WINTER2020

SPRING2013

CHALLENGES IN
TRANSFORMER
PROTECTION TESTING

INVESTIGATING AN
ELECTROMECHANICAL DIFFERENTIAL
RELAY MISOPERATION PAGE 52
TESTING TECHNIQUES FOR
PROTECTION-CLASS CURRENT
TRANSFORMERS PAGE 62
TESTING AND COMMISSIONING
A DISTRIBUTION RECLOSER IN
GRID-TIE SOLAR FARMS PAGE 72
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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

WINTER2020 · VOLUME 42, NO. 4

FEAT URES
COVER S T O RY
52 Investigating an Electromechanical
Differential Relay Misoperation
Alex Rangel, Saber Power Services, LLC

62 Testing Techniques for Protection-Class

Current Transformers
Dinesh Chhajer and Sughosh Kuber, Megger USA

72 Testing and Commissioning a Distribution

40
Recloser in Grid-Tie Solar Farms
Mohit Sharma, Megger, and Luis Montoya, PE,
FlexGen Power Systems formerly ABM

Challenges in Transformer
Protection Testing
While the basic premise of transformer
differential protection is straightforward,
features found in relay algorithms compensate
for challenges presented by the transformer
differential application. This article describes
typical functional differential tests and their
challenges and presents a system-based
alternative that reduces challenges and ensures
settings are adequate. Instructions for setup
and execution are accompanied by test cases,
and the benefits and drawbacks of system-

72
based testing are compared.
Scott Cooper, OMICRON electronics

COVER PHOTO: © ISTOCKPHOTO.COM/PORTFOLIO/MINEMERO

TABLE OF CONTENTS NETAWORLD • 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS

IN EVERY ISSUE CAP CORNER

7 President’s Desk 98 Advancements in the Industry

Scott Blizard, American Electrical Testing Co., LLC PF Measurements on Complete Stator Windings
NETA President Mathieu Lachance, OMICRON electronics Canada

10 NFPA 70E and NETA 108 Insights & Observations — CAP Spotlight
Looking at NFPA 70E 2021 — Part 1 AEMC Instruments: Over 125 Years of Technical
Ron Widup and James R. White, Shermco Industries Heritage and Innovation in Test Instrumentation

19 Relay Column
Combustion Turbine Generator Trip Analysis SPECIFICATIONS AND STANDARDS
Steve Turner, Arizona Public Service Company
112 ANSI/NETA Standards Update
24 Safety Corner
Basic Fall Protection
IMPORTANT LISTS
Paul Chamberlain, American Electrical
Testing Co., LLC
119 NETA Accredited Companies
30 Tech Quiz
Protective Relaying
126 Advertiser List
James R. White, Shermco Industries

32 Tech Tips
Ground Testing Procedures
Jeff Jowett, Megger

INDUSTRY TOPICS

84 Impact of SFRA Setup Issues on

Transformer Frequency Response
Michael D. Wolf, PE, Doble Engineering Co.

92 Understanding and Avoiding Battery Failure

Rodrick J. Van Wart, AVO Training Institute, Inc.

4 • WINTER 2020 TABLE OF CONTENTS

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 3050 Old Centre Road, Suite 101
Portage, MI 49024
Toll free: 888.300.NETA (6382)
Phone: 269.488.NETA (6382)
Fax: 269.488.6383
[email protected]
www.netaworld.org
executive director: Missy Richard

NETA Officers
president: Scott Blizard, American Electrical Testing Co., Inc.
first vice president: Eric Beckman, National Field Services
second vice president: Scott Dude, Dude Electrical Testing, LLC
secretary: Dan Hook, Western Electrical Services, Inc.
treasurer: John White, Sigma Six Solutions, Inc.

