President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports

ResearchDi est Series 4, No. 3 Sept. 2003

Youth Resistance Training

Introduction
Although boys and girls have traditionally been encouraged to participate in aerobic activities such as bicycling and swimming,
they have not always been encouraged to participate in resistance training. In recent years a growing body of evidence has
accumulated to indicate that resistance training can be a safe, effective, and beneficial method of conditioning for youth. Research
into the effects of resistance exercise on children and adolescents has increased over the past decade, and the qualified acceptance
of youth strength training by medical and fitness organizations has become almost universal. The American Academy of Pediatrics
(2001), the American College of Sports Medicine (2000), the American Orthopaedic Society of Sports Medicine (1988), and the
National Strength and Conditioning Association (Faigenbaum et al., 1996) support participation in youth resistance training
activities provided the program is appropriately designed and competently supervised.
Despite earlier concerns regarding the safety and efficacy of youth resistance training, it is now commonplace for boys and girls of
all ages and abilities to resistance train in schools, recreation centers, and sport camps to enhance their health, fitness, and athletic
performance. Regular participation in a resistance training program provides youth with an opportunity to be exposed to safe,
effective, and fun training methods that can be carried over into adulthood. The purpose of this article is to discuss the trainability
of muscular strength in youth, highlight the potential benefits and concerns associated with youth resistance training, and outline
resistance training guidelines for children and adolescents.
It must be emphasized that the term resistance training refers to a specialized method
of conditioning that involves the progressive use of a wide range of resistive loads and
a variety of training modalities (e.g., free weights [barbells and dumbbells], weight
machines, elastic cords, medicine balls, and body weight) designed to enhance muscle
Published quarterly by the function, increase muscle size, improve body composition, boost sports performance,
President’s Council on and reduce athletic injuries. While the terms resistance training, strength training, and
Physical Fitness and Sports weight training are sometimes used synonymously, the term resistance training
Washington, D.C. encompasses a broader range of training modalities and a wider variety of training
goals. The term resistance training should be distinguished from the competitive
★ sports of bodybuilding, powerlifting, and weight lifting in which individuals routinely
Guest Author: train at high intensities to maximize muscle size, strength, and power. In this paper the
Avery D. Faigenbaum, Ed.D. term children refers to boys and girls who have not yet developed secondary sex
Department of Exercise Science characteristics (approximately up to age 12) and the term adolescent includes boys
and Physical Education and girls between 13 and 18 years of age. For ease of discussion, the term youth is
University of Massachusetts defined broadly to include children and adolescents.
Boston
Trainability of Youth
★
Although the potential for adolescents to increase their muscular strength in response
Co-edited by: to resistance training is well established (Gallagher & DeLorme, 1949), the potential
Drs. Charles B. Corbin and for children to enhance their muscular strength by resistance training has been
Robert P. Pangrazi, questioned in the past (Vrijens, 1978). The prevailing attitude among some educators,
Arizona State University, and scientists, and clinicians was that training-induced strength gains before puberty were
Dr. Don Franks, not possible due to inadequate levels of circulating androgens. Even though findings
University of Maryland
from several research studies supported this contention, methodological limitations
such as a short study duration or low training volume (sets x repetitions x load) may
have influenced the results (Docherty, Wenger, Collis, & Quinney, 1987; Vrijens,
1978). Since muscular strength normally increases throughout childhood and
adolescence, perhaps a more appropriate conclusion from training will not result in at least some degree of muscle
earlier reports which questioned the trainability of youth is hypertrophy in children above and beyond growth and
that training-induced strength gains from a low volume, maturation. During adolescence, training-induced strength
short-term training program are not distinguishable from gains in boys are associated with an increase in fat free mass
gains attributable to normal growth and development. due to hormonal influences (e.g., testosterone) whereas
muscular development in girls is limited by lower levels of
Recent investigations using higher training volumes and
androgens.
longer training periods provide compelling evidence that
training-induced strength gains are indeed possible during
childhood and adolescence (see reviews by Faigenbaum et al.,
Benefits of Youth Resistance Training
1996; Falk & Tenenbaum, 1996; Guy & Micheli, 2000). A In addition to enhancing muscular strength and local
variety of training modalities and different combinations of muscular endurance, regular participation in a youth
sets and repetitions have provided an adequate stimulus for resistance training program has the potential to influence
strength enhancement in young weight trainers. Strength several measurable indices of health and fitness. Youth
gains of roughly 30% to 50% are typically observed in resistance training programs may help strengthen bone,
untrained youth following short-term (8-12 weeks) training facilitate weight control, improve one’s cardiovascular risk
programs. In general, it appears that percentage-based profile, enhance motor skills and sports performance, and
strength gains made by children and adolescents are similar reduce injuries in sports and recreational activities. The
to gains made by adults who resistance train. Observations potential benefits of youth strength training are summarized
from coaches, teachers, and health care providers provide in table 1.
additional evidence that well-designed resistance training
programs can enhance the strength of children and
adolescents beyond what is normally the result of growth and Table 1.
maturation. Potential Benefits of Youth Resistance Training

