just about any object in its path.
• Lightning looks very pretty and can be a spectacular sight, especially on
dark nights when it lights up the sky, as shown in the following figure.
• Caution during lightning storms should be taken both indoors and out,
whether in an aircraft or not.

23
Lightning at Night

24
Lightning & Lightning Protection
• The following facts are intended to give you an idea of the power of a typical
lightning strike.
• A typical strike packs between 35,000 - 40,000 amperes of current
• A lightning strike can generate temperatures as high as 50,000°C
• A lightning strike hits somewhere on the earth every second
• Lightning can travel as far as 40 miles
• Lightning can, and does strike the same place twice
• Lightning strikes cause billions of pounds in property damage alone
each year
• Aircraft have been brought down by a single lightning strike

• Research in the USA has estimated that on average, each aeroplane in the
US commercial fleet is struck lightly by lightning more than once each year.
• This is because aircraft often trigger lightning when flying through heavily
charged regions of cloud, especially at night when they are not always
visible.
• When this happens, the lightning flash originates at the aircraft and extends
away in opposite directions. Smaller business and private aircraft do not
appear to be struck as much as commercial passenger aircraft.
25
 Lightning & Lightning Protection

• This is probably due to their smaller size and because small private aircraft
rarely fly near weather that is conducive to lightning strikes.
• The last confirmed commercial aircraft crash in the US directly attributed to
lightning occurred in 1967, when lightning caused a catastrophic fuel tank
• explosion.
• Since then, research has been done to see how lightning can affect
aeroplanes and as a result, protection techniques have improved greatly.
• Today, aircraft receive a rigorous set of lightning certification tests to verify
the safety standard of their designs before going into passenger service.

26
GAIN AND LOSS CALCULATION
• In its simplest form, an amplifier’s gain is a ratio of output over input. Like all
ratios, this form of gain is unitless. However, there is an actual unit intended
to represent gain, and it is called the bel.
• As a unit, the bel was actually devised as a convenient way to represent
power loss in telephone system wiring rather than gain in amplifiers. The
unit’s name is derived from Alexander Graham Bell, the famous Scottish
inventor whose work was instrumental in developing telephone systems.
Originally, the bel represented the amount of signal power loss due
to resistance over a standard length of electrical cable. Now, it is defined in
terms of the common (base 10) logarithm of a power ratio (output power
divided by input power):

27
GAIN AND LOSS CALCULATION
• Because the bel is a logarithmic unit, it is nonlinear. To give you an idea of how this
works, consider the following table of figures, comparing power losses and gains in
bels versus simple ratios:

28
GAIN AND LOSS CALCULATION
• It was later decided that the bel was too large of a unit to be used directly,
and so it became customary to apply the metric prefix deci (meaning 1/10)
to it, making it decibels, or dB.

• Now, the expression “dB” is so common that many people do not realize it is
a combination of “deci-” and “-bel,” or that there even is such a unit as the
“bel.” To put this into perspective, here is another table contrasting power
gain/loss ratios against decibels:

29
GAIN AND LOSS CALCULATION

30
GAIN AND LOSS CALCULATION

• Decibels (dB) are a convenient way of expressing gain (amplification) and

loss (attenuation) in electronic circuits
• The decibel is defined as the logarithm, to the base 10, of the ratio of output
power (Pout) to input power (Pin)
• Gain and loss may be expressed in terms of power, voltage and current:

Pout Vout I out

Apower = , Avoltage =  Acurrent =
Pin Vin I in

31
• The powers, voltages or currents should be expressed in the same units/multiples
• For example, Pin and Pout should both be expressed in W, mW, μW or nW
• It is often more convenient to express gain in decibels using the following
relationships:

P 
Apower = 10 log10  out  • A positive result will be obtained when
 Pin 
V 
Avoltage = 20 log10  out  Pout  Pin or Vout  Vin or I out  Iin
 Vin 
 I out  • For vice versa, a negative result (attenuation or
Acurrent = 20 log10  
 in 
I loss) will be obtained!

