UNIT 1

Q1. Define Quaternions. Explain addition and subtraction of two Quaternions.

Quaternions are a number system that extends complex numbers, used to represent rotations in 3D space. A
quaternion is typically written as:
q = w + xi + yj + zk
Where:
● w is the scalar part (real number).
● xi, yj, zk, are the vector parts, with i,j,k being the imaginary units.
In essence, quaternions consist of four components: one real part (w) and three imaginary parts (x,y,z). Unlike
matrices, quaternions are more computationally efficient and free from gimbal lock issues, making them ideal
for representing 3D rotations in applications such as computer graphics, robotics, and physics simulations.
Properties of Quaternions:
● They are associative, but not commutative.
● They can be used to rotate vectors in 3D.
● A unit quaternion (where the magnitude is 1) represents a pure rotation.
Addition and Subtraction of Quaternions
Quaternions are added and subtracted component-wise, similar to how vectors or complex numbers are
manipulated.
Addition:
The sum of two quaternions is simply:

This is a straightforward element-wise addition of the real and imaginary components.

1. Subtraction:
Similarly, the difference between two quaternions is:

This is element-wise subtraction of the corresponding components.

Both addition and subtraction of quaternions are simple operations that result in a new quaternion, and they
follow the same rules as vector addition and subtraction. However, when it comes to quaternion multiplication
(used for rotations), the process is more complex and non-commutative.

Q2. What is 3D transformation? State and explain scaling and reflection

3-D Transformation: In very general terms a 3D model is a mathematical representation of a physical entity
that occupies space. In more practical terms, a 3D model is made of a description of its shape and a
description of its color appearance.3-D Transformation is the process of manipulating the view of a three-D
object with respect to its original position by modifying its physical attributes through various methods of
transformation like Translation, Scaling, Rotation, Shear, etc.
Properties of 3-D Transformation:
● Lines are preserved,
● Parallelism is preserved,
● Proportional distances are preserved.
Boundary-based: the surface of the 3D object is represented. Polygon meshes, implicit surfaces, and
parametric surfaces, which we will describe in the following, are common representations of this type.
Volume-based: the volume of the 3D object is represented.
Types of Transformations:
1. Translation 2. Scaling 3. Rotation 4. Shear 5. Reflection
Scaling
Scaling is a transformation that changes the size of an object by stretching or shrinking it along the x, y, and z
axes. It can be uniform (the same scale factor applied to all axes) or non-uniform (different scale factors
applied to each axis).
Scaling matrix for a 3D object is given as:
Reflection
Reflection is a transformation that creates a mirror image of an object relative to a given plane. The most
common planes used for reflection are the xy-plane, yz-plane, and zx-plane.
● Reflection matrices for 3D space:
1. Reflection about the xy-plane (flipping the object across the xy-plane):
Q3. What is transformation? State and explain the concept of translation in 2D and 3D.
Transformation refers to operations that change the position, orientation, or size of objects in a given space. In
computer graphics, transformations are used to move, rotate, scale, or otherwise manipulate objects in a
scene.
Translation is the process of moving an object to a different position on a screen in 2D and 3D. The key
difference is that in 3D, the object can be moved along the x, y, or z axis.

It is a type of transformation that moves an object from one location to another without altering its shape,
size, or orientation. It shifts all points of an object by the same distance in a given direction.
Translation in 2D
In 2D translation, an object is moved along the x and y axes.
● Translation matrix for 2D space:

Where:
● txt is the translation along the x-axis.
● ty is the translation along the y-axis.
Translation in 3D
In 3D translation, an object is moved along the x, y, and z axes.
Translation matrix for 3D space:
Where:
● tx is the translation along the x-axis.
● ty is the translation along the y-axis.
● tz is the translation along the z-axis.
Shear transformation:
A transformation that slants the shape of an object. In 3D, an object can be sheared along the X-axis, Y-axis, or
Z-axis
Applications of Translation
2D Translation: Moving a character or object across the screen in a 2D game.
3D Translation: Shifting objects in a 3D modeling environment or moving the camera in a 3D scene.
Translation is one of the simplest and most common transformations in graphics, often combined with other
transformations like rotation and scaling to create complex motion and positioning.