• Increase muscle strength

Mechanisms of Strength Gain
• Increase muscular power
Since children lack adequate levels of circulating androgens
to stimulate increases in muscle hypertrophy, it is believed • Increase local muscular endurance
that neural adaptations are primarily responsible for training-
• Increase bone mineral density
induced strength gains during childhood. Several researchers
reported significant gains in muscle strength in children • Increase cardiorespiratory fitness
without concomitant increases in limb circumference, as
• Improve blood lipid profile
compared with age-matched controls (Ozmun, Mikesky, &
Surburg, 1994; Ramsay et al., 1990). The observed training- • Improve body composition
induced gains in muscle strength in children have been
• Improve motor performance skills
attributed to neural adaptations including changes in motor
unit activation and motor unit coordination, recruitment and • Enhance sports performance
firing. Researchers also postulate that intrinsic muscle
• Increase resistance to injury
adaptations as well as improvements in motor skill
performance and the coordination of the involved muscle • Enhance mental health and well-being
groups could be partly responsible for training-induced
• Stimulate a more positive attitude towards lifetime
strength gains in children (Ramsay et al., 1990). In a review
physical activity
of this topic, Sale (1989) noted that untrained children may
have more difficulty activating their muscles compared to
adults and therefore may have more of a potential for an
increase in strength due to neural factors rather than as Health-related Benefits
increases due to hypertrophic factors.
Although the health benefits of youth resistance training
It is possible, however, that longer training programs (> 5 have not been unequivocally established, a growing body of
months), higher training volumes and more precise measure evidence suggests that appropriately prescribed and
techniques (e.g., computerized imaging) may uncover the competently supervised resistance training programs may
potential for training-induced gains in muscle hypertrophy in have observable health value for boys and girls. Along with
children. In fact, two reports involving children have other types of physical activity, regular participation in
challenged the suggestion that training-induced gains before resistance training activities has been shown to positively
puberty are independent of changes in muscle size (Fukunga, influence bone mineral density (Morris, Naughton, Gibbs,
Funato, & Ikegawa, 1992; Mersch & Stoboy, 1989). Thus it Carlson, & Wark, 1997), body composition (Sothern et al.,
can not be stated with complete confidence that resistance 2000), cardiorespiratory fitness (Weltman et al., 1986), blood