28.12.2024 32
Key point: Decibels

• For identical decibel values, the values of voltage and current gain can be
found by taking the square root of the value of power gain
• As an example,
– A voltage gain of 20 dB results from a voltage ratio of 10
– A power gain of 20 dB corresponds to a power ratio of 100

• Also, a positive result will be obtained when

Pout  Pin or Vout  Vin or I out  Iin

• For vice versa, a negative result will be obtained!

28.12.2024 33
Key point: Decibels

Example:
• An amplifier with matched input and output resistances provides an output
voltage of 1 V for an input of 25 mV.
Express the voltage gain of the amplifier in decibels.

V 
Avoltage = 20 log  out 
 Vin 
 1V 
= 20 log  −3 
 25 10 V 
= 20 log ( 40 )
= 32dB

28.12.2024 34
Key point: Decibels

Example:
• An audio amplifier provides a power gain of 33 dB.
What output power will be produced if an input of 2 mW is applied?

P 
Apower = 10 log  out 
 Pin 
 Pout 
33 = 10 log  −3 
 2  10 W 
33
−3
Pout = 2 10 W 10 10

Pout = 1.995 10−3  2 10 −3

Pout = 4W

28.12.2024 35
Key point: dBm

28.12.2024 36
SPECTRUM ANALYSIS

• Accurate EMC measurements involve the use of a specialised instrument

known as a spectrum analyser.
• Such instruments display signal level (amplitude) against frequency.
• The complete block diagram of a modern spectrum analyser is shown in the
following Figure.
• The radio frequency (RF) input signal is fed to a relay switched
preamp/attenuator section that provides a maximum of 50 dB attenuation or
up to 10 dB of gain.
• The signal then passes through a low-pass filter into a wideband mixer,
where it is mixed with the 1.5–2.5 GHz local oscillator signal to give an
intermediate frequency (IF) output at 1.5 GHz.
• The tuning/sweep voltage is fed through a linearising amplifier which
compensates for the oscillator’s non-linear tuning characteristic.
• The tuning input is 0 V at zero input frequency, up to +5 V at 1,000MHz
input frequency.
• This represents a tuning characteristic equivalent to 200MHz/V.

37
Block diagram of a spectrum analyser

38
 Amplitude Axis

Frequency Axis

Time Axis

Time Domain versus Frequency Domain Measurment

39
Typical Oscilloscope Display
Typical Spectrum Analyzer Display
 SPECTRUM ANALYSIS
• The signal from the first mixer is then amplified by the first IF amplifier and
then filtered by a four-stage band pass 1,500 MHz cavity filter.
• The output of the filter is then coupled into the second mixer, where it is
mixed with the output of the second local oscillator to give the second IF
output at 10.7 MHz.
• The second local oscillator is tuned to 10.7 MHz below the first IF
(Intermediate Frequency) (i.e. approximately 1,490 MHz).
• Next, the 10.7 MHz IF signal is fed to a wideband amplifier. In ‘wideband
mode’ the IF signal is passed to a logarithmic amplifier.
• The output of the wideband amplifier also feeds the 120 kHz filter/amplifier
stages.
• The combined affect of a total of three ceramic filters provides the required
filter shape.
• The output of the 120 kHz filter stage also feeds the 9 kHz filter stages.
• The logarithmic amplifier consists of an initial stage followed by two 30 dB
gain-limiting amplifiers.
• Audio signal monitoring is provided by means of a conventional audio
amplifier. The input of this stage can be taken from the FM detector or from
the logarithmic amplifier when AM demodulation is required.
42
 SPECTRUM ANALYSIS
• An 8-bit Z80 microprocessor carries out the main digital signal processing
and also generates the digital video signals that are fed to the display
circuitry.
• The digital system’s master clock operates at 8 MHz, which is then divided
by two to provide the Z80’s clock input.
• Further division of the master clock provides the display system’s line
frequency (31.25 kHz) as well as the frame signal (60 Hz) and a further 30
Hz control signal.
• The Z80 CPU operates in conjunction with an 8K EPROM containing the
control software and a 2K RAM that stores the video and calibration data.
• In order to retain the calibration data when the unit is switched off, the RAM
is backed up by a long-life lithium battery.