NETA Board of Directors

Ken Bassett (Potomac Testing, Inc.)
Eric Beckman (National Field Services)
Scott Blizard (American Electrical Testing Co., Inc.)
Jim Cialdea (CE Power Engineered Services, LLC)
Scott Dude (Dude Electrical Testing LLC)
Dan Hook (Western Electrical Services, Inc.)
David Huffman (Power Systems Testing)
Alan Peterson (Utility Service Corporation)
Chasen Tedder, Hampton Tedder Technical Services
John White (Sigma Six Solutions)
Ron Widup (Shermco Industries)
non-voting board member
Lorne Gara (Shermco Industries)

NETA World Staff

technical editors: Roderic L. Hageman, Tim Cotter
assistant technical editors: Jim Cialdea, Dan Hook,
Dave Huffman, Bob Sheppard
associate editor: Resa Pickel
managing editor: Carla Kalogeridis
copy editor: Beverly Sturtevant
advertising manager: Laura McDonald
design and production: Moon Design

NETA Committee Chairs

conference: Ron Widup; membership: Ken Bassett;
promotions/marketing: Scott Blizard; safety: Scott Blizard and Jim White;

Delivering Powerful Reliability Solutions technical: Alan Peterson; technical exam: Dan Hook;
continuing technical development: David Huffman;
training: Eric Beckman; finance: John White;
nominations: Alan Peterson; alliance program: Jim Cialdea;
✔ Power System Acceptance Testing association development: Ken Bassett and John White

✔ Commissioning and Start-up © Copyright 2020, NETA

✔ Maintenance
NOTICE AND DISCLAIMER
✔ Coordination and Arc Flash Studies NETA World is published quarterly by the InterNational Electrical Testing Association.
Opinions, views and conclusions expressed in articles herein are those of the authors and not
necessarily those of NETA. Publication herein does not constitute or imply endorsement of
✔ Troubleshoot and Repair any opinion, product, or service by NETA, its directors, officers, members, employees or
agents (herein “NETA”).

✔ Training and Engineering Services All technical data in this publication reflects the experience of individuals using specific tools,
products, equipment and components under specific conditions and circumstances which may

✔ Planning and Operations Support Reversed

or may not be fully reported and over which NETA has neither exercised nor reserved control.
Such data has not been independently tested or otherwise verified by NETA.

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ANY OPINION, PRODUCT OR SERVICE REFERENCED OR ADVERTISED IN THIS
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 PRESIDENT’S DESK

WELCOME TO THE WINTER EDITION

This edition of NETA World features articles on electrical power system
protection. Protection schemes covering feeder, generation, transmission,
and transformers may have many similarities, but they often contain
specific functions or schemes unique to that type of equipment.
Be sure you check out this edition’s four feature articles:

• “Challenges in Transformer Protection Testing,” by Scott Cooper of OMICRON electronics

• “Testing Techniques for Protection-Class Current Transformers,” by Dinesh Chhajer and
Sughosh Kuber, Megger USA
• “Testing and Commissioning a Distribution Recloser in Grid-Tie Solar Farms,” by Mohit
Sharma of Megger and Luis Montoya, PE, of FlexGen Power Systems, formerly ABM
• “Investigating an Electromechanical Differential Relay Misoperation,” by Alex Rangel of
Saber Power Services, LLC

It is presently October 2020, and the country is in the middle of a COVID-19 virus resurgence.
NETA Member Companies and their technicians throughout the United States and in Canada
have been identified as essential workers as they help support and maintain our nation’s critical
infrastructure. Be sure to follow your company’s and customers’ safety policies for the COVID-19
pandemic. The policy should include many of the preventative measures to limit the spread of
the COVID-19 virus that have been communicated by the CDC in the United States and by the
Public Health Agency of Canada. Be safe, and err on the side of caution.

Mark your calendars for PowerTest 2021, the premier electrical maintenance and safety
conference on March 8–12, 2021. This will be the first hybrid conference in NETA’s
history! If you are unable to attend PowerTest 2021 in person, NETA will provide
an opportunity to attend virtually. This portion of the event will allow people to
interact on a web-based platform rather than meeting in a physical location.
Online sessions will include feature webinars and webcasts as well as opportunity
for NETA Certified Technicians to receive CTDs for attending virtually. Call
the NETA office for details on CTD and CEU credits offered for attending
the virtual portion of PowerTest 2021. Be sure you register to ensure a spot
among the leaders in the electrical testing industry.