2
lipids (Weltman, Janney, Rians, Strand, & Katch, 1987) and The potential psychosocial benefits (i.e., psychological and
psychosocial well-being (Holloway, Beuter, & Duda, 1988). social outcomes) should not be overlooked. It has been
In addition, preparatory conditioning that includes resistance observed that the socialization and mental discipline
training may decrease the incidence of some acute and exhibited by children and adolescents participating in a
overuse sports-related injuries in young athletes (Smith, resistance training program are similar to experiences of
Andrish, & Micheli, 1993). youth participating in team sports and other activities
(Faigenbaum, 1995). If age-specific training guidelines are
A common misperception related to youth resistance training
followed and if the program is supervised by instructors who
is that it will stunt the statural growth of youth or damage the
appreciate the uniqueness of childhood and adolescence,
epiphyseal or growth plates. This myth seems to have come
favorable changes in selected psychometric measures may be
from an earlier report that suggested that children who
observed. Although speculative, it is likely that resistance
performed heavy labor experienced damage to their
training will have its greatest impact on youth who begin
epiphyseal plates which results in significant decreases in
with relatively low levels of muscular strength and poor
stature (Kato & Ishiko, 1964). However, this study did not
body attitudes. Keep in mind, however, that excessive
control for other etiological factors such as poor nutrition
pressure to perform beyond one’s capability can negatively
that could be responsible for the reported growth arrest.
influence the resistance training experience and can lead to
Current observations indicate no evidence of a decrease in
untoward consequences (Gould, 1993).
stature in youth who participate in resistance training
programs in controlled environments (Sadres, Eliakim,
Motor Skills and Sports Performance
Constantini, Lidor, & Falk, 2001).
Since many sports have a significant strength or power
In all likelihood, if established training guidelines are
component it is logical to assume that a stronger and more
followed and if nutritional recommendations (e.g., adequate
powerful athlete will perform better. Moreover, if young
calcium) are adhered to, participation in regular physical
athletes gain confidence in their physical abilities they may
activity (including resistance training) will have a favorable
be more likely to experience success and less likely to drop
influence on growth at any stage of development but will not
out of sports due to embarrassment, failure or possible injury.
affect the genotypic maximum (Bailey & Martin, 1994). In
Several studies have demonstrated significant improvements
fact, the belief that resistance training is harmful to the
in the vertical jump, long jump, sprint speed, agility run
immature skeleton of youth weight trainers is not consistent
time, and medicine ball put in youth following resistance
with current findings suggesting that childhood may be the
training (Falk & Mor, 1996; Flanagan et al., 2002; Lillegard
period during which the bone-modeling process responds
et al., 1997, Weltman et al., 1986). However, others have
best to the mechanical loading of physical activities such as
reported gains in strength without any improvements in
resistance training (Bass, 2000). This potential benefit may
selected motor performance skills (Faigenbaum et al., 1993).
be especially important for young women who are at
increased risk of developing osteoporosis. As previously observed in older populations, it appears that
training adaptations in youth are not only specific to the
Another potential health benefit of youth resistance training
movement pattern, but also to the velocity of movement,
is its influence on body composition. As the number of
contraction type, and contraction force. Consequently,
overweight children and adolescents in the United States
resistance training programs that include relatively fast speed
continues to increase (Styne, 2001), the effects of resistance
movements (e.g., plyometrics) which are specific to the
training on body composition has received increased
motor performance test may be more likely to induce
attention. Although aerobic exercise is typically prescribed
improvements in selected performance measures compared
for decreasing body fat, several youth resistance training
with programs characterized by less specific exercises.
studies have reported a decrease in fatness among
Plyometric exercises such as hops, jumps, and throws can be
participants (Faigenbaum, Zaichkowsky, Westcott, Micheli,
incorporated into a youth resistance training program
& Fehlandt, 1993; Lillegard, Brown, Wilson, Henderson, &
provided that the training intensity and volume does not
Lewis, 1997; Siegal, Camaione, & Manfredi, 1989). More
exceed the abilities of the participants. A note of caution
recently, researchers observed that resistance training may be
here; children should develop an adequate base of strength
a valuable mode of exercise for treating childhood obesity
before participating in a plyometric training program or they
(Sothern et al., 2000). It appears that overweight and obese
should begin plyometric training with low intensity drills and
youth enjoy resistance training because it is not aerobically
gradually progress to higher intensities over time (Faigenbaum
taxing and it gives all participants — regardless of body size
& Chu, 2001).
— a chance to experience success and feel good about their
performance. Whereas further study is warranted, the first
step in encouraging overweight and obese youth to exercise
Injury Reduction
may be to increase their confidence in their ability to be In the United States millions of boys and girls participate in
physically active, which in turn may lead to an increase in school and community-based programs. But along with this
physical activity and a decrease in body fat. remarkable interest in youth sport has been a concomitant