43
 SPECTRUM ANALYSIS
• An internal 50 MHz crystal calibrator (using a third overtone crystal) is used
to provide calibration at harmonics up to 1 GHz.
• The fundamental output of this stage is set accurately to a level of –20 dBm.
• A typical display produced by the analyser is shown in the following Figure.
• The vertical scale shows amplitude in dBm (decibels relative to 1 mW) over
the range –100 dBm to +10 dBm, while the horizontal scale shows
frequency (in MHz) over the range 0.1 MHz to 1,000 MHz.
• The signal under investigation appears as a series of lines (i.e. a line
spectrum). In order to provide a means of accurately measuring the
amplitude and frequency of individual signal components, the spectrum
analyser display has two cursors; one for amplitude and one for frequency.
• The measured signal component in the following Figure has an amplitude of
–26 dBm and a frequency of 121 MHz (note that modern instruments
invariably provide separate digital displays of the cursor settings).

44
Spectrum analyser display

45
 SPECTRUM ANALYSIS

• The measurement range provided by the spectrum analyser amounts to a

total of 110 dB, but the ultimate sensitivity of the instrument is determined
by the noise produced in the instrument itself.
• This is usually referred to as the instrument’s noise floor (see the following
Figure).
• In this case the noise floor (with no signal connected) is at a level of about –
95 dB (less than 1 picowatt).

46
Measurement range

47
 SPECTRUM ANALYSIS

• Note that modern instruments typically have noise floors of between –95 dB
and –110 dB.

• The following Figure shows how the spectrum analyser displays a fairly
simple complex waveform comprising a fundamental component at 250
MHz with a level of –20 dBm, a second harmonic at 500 MHz with a level of
–60 dBm, and a third harmonic at 750 MHz with a level of –90 dBm.

• Note that any other harmonic components that may be present have a level
that is below the instrument’s noise floor (i.e. they must have signal levels of
less than –95 dBm).

48
Fundamental and harmonics
49
 SPECTRUM ANALYSIS

• The display of a more complex signal is shown in the following Figure.

• Here, there are two signals – one modulated by the other – together with a
number of side frequency components and harmonics.
• The waveform has the following components:

• a fundamental component at 50 MHz with a level of –5 dBm;

• a higher frequency fundamental at 450 MHz with a level of –20 dB
modulated by the 50 MHz signal;
• a first pair of side frequency components at 400 MHz and 500 MHz with
levels of –40 dBm and –45 dBm, respectively;
• a second pair of side frequency components at 350 MHz and 550 MHz,
with levels of –60 dBm and –75 dBm, respectively;
• a third pair of side frequency components at 300 MHz and 600 MHz with
levels of –85 dBm and –93 dBm, respectively;
• a second harmonic of the 50 MHz fundamental at 100 MHz with a level of
–70 dBm.

50
Modulated signal components
51
 SPECTRUM ANALYSIS

• A signal with noise sidebands is shown in the following Figure.

• Since noise is essentially a randomly distributed waveform (in terms of
frequency) it appears as a blurred area (like the noise floor itself) rather than
as a line spectrum.
• This diagram shows how the noise spreads out either side of the
fundamental at 450 MHz.
• The second harmonic of the fundamental (at 900 MHz) is also just
discernible above the noise.
• Next Figures, respectively, show the appearance of low- and high-frequency
noise. In the first case, the noise reaches a broad peak at about 10 MHz,
and in the latter it reaches a peak at about 900 MHz.

52
Noise sidebands
53
Low-frequency noise

54
 Frequency bands

• For convenience the complete frequency spectrum is divided into a number

of bands.These bands are often referred to when describing the effects of
particular types of EMI, and they are shown in Table.