Coach safe behavior….Live injury and disease free every day!

Scott A. Blizard, President

International Electrical Testing Association
Safety First…No One Gets Hurt!

PRESIDENT’S DESK NETAWORLD • 7

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THE NFPA 70E AND NETA

LOOKING AT
NFPA 70E 2021:
PA R T 1

B Y R O N WIDUP an d J AM ES R. WH IT E, Shermco Industries

In this issue of NETA World, we begin to explain some of the major

changes in the 2021 edition of NFPA 70E. So whether you love the 70E,
or find it a challenge and don’t want to deal with it…because your life at
work is mandated by it, and you know what that means: Do it or else!
But that is not the case. NFPA 70E is a uninjured. NFPA 70E only covers electrical
standard and is not mandatory. However, your safety and nothing else.
company has the option of making parts of it
their policy, which would then be mandatory So familiarize yourself with the latest changes
for you. Companies often adopt all or part of to the 2021 edition of the 70E. Here are a few
of the changes.
the 70E because the 70E Committee includes
representatives from 26 companies, including
NETA, in the formation of the content ARTI CLE 100
for the standard, and it contains the latest There are very few revisions in Article 100,
thinking and information available concerning Definitions. Let’s start with a definition that has
electrical safety and safe work practice. Your not changed: Arc Rating. The important portion
company wants you to go home to your family of the definition is in Informational Note No. 1:

10 • WINTER 2020 LOOKING AT NFPA 70E 2021: PART 1

 THE NFPA 70E AND NETA
• Informational Note No. 1: Arc-rated ASTM F1506-10a Performance Standard
clothing or equipment indicates that it has
been tested for exposure to an electric arc. ASTM F1506-10a
Flame resistant clothing without an arc 6.3.2 6.3 Garments shall be
labeled with the following
rating has not been tested for exposure to

COURTESY OBERON, A DIVISION OF CHATSWORTH PRODUCTS

6.3.6 information:
an electric arc. All arc-rated clothing is also
6.3.1 Tracking
flame-resistant. identification code
6.3.5 system,
Some technicians or purchasing agents have 6.3.2 Meets requirement
purchased the incorrect clothing, thinking it PPE Selection of Performance
was arc rated, only to find out it is for flash fires Advice: If the garment Specification F1506,
PHOTO: © WWW.SHUTTERSTOCK.COM/G/PINYO+PROMPRASERT

states compliance with 6.3.3 Manufacturer’s

(refineries and pipelines). Clothing and PPE
ASTM F1506-10a but name,
rated for an arc flash has a tag on the inside of the label is not correct,
6.4.4 Size and other
the clothing similar to Figure 1, which is from buyer beware! 6.4.4 associated standard
Oberon, a major supplier of arc-rated clothing labeling,
and PPE. 6.3.3 6.3.5 Care instructions
and fiber contents, and
The familiar tag in Figure 2 causes some 6.3.1 6.3.6 Arc rating (ATPV)
confusion, since it seems to be for arc- or arc rating (Ebt)
rated clothing; it even shows an arc thermal
performance value (ATPV). The tag references Figure 1: ASTM F1506-Required Label
NFPA 2112, which is a valid standard, but
not for arc-rated clothing or PPE. NFPA 2112
is for flash fires, and that type of clothing is
required for petrochemical facilities. This

COURTESY SHERMCO INDUSTRIES

clothing, if properly marked, could be dual-
rated as arc-rated and for flash fires, but both
would need to be shown on the label.

Look for these numbers when purchasing

clothing or PPE:

• NFPA 70E, of course Figure 2: Confusing Label — Not Arc-Rated

• NFPA 2112: flash fires only
• ASTM F1506: arc-rated clothing always Definition Revisions
marked with ASTM F1506, may also be Revisions to NFPA 70E are shown in legislative
marked ASTM F1509/F1509M, and be text: Deleted language is shown in red and crossed
dual-rated with NFPA 2112 if properly through, and added text is shown underlined. All
marked definitions are in Article 100, Definitions.
• ASTM F2178/2178M: arc-rated face
Deleted. The definitions for Accessible, Readily
shields, balaclavas, and hoods
Accessible, and Branch Circuit were deleted.
• ASTM F1891: arc-rated rainwear None were used in NFPA 70E.
• ASTM F2675/2675M: arc-rated hand
Arc Rating. Although the definition for arc
protection
rating did not change, revisions were made to the
• CSA Z462: Canada’s NFPA Informational Notes to make them consistent
70E-equivalent standard with ASTM language and to provide clarity:

LOOKING AT NFPA 70E 2021: PART 1 NETAWORLD • 11

THE NFPA 70E AND NETA
• The previous content in Informational
Note No. 2 was moved to Informational
Note No. 3: Breakopen is a material
response evidenced by the formation of
one or more holes in the innermost layer
of arc-rated material that would allow
flame to pass through the material.
• Informational Note No. 2: ATPV is defined
in ASTM F1959/F1959M, Standard
Test Method for D etermining the Arc

COURTESY REECE LIFE CRITICAL SAFETY PRODUCTS

Rating of Materials for Clothing, as the
incident energy (cal/cm2) on a material
or a multilayer system of materials that
results in a 50% probability that sufficient
heat transfer through the tested specimen is
predicted to cause the onset of a second degree
skin burn injury based on the Stoll curve.
• Informational Note No. 3: EBT is defined
in ASTM F1959/F1959M, Standard Test
Method for Determining the Arc Rating
of Materials for Clothing, as the incident
energy (cal/cm2) on a material or a material
system that results in a 50 percent probability Figure 3: Balaclava and Arc-Rated Face Shield
of breakopen. Breakopen is defined as a
hole with a material response evidenced Not all balaclavas are arc-rated. A balaclava
by the formation of one or more holes of a is any type of head covering that has an
defined size [an area of 1.6 cm2 (0.5 in.2) opening for the face and/or eyes. A ski mask is
or an opening of 2.5 cm (1.0 in.) in any considered a type of balaclava. A visit to any of
dimension] in the innermost layer of arc- the Internet providers will show a wide variety
rated material that would allow thermal of balaclavas that are not arc-rated, but wool.
energy to pass through the material. Wool would be fuel for the fire.
Balaclava. (Sock Hood): An arc-rated hood Barrier. A physical obstruction that is intended
head-protective fabric that protects the neck
to prevent contact with equipment or energized
and head except for a small portion of the facial
electrical conductors and circuit parts or to
area of the eyes and nose.
prevent unauthorized access to a work area.
The Committee believed the last portion of the
Informational Note: Some balaclava designs
protect the neck and head area except for the definition was unnecessary.
eyes while others leave the eyes and nose area
unprotected. Electrically Safe Work Condition. An
Informational Note was added for Electrically
Figure 3 shows a typical balaclava. Note that Safe Work Condition.
a properly fitted balaclava will not be tight,
but will fit loosely, as shown. A tight-fitting • Informational Note: An electrically safe
balaclava will reduce the arc rating. Many work condition is not a procedure, it is
companies we’ve visited had only one balaclava a state wherein all hazardous electrical
for all their qualified persons. This is incorrect conductors or circuit parts to which a worker
and places their workers at risk. might be exposed are maintained in a de-