3
increase in the number of sports-related injuries due to ill- well-balanced conditioning program. In some cases, youth
prepared and improperly trained young athletes (Outerbridge may need to decrease the time they spend practicing sport-
& Micheli, 1995). While factors such as growth, improper specific skills to allow time for preparatory muscle
footwear, hard playing surfaces, anatomic malalignment of conditioning.
the legs, and underlying disease states have been implicated
as risk factors for overuse injuries in youth (Micheli, 1983), Risks and Concerns
the background physical activity level of young athletes must
One traditional concern associated with youth resistance
also be considered. Fewer youth are exposed to physical
training involves the potential for injury to the epiphyseal
education than in the past and sedentary pursuits such as
plate or growth cartilage. Although epiphyseal plate fractures
television viewing and “surfing the internet” continue to
have been reported in adolescent weight trainers (Gumbs,
occupy a significant amount of a youngster’s free time
Segal, Halligan, & Lower, 1982; Ryan & Salciccioli, 1976),
(Dietz, 1990; Morrow & Jackson, 1999). According to the
these reports were case studies and typically involved
American College of Sports Medicine, an estimated 50% of
improper lifting techniques or the performance of heavy
all injuries sustained by youth while playing sports could be
loads with inadequate supervision. An epiphyseal plate
prevented if more emphasis was placed on developing
fracture has not been reported in any prospective study that
fundamental fitness abilities prior to sports participation
was competently supervised and appropriately designed. If
(Smith, Andrish, & Micheli, 1993).
resistance training programs are conducted by qualified
By enhancing musculoskeletal strength and developing instructors and are planned with age-specific needs in mind,
muscle balance around joints, resistance training may the risk of joint injury is negligible. However, if established
decrease the incidence of injury in young athletes. Several training guidelines are not followed, accidents and injuries
studies have reported decreased injury rates in adolescents are possible (Risser, 1991). Coaches, teachers, and trainers
who participated in a preseason conditioning program that must be aware of the inherent risk associated with resistance
included resistance training (Heidt, Swetterman, Carlonas, training and should attempt to decrease this risk by following
Traub, & Tekulve, 2000; Hejna, Rosenberg, Buturusis, & established training guidelines.
Krieger, 1982; Hewett, Lindenfeld, Riccobene, & Noyes,
It is also important to keep in mind that youth should not
1999) and it seems likely that resistance training could offer
resistance train on their own without guidance from qualified
a similar protective effect to children (Faigenbaum &
teachers and coaches. Training without supervision and
Micheli, 2000). While the total elimination of sports-related
instruction can result in injury and overtraining. Further,
injuries is an unrealistic goal, encouraging aspiring young
teachers and coaches should be careful to match the
athletes to participate in several weeks of preparatory
resistance training program to the needs, interests, and
conditioning (which includes resistance training) before
abilities of each participant. A structured resistance training
sports participation merits consideration. During this time
program for a high school athlete would be inappropriate for
correctable risk factors such as poor physical condition and
a young child who should be given an opportunity to
muscle imbalances can be identified and treated by qualified
experience the mere enjoyment of different types of
coaches, teachers, and trainers. Participation in a preseason
resistance exercise. In any case, it is always better to
conditioning program may be particularly important for
underestimate the physical abilities of participants rather
sedentary and overweight youth who may not be prepared to
than overestimate them and risk negative consequences (e.g.,
handle the duration and magnitude of forces that develop
dropout or injury). With qualified instruction, gradual
during sports practice and games situations. While
training progression, and knowledge of the developmental
participation in a preseason conditioning program may not
uniqueness of children and adolescents, youth can get
be necessary for very young athletes or youth who plan to
stronger, feel good about their performance, and have fun.
play recreational sports, the need for preseason conditioning
becomes more important as the intensity and competitive
level increase. The National Athletic Trainers Association
Youth Resistance Training Guidelines
(NATA) suggest that high school athletes engage in Resistance training can be recommended to children and
conditioning activities at least six weeks before the start of adolescents as one part of a well-rounded physical activity
practice (NATA, 2002). program that also includes games and activities designed to
While resistance training itself has been shown to be safe enhance cardiorespiratory fitness, flexibility, agility, and
and beneficial for youth, care should be taken to assure that balance. The following guidelines should be considered by
resistance training does not contribute to overtraining. Other those who are interested in helping children and adolescents
aspects of preparing youth for sports such as practicing participate in resistance training programs.
sport-specific skills must also be considered. Practicing skills 1. Adapt the program to the participant’s developmental
adds to the chronic repetitive stress placed on the level. Although there is no minimal age requirement for
musculoskeletal system, and therefore care should be taken participation in a youth resistance training program, first
not to simply add resistance training to a youngster’s exposure to resistance training activities may be informal.
workout, but rather to incorporate resistance training into a For children beginning resistance training, it is important to