55
 Types of interference

• EMI can be categorised by bandwidth, amplitude, waveform and

occurrence.The bandwidth of interference is the frequency range in which
the interference exists.
• The interference bandwidth can be narrow or broad.
• Narrowband interference can be caused by such items as AC power rails,
microprocessor clocks (and their harmonics), radio transmitters and
receivers.
• These items of equipment all contain sources (e.g. clock oscillators) that
work on specific frequencies.
• These signals (along with unwanted harmonics) can be radiated at low
levels from the equipment.
• Broadband interference is caused by devices generating random
frequencies and noise which may be repetitive but is not confined to a
single frequency or range of frequencies.
• Examples of this type of interference are power supplies, LCD and AMLCD
(by virtue of their high-frequency AC supplies), switchedmode power
supplies, switching power controllers and microprocessor bus systems.

56
 Types of interference

• Interference amplitude is the strength of the signal received by the

susceptible system.
• The amplitude can be constant or can vary predictably with time, or can be
totally random.
• For example, a 115 V AC power line can induce a stable sinusoidal
waveform on
• adjacent 28 V DC power or signal lines.
• The amplitude of the interference will depend on the load current in the AC
power line (recall that the magnetic field produced around a conductor is
directly proportional to the current flowing in the conductor).
• Examples of random interference are environmental noise and inductive
switching transients.
• Environmental noise is the aggregate of all electromagnetic emissions
present in a particular space or area of concern at any one time.This is
usually measured over a defined spectrum (e.g. 30 kHz to 30 MHz).

57
 Types of interference

• It is important to be aware that there is no one specific waveform that

produces electromagnetic interference.
• Instead, it is the change from one signal level to another in conjunction with
the rate at which it changes that determines the amount of electromagnetic
energy released.
• More energy is released when the change in signal level and rate is
increased.
• The occurrence of EMI can be categorised as being either periodic
(continuously repetitive), aperiodic (predictable but not continuous), or
random (totally unpredictable).

58
 EMI reduction

• Planning for electromagnetic compatibility must be initiated in the design

phase of a device or system .
• If this is not satisfactorily achieved, interference problems may arise.
• The three factors necessary to produce an EMI problem are a noise source
(see the following Figure), a means of coupling (by conduction or radiation)
and a susceptible receiver.
• To reduce the effects of EMI, at least one of these factors must be
addressed.
• The following lists techniques for EMI reduction under these three headings
(note that some techniques address more than one factor):

59
Transient switching pulses appearing on the output of a DC power supply without
adequate supply filtering. Note that the AC ripple is 20 mV peak–peak while the
noise spikes are up to five times this value. The noise spikes can be virtually
eliminated by adding a supply filter. 60
 EMI reduction
1. Suppress interference at source.
• Enclose interference source in a screened metal enclosure and then ensure
that the enclosure is adequately grounded.
• Use transient suppression on relays, switches and contactors.
• Twist and/or shield bus wires and data bus connections.
• Use screened (i.e. coaxial) cables for audio and radio frequency signals.
• Keep pulse rise times as slow and long as possible.
• Check that enclosures, racks and other supporting structures are grounded
effectively.
2. Reduce noise coupling.
• Separate power leads from interconnecting signal wires.
• Twist and/or shield noisy wires and data bus connections.
• Fit an optical fibre data bus where possible.
• Use screened (i.e. coaxial) cables for audio and radio frequency signals.
• Keep ground leads as short as possible.
• Break interference ground loops by incorporating isolation transformers,
differential amplifiers and balanced circuits.
• Filter noisy output leads.
• Physically relocate receivers and sensitive equipment away from interference 61
source.
 EMI reduction
3. Increasing susceptibility thresholds.
• Limit bandwidth to only that which is strictly necessary.
• Limit gain and sensitivity to only that which is strictly necessary.
• Ensure that enclosures are grounded and that internal screens are fitted.
• Fit components that are inherently less susceptible to the effect of stray
radiated fields.