Q4. Write a note on perspective projection.

In Perspective Projection the center of projection is at finite distance from projection plane. This projection
produces realistic views but does not preserve relative proportions of an object dimensions.
Projections of distant object are smaller than projections of objects of same size that are closer to projection
plane. The perspective projection can be easily described by the following figure:
 1. Center of Projection – It is a point where lines or projection that are not parallel to projection plane
appear to meet.
2. View Plane or Projection Plane – The view plane is determined by :
● View reference point R0(x0, y0, z0)
● View plane normal.

Types of Perspective Projection

1. One-Point Perspective:
o Only one vanishing point is present.

o Typically used for scenes where objects are viewed head-on (e.g., looking down a hallway).
2. Two-Point Perspective:
o Two vanishing points are used.

o Commonly used for objects viewed from an angle, where both the horizontal and vertical lines
of the object converge towards two separate vanishing points.
3. Three-Point Perspective:
o Three vanishing points are used (one for horizontal, one for vertical, and one for depth).

o This method is used when the object is viewed from a high or low angle, creating a more
dynamic sense of space.

Applications of Perspective Projection

● 3D Computer Graphics: Perspective projection is used to render 3D objects onto a 2D screen, making
the scene look realistic by simulating depth.
● Photography: Lenses are designed to create perspective projections. Photographers adjust focal length
to manipulate perspective in their images.

Q5. Explain in detail the different 2D transformations.

In 2D graphics, transformations are used to modify the position, orientation, and size of shapes or images.
These transformations are mathematically represented using matrices, which allow the transformations to be
easily applied and combined. The most common 2D transformations include translation, rotation, scaling,
shearing, and reflection.
Some common 2D transformations include:

● Rotation: Rotates an object around an origin. A positive rotation angle is counterclockwise.

● Scaling: Changes the size of an object by multiplying the points of the object by a scaling factor. If the
scaling factor is greater than 1, the object is enlarged. If the scaling factor is less than 1, the object is
compressed.

● Translation: Moves an object.

 ● Mirroring: Reflects a point around the coordinate axes.
● Shearing: A scaling operation that depends on the coordinate on another axis.
● Projection: Projects a point onto an axis.

2D transformations can be combined in a sequence to create more complex effects. For example, a
combination of translation, rotation, and scaling can animate an object's movement, rotation, and resizing.
Q6. write a short note on direction cosines.
Direction cosines are the cosines of the angles that a vector makes with the positive directions of the
coordinate axes. They are important in various fields, such as physics and engineering, to describe the
orientation of a vector in 3D space.

.
Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios of a Line
Let’s assume a line OA that is passing through the origin and makes angles α, β, and γ with x, y, and z-axis
respectively, called direction angles. The cosines of these angles cos(α), cos(β), and cos(γ) are called directional
cosines of the directed line OA. The figure given below shows the line OA passing through the origin and all the
angles it makes with the coordinate axes.

Applications of Direction Cosines

1. Navigation and Physics: Direction cosines are used in navigation, mechanics, and kinematics to
describe the orientation of vectors like velocity, force, and displacement.
2. 3D Computer Graphics: In 3D graphics, direction cosines are used to calculate angles of orientation for
transformations and lighting calculations.
Q.7 Write a short note on theorem of Pythagoras in 2D and 3D.
Pythagoras' Theorem is a fundamental principle in geometry that relates the lengths of the sides of a
right-angled triangle. It has significant applications in 2D and 3D geometry.
Pythagoras' Theorem in 2D
In a 2D plane, Pythagoras' Theorem states that in a right-angled triangle, the square of the length of the
hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the other
two sides.
● For a right triangle with sides a, b, and hypotenuse c: (write)

Pythagoras' Theorem in 3D
In 3D space, Pythagoras' Theorem can be extended to find the distance between two points or the length of
the diagonal in a rectangular cuboid. For a right-angled triangle in 3D, the square of the length of the diagonal
(or hypotenuse) is equal to the sum of the squares of the three perpendicular sides.
● For a cuboid with sides a, b, and c, the diagonal d is: (write)
Applications of Pythagoras' Theorem
1. Distance Calculation: Pythagoras' Theorem is used to calculate the distance between two points in
both 2D and 3D space.
2. Computer Graphics: In 3D modeling and rendering, it helps calculate distances, lengths, and angles for
object placement, camera movements, and collision detection.