12 • WINTER 2020 LOOKING AT NFPA 70E 2021: PART 1

 THE NFPA 70E AND NETA
energized state for the purpose of temporarily When a definition is used in the NEC
eliminating electrical hazards for the period (NFPA 70), it will be noted at the end of that
of time for which the state is maintained. definition as [70:100] where 100 is the NEC
Article it will appear in.
Informational Notes are not mandatory
but contain information directly related to Switchgear Equipment, Arc-Resistant.
whatever it may be part of. This Informational Equipment designed to withstand the effects
Note states that putting equipment into of an internal arcing fault and that directs the
an electrically safe work condition is not internally released energy away from the employee.
a procedure; it is a process, which is on-
going. The purpose is to maintain a de- A number of revisions were made to this
energized state to protect the worker. The definition. First, the name was changed to
word “temporary” and the phrase “for the acknowledge that more types of arc-rated
period of time for which the state is maintained” equipment are being manufactured.
were added to emphasize that this is not a
permanent change; it is only in effect during Two new Informational Notes provide where to
the task being performed and will be returned obtain more information.
to its normal, energized state.
• Informational Note No. 1: An example of
This is Second Revision language. In the First a standard that provides information for
Revision, the language was somewhat different. arc-resistant equipment is IEEE C37.20.7,
This type of revision happens often during the Guide for Testing Switchgear Rated Up to
meetings. A change will be made during the 52 kV for Internal Arcing Faults.
First Revision; then, a Public Comment will • Informational Note No. 2: See O.2.4 (9) for
come in and a change will be voted to make information on arc-resistant equipment.
further revisions in the Second Revision.
Voltage, Nominal. A new Informational Note
Fault Current Available. An additional was added to this definition.
Informational Note No. 3 was added to the
definition for Fault Current, Available: • Informational Note No. 3: Certain battery
units are rated at nominal 48 volts dc but
• Informational Note No. 3: The available have a charging float voltage up to 58 volts.
fault current varies at different locations In dc applications, 60 volts is used to cover
within the system due to the location of the entire range of float voltages.
sources and system impedances.
Pretty self-explanatory, although note that OSHA
Of course, any impedances in the path of the considers 50 volts and above as an electrical
fault current will reduce it, sometimes by quite hazard. OSHA has stated they will not accept
a bit. It depends on the impedance. higher voltages, even if they are in a standard.

Receptacle. A receptacle is a contact device Working on Electrical Conductors or Circuit

installed at the outlet for the connection of an Parts. Intentionally coming in contact with
attachment plug, or for the direct connection of energized electrical conductors or circuit parts
electrical utilization equipment designed to mate with the hands, feet, or other body parts, with
with the corresponding contact device. A single tools, probes, or with test equipment, regardless of
receptacle is a single contact device with no other the personal protective equipment (PPE) a person
contact device on the same yoke. A multiple is wearing. There are two categories of “working
receptacle is two or more contact devices on the on”: Diagnostic (testing) is taking readings or
same yoke. [70:100] measurements of electrical equipment, conductors,

LOOKING AT NFPA 70E 2021: PART 1 NETAWORLD • 13

THE NFPA 70E AND NETA
or circuit parts with approved test equipment A LI TTLE
that does not require making any physical change REORGANI Z ATI ON, A GA IN
to the electrical equipment, conductors, or circuit NFPA 70E again reorganized to make 70E
parts. repair Repair is any physical alteration easier to use and to place information in its
of electrical equipment, conductors, or circuit proper place.
USE THIS SIMPLE parts (such as making or tightening connections,
removing or replacing components, etc.). Article 110 includes some major changes:
METHOD TO
SEPARATE There are no major revisions to this definition, • 110.1 Priority (used to be 105.4)
DIAGNOSTICS except to separate the two categories of
“working on” — diagnostic (testing) and • 110.2 General [used to be 120.2(A)]
FROM REPAIR:
repair — to clarify their differences. It is • 110.3 (used to be 130.2) Electrically Safe
IF ONLY A TEST worthwhile to mention that any change to a Work Condition
INSTRUMENT piece of equipment, even tightening screws on
a terminal block, would be considered repair. • 110.4 [used to be 130.2(A)] Energized
IS USED, IT IS
This is brought up because some supervisors Work
DIAGNOSTIC. IF
and technicians don’t believe that tightening • 110.5(A) (used to be 110.1) Electrical
A TOOL IS BEING screws is repair. Use this simple method to Safety Program
USED, IT IS REPAIR. separate diagnostics from repair; If only a test
instrument is used, it is diagnostic. If a tool is • 110.6 (used to be 110.2) Training
being used, it is repair. Requirements
• 110.7 (used to be 110.3) Host and
Figure 4a and Figure 4b show an event caused Contract Employer’s Responsibilities
by this misunderstanding of the definition.
• 110.8 [used to be 110.4(A)] Testing
The supervisor had to leave for another part
Instruments and Equipment
of the job. The apprentice technician was told
only to tighten things “that were not hot.” The • 110.9 (used to be 110.5) Portable Cord-
apprentice mistakenly used a 1,000-volt-rated and Plug-Connected Equipment
tester to test a 4,160-volt potential transformer

PHOTOS COURTESY JOSEPH J. ANDREWS, PE ELECTRICAL SAFETY RESOURCES, INC.