62
AIRCRAFT WIRING AND CABLING

• When many potential sources of EMI are present in a confined space,

aircraft wiring and cabling has a crucial role to play in maintaining
electromagnetic compatibility.

• The following points should be observed:

1. Adequate wire separation should be maintained between noise source

wiring and susceptible wiring (for example, ADF wiring should be
strategically routed in the aircraft to ensure a high level of EMC).

2. Any changes to the routing of this wiring could have an adverse affect on
the system. In addition, the wire separation requirements for all wire
categories must be maintained.

3. Wire lengths should be kept as short as possible to keep coupling at a

minimum. Where wire shielding is incorporated for lightning protection, it is
important that the shield grounds (pigtails) be kept to their designed length.
An inch or two added to the length will result in degraded lightning
protection.
63
AIRCRAFT WIRING AND CABLING

4. Equipment grounds must not be lengthened beyond design specification.

A circuit ground with too much impedance may no longer be a true ground.

5. With the aid of the technical manuals, grounding and bonding integrity
must be maintained. This includes proper preparation of the surfaces where
electrical bonding is made.

64
 GROUNDING AND BONDING

• The electrical integrity of the aircraft structure is extremely important as a

means of reducing EMI and also protecting the aircraft, its passengers, crew
and systems from the effects of lightning strikes and static discharge.
Grounding and bonding are specific techniques that are used to achieve this
(see the following Figure).

• Grounding and bonding can also be instrumental in minimising the effects of

high-intensity radio frequency fields (HIRF) emanating from highpower radio
transmitters and radar equipment.

• Grounding and bonding resistances of less than 0.001–0.003Ω are usually

required.

65
Bonding straps

66
Grounding

• Grounding is defined as the process of electrically connecting conductive

objects to either a conductive structure or some other conductive return
path for the purpose of safely completing either a normal or fault circuit.
Bonding and grounding connections are made in an aircraft in order to
accomplish the following:

• protect aircraft, crew and passengers against the effects of lightning

discharge;

• provide return paths for current;

• prevent the development of RF voltages and currents;

• protect personnel from shock hazards;

• maintain an effective radio transmission and reception capability;

• prevent accumulation of static charge.

67
 Grounding
• The following general procedures and precautions apply when making
bonding or grounding connections:

• bond or ground parts to the primary aircraft structure where possible;

• make bonding or grounding connections so that no part of the aircraft

structure is weakened;

• bond parts individually if feasible;

• install bonding or grounding connections against smooth, clean surfaces;

• install bonding or grounding connections so that vibration, expansion or

contraction, or relative movement in normal service, will not break or loosen
the connection;

• check the integrity and effectiveness of a bonded or grounded connection

using an approved bonding tester.
68
 Bonding
• Bonding refers to the electrical connecting of two or more conducting
objects that are not otherwise adequately connected.The main types of
bonding are:

• Equipment bonding: low-impedance paths to the aircraft structure are

generally required for electronic equipment to provide radio frequency
return circuits and to facilitate reduction in EMI.

• Metallic surface bonding: all conducting objects located on the exterior of

the airframe should be electrically connected to the airframe through
mechanical joints, conductive hinges or bond straps, which are capable of
conducting static charges and lightning strikes.

• Static bonds. All isolated conducting paths inside and outside the aircraft
with an area greater than three square inches and a linear dimension over
three inches that are subjected to electrostatic charging should have a
mechanically secure electrical connection to the aircraft structure of
adequate conductivity to dissipate possible static charges.