Q8. Explain how dot product is used in calculation of back face detection.
Answer in assignment ( learn diagram)

Q9. Explain in brief the situation which leads to gimbal lock.

Gimbal lock is a phenomenon that occurs in 3D rotations when using certain systems of representation,
particularly Euler angles. It results in the loss of one degree of freedom in a three-dimensional space, which
can lead to unintended rotations and orientations when manipulating objects or camera views in 3D graphics
and simulations.
Understanding Gimbal Lock
To understand gimbal lock, let's first explore how rotations work using gimbals:
● A gimbal system consists of three rings, each mounted on the previous one, allowing an object to
rotate freely in three-dimensional space.
● Each ring corresponds to one of the three axes (x, y, and z). The innermost ring is typically attached to
the object, while the outer rings provide the rotation axes.

Rotational Representation:

● When using Euler angles (pitch, yaw, roll) to describe rotations, these angles are applied sequentially.
For example:
o Pitch: Rotation about the x-axis.
o Yaw: Rotation about the y-axis.
o Roll: Rotation about the z-axis.

Gimbal Lock Situation:

● Gimbal lock occurs when two of the three rotation axes become aligned, causing the loss of one degree
of freedom.
● For example, if the pitch is rotated by 90 degrees, the yaw and roll axes may align, making it impossible
to rotate around one of those axes independently.
● This results in a situation where you cannot achieve certain orientations that would normally be
possible, leading to unexpected behavior in the object's rotation.

Implications of Gimbal Lock

● 3D Animation and Modeling: Animators may find it challenging to achieve certain rotations, leading to
jittery or unintended motion.
● Game Development: When using Euler angles for camera or character rotations, gimbal lock can hinder
smooth transitions and control.
● Robotics: In robotics and motion control, gimbal lock can lead to control issues and instability in
movement.

Q10. Explain in detail Dot or Scalar product with suitable example.

Answer in assignment (learn diagram).

Q12. What is GPU? Why do we need GPU? How GPU is different from CPU.
A Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) is a specialized hardware component designed to accelerate the rendering
of images, animations, and video for the computer screen.
Parallel Processing:
● GPUs are designed to perform many calculations simultaneously (parallel processing), making them
highly efficient for handling large volumes of data. This is particularly useful in graphics rendering,
where thousands of pixels need to be processed at once.
Graphics Rendering:
● GPUs handle the complex calculations required for rendering images, such as shading, texturing, and
transforming 3D models into 2D images. This offloads the computational burden from the CPU,
allowing for smoother performance in graphical applications.
Real-time Processing:
● In applications like video games, GPUs allow for real-time rendering of high-quality graphics, which
enhances the overall user experience.

Feature CPU GPU

Purpose General-purpose processing Specialized for graphics and parallel tasks

Few cores optimized for sequential

Cores Many cores optimized for parallel processing
processing

Architecture Designed for low-latency tasks Designed for high-throughput tasks

Memory Larger cache, optimized for fast access High bandwidth memory for fast data throughput

Handles complex logic and control Handles massive amounts of data in parallel, ideal
Task Handling
tasks for rendering

Power
Typically lower in idle state Can be higher under load due to parallel processing
Consumption
Applications of GPUs
1. Gaming:
o GPUs are vital for rendering high-quality graphics in video games, providing smooth frame rates
and realistic visuals.
2. Video Editing:
o GPUs accelerate video processing, enabling real-time editing and effects rendering.