(PT) to see if it was energized. Things did not
go well, and the apprentice suffered serious
burns.

Figure 4a: What He Tested Figure 4b: What He Should Have Tested

14 • WINTER 2020 LOOKING AT NFPA 70E 2021: PART 1

 THE NFPA 70E AND NETA
• 110.10 (used to be 110.6) Ground-Fault 0 Section 110.1 Priority
Circuit-Interrupter (GFCI) Protection
Hazard elimination shall be the first priority
• 110.11 (used to be 110.7) Overcurrent in the implementation of safety-related work
Protection Modification. practices.
• 110.12 (new) Equipment Use 0 Informational Note No. 2: An electrically
safe work condition is a state wherein all
Article 130 also saw some major re- hazardous electrical conductors or circuit
organizational changes: parts to which a worker might be exposed
are placed and maintained in a zero-
• 130.1 General energy de-energized state, for the purpose
of temporarily eliminating electrical
• 130.2 Energized Electrical Work Permit hazards. See Article 120 for requirements to
• 130.3 Open establish an electrically safe work condition
for the period of time for which the state is
• 130.4 Shock Risk Assessment maintained. See Informative Annex F for
• 130.5 Arc Flash Risk Assessment information regarding the hierarchy of risk
control and hazard elimination.
• 130.6 Open
• 130.7 Personal and Other Protective
Equipment Committee Statement
An example of a Committee statement is
• 130.8 Other Precautions for Personnel
shown below. This is not done for every
Activities
revision; it is only shown as an example of how
• 130.9 Work Within the Limited the Committee justifies the revisions made.
Approach Boundary or Arc Flash
Boundary of Overhead Lines This second revision improves clarity in the
informational note by replacing the undefined
• 130.10 Underground Electrical Lines and term “zero energy” with the defined term “de-
Equipment energized.” In addition, language is added
• 130.11 Cutting and Drilling to clarify that elimination is achieved by
disconnecting and isolating from energy sources
• 130.12 Cutting, Removing or Rerouting
all electrical conductors or circuit parts to which a
of Conductors worker might be exposed in the area where work
is to take place. Additionally, it is clarified that
At this point, NFPA staff could leave 130.3 and this de-energization is a temporary state and exists
130.6 open, or they could decide to renumber only during the period for which the electrically
the entire article(s). The NFPA Manual of safe work condition state is maintained. This
Style allows articles to be left open for future informational note correlates with the purpose of
use. The only way to be sure is to view the NFPA 70E which is to provide a “practical” safe
actual 2021 70E. Readers will have to do what working area for employees relative to the hazards
everyone else will do: Wait and see. arising from the use of electricity.

Deep Dive. Section 110.1 Priority was moved Some of the revisions being made are from the
from Article 105 to bring more prevalence to First Revision based on Public Comments or
it. The Committee believed it was a better fit Committee discussions. This is a fairly common
in 110, as we did with the other changes in occurrence and demonstrates the thought (and
section order. Some changes were made to its discussions) that go into all Public Inputs and
Informational Note: Public Comments. We always have a reason for

LOOKING AT NFPA 70E 2021: PART 1 NETAWORLD • 15

THE NFPA 70E AND NETA
a revision. It isn’t done on a whim or without revisions and their explanations are only the
thought and discussion. beginning of this series of columns explaining
the revisions made for the 2021 edition. Some
The Second Revision version of NFPA 70E of the changes are covered in this article.
and all Committee Statements are available Part 2 in the Spring 2021 issue will cover
on www.NFPA.org/70E/nextedition. The additional detail, and more information will
First Revision is only available during the be presented in this ongoing series of 70E &
Public Comment period. People ask why NETA columns. We hope this is helpful to all
the Committee takes some action, and the our readers, many of whom depend on NFPA
comments are there to answer that question. 70E for their jobs.