69
 Bonding
• One of the major hazards with poor bonding is the possibility of discharges
occurring as a result of potential differences between the separate parts that
make up an aircraft.
• Therefore, it is essential to incorporate a system that will form a continuous
low resistance link between all aircraft components.
• In doing so, the bonding must:

• Limit the potential difference between all components

• Eliminate fire risks through sparking and arcing
• Carry any large voltages caused by transients or lightning away from
components to the aircraft's extremities for dispersing to the atmosphere
• Reduce radio interference
• Prevent the possibility of static electric shock
• When talking about the aircraft as a whole, or any major part of its
assembly, this is called a bonding system that overlaps the existing
earthing system.
• Major assemblies, such as the aircraft's control surfaces create the
necessary continuous link by incorporating metal strip conductors,
illustrated in the following Figure, that maintain contact with the aircraft
structure. 70
Typical Bonding Methods

71
Typical Bonding Methods
72
 Bonding

• The arrangements in 1 and 2 in the Figure show the method used between
components that move.

• Arrangement 3 shows the bonding method used for pipes that have non-
metallic couplings, while arrangement 4 illustrates the method of bonding
major structural components such as at the wing/ fuselage mating.

• Arrangement 5 shows the bonding method used at bulkheads with flexible

couplings, while the final arrangement 6 illustrates the method usedfor
equipment supported on anti-vibration shock mounts.

73
Static Protection
• As discussed previously, static build-up can occur when any two objects rub
together. Consequently, when an aircraft suffers friction with air molecules
as it flies along, static can build up on its surfaces.
• This friction causes a build-up of negative charge caused by an excess of
electrons on the aircrafts skin.
• With the skin of the airplane charged up with electrons, the difference in
charge between it and the surrounding air mass could become so great that
there is a discharge, known as a Corona, of this excess back into the
atmosphere.
• Each time this discharge occurs it creates an electromagnetic wave that can
interfere with the aircrafts sys tems, and its antennas. The associated
discharges can take place at a wide variety of frequencies in the range of
10kHz to 350MHZ, well within the operating frequency range of most of the
aircrafts, and have associated voltage levels with an intensity of 2 to 10 mA.
• In a properly bonded structure, these excess charges tend to gather around
the aircraft's extremities or at any sharp edges on the fuselage.
• This typically means that they are at their greatest potential at the wing and
tail plane trailing edges and at the outboard ends of all of the control
surfaces. To overcome this, the aircraft is fitted with Static Wicks that are
bonded to these areas and these create multiple paths for any static
charges to follow back into the atmosphere, (see the following Figure). 74
Typical Static Wick Arrangement
75
Static Protection
• Many modern dischargers, as shown above, consists of tapered glass fibre
rods which give mechanical support.
• This glass fibre is rendered conductive by a coating of material having a
high electrical resistivity to provide a path back from the discharge tip
assembly. The conductive coating is protected by a bake-on synthetic finish
and in some types is further protected by a heatshrunk sheath of Skydrol -
resistant plastics.
• These static wicks act as conduits for the electrons to travel through from
the airframe to the surrounding air.
• By connecting the aircraft end of the wicks to the aircraft's earthing system,
the flow of electrons to the surrounding air is enhanced even further,
allowing the static build-up to dissipate without troublesome radio
interference being created in the process.
• Wedge type dischargers are installed along the wing and tail outboard tips.

76
Static Protection
• Some static wicks have a central 'plug' on their end that will 'blow out' under
heavy static discharge to indicate that they need replacing.
• Static Wicks should be checked in accordance with procedures detailed in
the relevant maintenance manual. In addition the following points should be
observed.
• The efficient operation of the dischargers depends on a good electrical
contact between the base of the wick and the aircraft. The resistance
between the base and the aircraft, should in general not exceed 0.05 ohms.
• However, provided there is no static interference with the radio systems, a
resistance not exceeding 0.1 ohms may be acceptable.
• If the discharger exceeds the acceptable limit, they must be removed and
the contact surfaces must be cleaned.
• Where dischargers of the tapered glass-fibre rod are fitted, the condition of
the
• resistive coating between the base and tip, and of the Skydrol resistance
plastics, should be checked for physical continuity particularly at the base
and tip joints.
• The electrical resistance between the base and tip should be within the
limits specified by the manufacturer for the type of discharger. Typically,
values between 8 and 100 Mohms are acceptable for trailing edge
dischargers and 5 to 60 Mohms for tip-mounted dischargers. 77
Static Protection

• As mentioned, in several of the 'new technology aircraft, e.g. Boeing 777

and Airbus A340, non-metallic composite materials are used in major
structural areas, reducing the effectiveness of shielding the aircraft from
lightning strike and other electrical noise.