Q13. Explain Ambient, diffuse and specular lights in detail

Ambient Light
Definition
Ambient light is the soft, diffused illumination present in a scene. It is not emitted from any specific light
source but rather represents the indirect lighting that occurs when light bounces off walls, ceilings, and other
surfaces in an environment. Ambient light helps to illuminate all parts of a scene equally, preventing overly
dark areas.
Assume you are standing on a road, facing a building with glass exterior and sun rays are falling on that
building reflecting back from it and the falling on the object under observation. This would be Ambient
Illumination. In simple words, Ambient Illumination is the one where source of light is indirect.

Diffuse Light
Definition
Diffuse light is the type of light that scatters uniformly in all directions when it strikes a rough surface. Unlike
ambient light, diffuse light interacts with the surface material to produce color and brightness based on the
angle of incidence.
Diffuse reflection occurs on the surfaces which are rough or grainy. In this reflection the brightness of a point
depends upon the angle made by the light source and the surface.
Specular Light
Definition
When light falls on any shiny or glossy surface most of it is reflected back, such reflection is known as Specular
Reflection. Phong Model is an empirical model for Specular Reflection which provides us with the formula for
calculation the reflected intensity

Q14. Explain 2D reflection and 2D shearing

2D reflection is a geometric transformation that produces a mirror image of an object across a specified line
(or axis). The most common axes for reflection are the X-axis and the Y-axis, but reflections can also occur
across any arbitrary line.
Types of Reflection
Applications
● Creating mirror effects in graphics.
● Symmetrical designs in graphic design and art.
● Simulation of reflective surfaces in computer games and visualizations.

2D Shearing
Shearing is a transformation that distorts the shape of an object by slanting it in a particular direction. This
transformation changes the coordinates of the points of the object according to specific shearing factors.
Applications
● Creating slanted text or graphics.
● Simulating the effect of perspective in illustrations.
● Manipulating shapes in computer graphics for various design purposes.

Q15.Explain culling and clipping in detail.

Culling
Definition
Culling is an optimization technique in computer graphics used to improve rendering efficiency by eliminating
objects or parts of objects that do not need to be drawn. This process reduces the computational workload by
ensuring that only visible elements are processed and rendered to the screen.
Frustum Culling:
This technique eliminates objects that lie outside the camera's viewing frustum (the pyramid-shaped volume
representing the visible area). The frustum is defined by the near and far clipping planes and the left, right,
top, and bottom planes. Objects outside this volume are not rendered.

● Bounding Volume: Objects can be encapsulated in bounding volumes (e.g., bounding boxes or spheres)
to perform quick checks against the frustum. If the bounding volume does not intersect with the
frustum, the object can be culled.

Clipping
Definition
Clipping is the process of constraining rendering to a defined area or region of interest. It involves removing
portions of objects that fall outside a specified boundary (known as the clip window or clip region). This
ensures that only visible parts of objects are processed and rendered.
Benefits of Clipping
● Performance Enhancement: By eliminating parts of objects outside the viewing area, clipping reduces
the number of calculations required for rendering, leading to faster performance.
● Memory Efficiency: Clipping ensures that only necessary geometry is processed, helping to manage
memory usage effectively.
Q16.Write a short note on RayTracing.
Ray tracing is a rendering technique used to create realistic images by simulating the behavior of light as it
interacts with objects in a scene. Unlike traditional rasterization methods that render images in a more direct
manner, ray tracing traces the paths of individual rays of light, allowing for complex lighting effects, shadows,
and reflections.
Ray Tracing Process
1. Ray Generation:
Rays are cast from the camera into the scene, with a primary ray
generated for each pixel to identify visible objects.
2. Intersection Tests:
Each primary ray is tested for intersections with objects in the
scene (e.g., spheres, planes). The closest intersection point
determines the visible object.
3. Shading:
At the intersection point, the color and brightness are computed using:
Ambient Light: Base color.
Diffuse Reflection: Light scattering based on the surface normal and light direction.
Specular Reflection: Highlights based on the viewer's position and light source.
4.Shadow Rays:
Rays are cast from the intersection point to each light source. If a shadow ray hits another object before
reaching the light, the point is in shadow, reducing its color contribution.
5.Reflection and Refraction Rays:
o Reflection Rays: Cast according to the surface normal to simulate reflections.
o Refraction Rays: Cast based on Snell's Law to simulate bending of light in transparent materials.
6. Recursive Ray Tracing:
For complex scenes, reflected and refracted rays may generate new rays, tracing them up to a set recursion
depth.