4
choose activities that match abilities. For example, body
weight calisthenics and exercises with elastic cords or Table 2.
Youth Resistance Training Guidelines
lightweight medicine balls are often appropriate for young
resistance trainers. During this time children are unable to
• Provide qualified instruction and supervision
delay gratification in pursuit of some future benefit like
strong bones. Adherence to more formal training programs • Ensure the exercise environment is safe and free of
requires emotional maturity and the ability to follow hazards
directions. These are characteristics possessed by most, but
• Teach youth the benefits and risks associated with
not all children, by the middle elementary school years. strength training
Abstract, rather than concrete thinking, begins to emerge in
the upper elementary school years and at this time • Begin each session with a 5 to 10 minute warm-up
participants are more likely to see the benefits of a more period
comprehensive resistance training program. By adolescence, • Start with one light set of 10 to 15 repetitions on a
interest in resistance training may be greater and the ability variety of exercises
to tolerate more structured training programs with more
advanced exercises may be higher. • Include exercises to strengthen the lower back and
abdominals
2. Instruction by qualified professionals is essential. Youth
resistance training programs should be conducted by • Progress to 2 or 3 sets of 6 to 15 repetitions depending
qualified instructors, teachers, and coaches who understand on needs and goals
the fundamental principles of resistance exercise and the • Increase the resistance gradually as strength improves
uniqueness of childhood and adolescence. Close supervision,
age-appropriate instruction, and a safe exercise environment • Focus on the correct exercise technique instead of the
amount of weight lifted
are paramount. A pre-training medical exam is not required
for apparently healthy youth; however, professionals should • Strength train two to three times per week on
refer participants with known or suspected health problems nonconsecutive days
to their health-care provider before beginning a resistance
• Listen carefully to each child’s concerns and answer
training program. any questions
3. Start gradually and progressively increase overload. It
• When necessary, adults spotters should be nearby in
has been recommended that children and adolescents the event of a failed repetition
resistance train two or three days per week on
nonconsecutive days and perform 1 to 3 sets of 6 to 15 • Focus on participation with lots of movement and
repetitions on a variety of exercises that focus on the major positive reinforcement
muscle groups (Faigenbaum et al., 1996). However, when • Keep the program fresh and challenging by
beginning a resistance training program, performing a single systematically varying the training program
set of 10 to 15 repetitions per exercise twice per week will
not only allow for positive changes in muscle function, but
will also provide an opportunity for participants to gain resistance training exceeds a participant’s capabilities and the
confidence in their abilities before progressing to more rest periods are too short for adequate recovery. This
advanced levels (Faigenbaum, Westcott, Loud, & Long, approach may be particularly hazardous for young children
1999). Table 2 highlights general youth resistance training because it not only increases the risk of injury, but it may
guidelines. undermine enjoyment of the resistance training experience.
Over time, continual gains can be made by gradually Although it may be tempting to follow a college resistance
increasing the resistance, the number of repetitions, or the training program or a workout described in a fitness
number of sets. On average, a 5% to 10% increase in training magazine, each participant must be treated as an individual
load (typically 2 to 5 pounds) is appropriate for most and therefore the training intensity, volume, and progression
exercises. Once the desired number of repetitions can be needs to be carefully prescribed.
performed, the weight can be gradually increased, and the 5. Proper technique should be taught and reinforced.
repetitions can be decreased to allow for continual gains. Although some participants might want to see how much
This does not mean that every workout needs to be more weight they can lift on the first day of the program, their
intense that the previous session, but over time the demand interest and enthusiasm in resistance training should be
placed upon one’s body should be gradually increased. redirected toward developing proper form and exercise
4. Adherence to sound training principles is critical. technique (i.e., controlled movements and proper breathing).
Appropriate overload, gradual progression, and adequate In some cases it may be appropriate to use an unloaded
recovery between exercise sessions are important barbell or a long wooded stick when teaching youth how to
considerations. Too often, the volume and intensity of perform multi-joint free weight exercises.