• Since the operation of these aircraft and their systems relies more on
computing techniques, especially the new sophisticated, high-tech seats,
bonding, earthing and shielding system is even more important. Indeed,
ever more tests are being introduced into an aircrafts maintenance schedule
to establish this condition.

78
 Maintenance Practices

• The initial protection against voltage transients caused by lightning strikes

and HIRF's is provided by the aircraft manufacturer.
• These should last for the life of the aircraft.
• However, for systems to be fully protected, it is up to the maintenance
engineer to adhere to good maintenance practices at all times.
• To ensure the continuing safety of the aircraft:

• Bonding checks must be correctly carried out.

• Bonding terminals must be correctly torque loaded.

• Crimping compounds must be used where specified.

• Screens must be correctly terminated and earthed.

79
 Maintenance Practices

• The First step in aircraft maintenance is almost always a visual inspection

for damage and corrosion.
• In many cases a visual inspection may be sufficient in detecting
deterioration of a HIRF protection feature.
• However when the protection integrity standards cannot be assured
sufficiently by such simple measures then specific testing may be
necessary.
• The test techniques which may be performed m an airline maintenance
envtronment are:

• DC resistance tests

• Low frequency loop impedance tests

80
 DC Resistance

• A milliohm-meter is often used to measure the ground path resistance of

ground straps or bonding. However this technique is limited is normally only
used to test single path resistance values, such as bonding straps.

81
 Low Frequency Loop Impedancer
• Low frequency loop impedance testing is a useful method complementary to
DC bonding testing.
• A visual inspection of cable bundle shields, supplemented by a low
frequency loop impedance test, gives a good indicator of the integrity of the
aircraft shielding.
• Low frequency loop impedance testing is a method developed to check that
adequate bonding exists between over braid (conduit) shields and the
aircraft structure.
• To achieve the required shielding performance, it is often necessary that
both ends of a cable bundle shield be bonded to aircraft structure.
• When this is the case it is hard to check bonding integrity using the DC
bonding test method.
• If the bond between shield and structure at one end is degraded while the
other one is still good, there is little chance to find this defect by performing
DC bonding measurements.
• The remaining good bond still ensures a low resistance to ground but the
current loop through the shield is interrupted, causing a degradation of the
shielding performance.
• The fault can easily be detected by performing a low frequency loop
impedance test. 82
 Low Frequency Loop Impedancer
• The test equipment consists of an AC Voltage Generator operating at 1 kHz
feeding an injection probe and a current monitoring probe, connected to an
AC millivoltmeter, in the below Figure.
• The probes are clamp on current transformers so the cable conduit does not
have to be disturbed.
• A voltmeter connected to the generator measures the voltage necessary to
drive the current.
• If the loop under test is bonded correctly then the impedance will be low;
normally in the range of 1-100 milliohms.
• If the generator output is set to produce a current of 1A, the voltage figure,
when expressed in millivolts, gives the loop impedance in milliohms directly.
• Remember Ohms Law from Module 3, V=IR, therefore if the current (I) is
lamp then the resistance (R) and voltage (V) must be of the same value.
• Impedance is the opposition to current flow in an AC circuit, so in this case
Ohms Law still applies.

83
Low Frequency Loop Impedance Testing 84
 IMPORTANT POINTS

• Initial control of EMI is achieved in modern aircraft

by careful design and rigorous testing. Routine
maintenance helps to ensure the aircraft retains
electromagnetic compatibility, thereby keeping EMI
problems to a minimum.

• Effective grounding and bonding provide a means of

ensuring the electrical integrity of the aircraft
structure as well as minimising the effects of HIRF
fields and the hazards associated with lightning and
static discharge.

85