Q17.Explain 3D modelling and rendering engines.

3D Modelling
Definition:
3D modeling is the process of creating three-dimensional representations of objects using software.
Techniques:
1. Polygonal Modelling: Creating models using polygons, common in games.
2. NURBS Modelling: Using smooth curves and surfaces, ideal for precision.
3. Sculpting: Freeform modeling, similar to clay sculpting.
4. Procedural Modelling: Generating models using algorithms for large environments.
5. 3D Scanning: Capturing real-world objects to create 3D models.
Rendering
Definition:
Rendering converts 3D models into 2D images by simulating light and surface interactions.
Types:
1. Real-time Rendering: Fast image generation for interactive applications (e.g., video games).
2. Offline Rendering: High-quality image generation for film and animation, often using ray tracing.
3. Rasterization: Efficiently projects 3D models into 2D images, primarily for real-time use.
4. Ray Tracing: A detailed method for producing realistic images by simulating light paths.
Rendering Engines
Definition:
Rendering engines are software frameworks that facilitate the rendering process.
Popular Engines:
1. Unreal Engine: Known for photorealistic rendering in games.
2. Unity: Versatile for both 2D and 3D game development.
3. Blender: Open-source software with integrated rendering tools.
4. Autodesk Maya: Professional software for modeling and animation.
5. V-Ray: High-quality rendering engine compatible with various modeling applications.

Q18.Explain Rotation in Brief.

Definition:
Rotation is a geometric transformation that turns an object around a specified pivot point or origin. This
transformation is characterized by an angle of rotation, which defines how far the object is turned. In 2D
graphics, rotation typically occurs around the origin (0, 0), although it can be around any arbitrary point.
Matrix Representation:
In 2D, the rotation transformation can be mathematically represented using a rotation matrix. For a rotation by
an angle θ, the transformation matrix is:

Here, the cosine and sine functions determine the new coordinates of the points after rotation. When applied
to a point (x, y), this matrix calculates the new position (x', y') of the point after rotation.
Usage:
Rotation is commonly used in various applications, including animation (e.g., rotating characters or objects),
game development (e.g., turning vehicles or camera views), and simulations.

Q19.Explain Shearing in Brief.

Definition:
Shearing is a transformation that distorts the shape of an object by sliding its points in a specified direction,
resulting in a slanting effect. This transformation alters the angles between lines in the object, giving it a
skewed appearance.
Matrix Representation:
In 2D, the shearing transformation can be represented by the following matrix:
Where shx and shy are the shear factors along the x-axis and y-axis, respectively. Positive values for shx or shy
result in a shift in the corresponding direction, while negative values create a shift in the opposite direction.
Usage:
Shearing is used in various scenarios, such as creating perspective effects, simulating motion, or deforming
objects for stylized graphics

Q20.Explain Reflection in Brief.

Q21.Explain Scaling in Brief

Scaling is a transformation that changes the size of an object by enlarging or reducing its dimensions. This
transformation can be uniform (applying the same scale factor in all directions) or non-uniform (using different
scale factors along different axes).
Matrix Representation:
In 2D, scaling can be represented by the following matrix:

Where sx and sy are the scale factors along the x-axis and y-axis, respectively. A scale factor greater than 1 enlarges the
object, while a factor less than 1 reduces its size.

Q22.Explain Translation in Brief.

Translation is a transformation that moves an object from one location to another without altering its shape,
size, or orientation. It is defined by specifying the distance to move along the x and y axes.
Matrix Representation:
In 2D, translation can be represented by the following transformation matrix:

Where tx and ty​are the translation distances along the x-axis and y-axis, respectively. Applying this matrix to a
point (x, y) results in a new position (x', y').
Usage:
Translation is fundamental in graphical applications for moving objects across the screen. It is used in
animations to create motion effects, reposition elements in user interfaces, and manipulate camera views in
3D environments, enabling intuitive interactions for users.