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6. Emphasize intrinsic enjoyment. When working with needs and abilities in order to optimize gains, prevent
youth it is important to focus on intrinsic factors such as skill boredom, and reduce the stress from overtraining. Detailed
improvement, personal successes, and having fun. The use of information on designing youth resistance training programs
personalized workout logs can help to focus each is available elsewhere (Faigenbaum & Westcott, 2000).
participant’s attention on his or her own improvement.
7. Incorporate variety into the training program. Adding Summary
new exercises, changing the training mode, and varying the Participation in a resistance training program, along with
number of sets and repetitions can help to keep the program other types of physical activity, gives children and
fresh and challenging. Incorporating calisthenics, elastic adolescents yet another opportunity to improve their health
cords, and medicine balls into the resistance training and quality of life. Scientific evidence indicates that youth
program can be effective, beneficial, and fun. resistance training programs are no more risky than other
8. Consider multiple goals. When working with boys and sports and activities in which children and adolescents
girls, it is important to remember that the goal of the regularly participate. Medical and fitness organizations now
program should not be limited to increasing muscle strength. support participation in well-designed and properly
Teaching youth about their bodies, promoting safe training instructed youth resistance training programs. Regular
procedures, and providing a stimulating program that gives participation in a youth resistance training program can
participants a more positive attitude towards resistance favorably influence selected health- and fitness-related
training and physical activity are equally important. measures for all youth and can improve the preparedness of
aspiring young athletes for the demands of sports practice
9. Listen to children and teach them to listen to their
and competition.
bodies. Regardless of the strength or size of a child, adult
training guidelines and training philosophies (i.e., “no pain, Parents, teachers, and coaches should realize that resistance
no gain”) should not be imposed on young resistance training is a specialized method of conditioning that can
trainers. Adults need to listen to each participant’s concerns, offer many benefits, but at the same time can result in injury
monitor progress, and understand the physical and if age-appropriate training guidelines are not followed. When
psychological uniqueness of children and adolescents. Some conducted by competent instructors who possess a sound
youth with poor levels of fitness may not be able to tolerate understanding of resistance training principles and
the same amount of exercise some of their peers in the same developmental needs of children and adolescents, resistance
training program can tolerate. This is where the art and training can have many benefits and lead to a lifelong
science of developing a resistance training program comes interest in physical activity. We now have the evidence to
into play because the principles of training specificity and recommend participation in youth resistance training
progressive overload need to be balanced with individual activities as part of a well-rounded physical activity program.

6
 “Despite previous concerns, a wealth
of scientific evidence indicates that
resistance training can be an enjoyable,
beneficial, and healthy experience
for children and adolescents provided that
established training guidelines are followed
and qualified instruction is available.”
Avery D. Faigenbaum, Ed.D.
Department of Exercise Science
and Physical Education
University of Massachusetts
Boston

Please Post
President’s Council on Physical Fitness & Sports
200 Independence Avenue, S.W., Washington, DC 20201
(202) 690-9000 • FAX (202) 690-5211

7
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