We hope it helps the field technicians, owners,

C ONC LUSION and supervisors of both NETA accredited
This column has tried to explain some of the companies and non-NETA entities understand
workings of the NFPA 70E Committee. The work and interpret NFPA 70E better. Following the
is certainly not taken lightly by the Committee requirements of the 70E, whether mandated or
members. We make all efforts to ensure the 70E not, will prevent injuries and possible fatalities.
is easier to use, clearer on its intent, and contains
the most effective safety requirements.
REFERENCES
The changes made to the 2021 edition on Joseph J. Andrews, PE. “Case History —
NFPA 70E are not as far-reaching as those Who’s at Fault?” Electrical Safety Resources,
in the 2015 and 2018 editions. The above Inc. IEEE Electrical Safety Workshop 2002.

Ron Widup and Jim White are NETA’s representatives to NFPA Technical Committee 70E, Electrical Safety Requirements
for Employee Workplaces. Both gentlemen are employed by Shermco Industries in Dallas, Texas, a NETA Accredited Company.

Ron Widup, Senior Advisor, Technical James (Jim) R. White, Vice President
Services and Vice Chairman of the of Training Services, has worked for
Board of Directors, has been with Shermco Industries since 2001. He
Shermco Industries since 1983. He is a NFPA Certified Electrical Safety
is a member of Technical Committee Compliance Professional and a NETA
on NFPA 70E, Electrical Safety in Level 4 Senior Technician. Jim is NETA’s
the Workplace; a Principal Member principal member on NFPA Technical
of National Electrical Code (NFPA 70) Code Panel 11; a Committee NFPA 70E®, Electrical Safety in the Workplace;
Principal Member of the Technical Committee on NFPA 790, NETA’s principal representative on National Electrical Code®
Standard for Competency of Third-Party Evaluation Bodies; Code-Making Panel (CMP) 13; and represents NETA on
a Principal Member of the Technical Committee on NFPA ASTM International Technical Committee F18, Electrical
791, Recommended Practice and Procedures for Unlabeled Protective Equipment for Workers. Jim is Shermco Industries’
Electrical Equipment Evaluation; a member of the Technical principal member on NFPA Technical Committee for NFPA
Committee on NFPA 70B, Recommended Practice for 70B, Recommended Practice for Electrical Equipment
Electrical Equipment Maintenance, and Vice Chair for IEEE Maintenance and represents AWEA on the ANSI/ISEA
Std. 3007.3, Recommended Practice for Electrical Safety in Standard 203, Secondary Single-Use Flame Resistant
Industrial and Commercial Power Systems. Ron also serves on Protective Clothing for Use Over Primary Flame Resistant
NETA’s board of directors and Standards Review Council. He Protective Clothing. An IEEE Senior Member, Jim was
is a NETA Certified Level 4 Senior Test Technician, a State of Chairman of the IEEE Electrical Safety Workshop in 2008
Texas Journeyman Electrician, an IEEE Standards Association and is currently Vice Chair for the IEEE IAS/PCIC Safety
member, an Inspector Member of the International Association Subcommittee.
of Electrical Inspectors, and an NFPA Certified Electrical Safety
Compliance Professional (CESCP).

16 • WINTER 2020 LOOKING AT NFPA 70E 2021: PART 1

 One Line. One Company.

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Our service technicians are NETA-certified and trained to comply and
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staff including technicians, engineers, administrators and management is
involved and responsible for the safety of our co-workers, our customers,
our contractors as well as our friends and families.
Our expertise goes well beyond that of most service companies. From
new construction to maintenance services, acceptance testing and
commissioning to power studies and rotating machinery service and repair,
if it’s in the electrical power system, up and down the line, Shermco does it.

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 RELAY COLUMN

COMBUSTION TURBINE
GENERATOR TRIP ANALYSIS
B Y S TE V E TU R N E R , Arizona Public Service Company

Relay personnel responsible for testing protective relays are often called
upon to troubleshoot and gather system data such as settings and event
recordings when a major event occurs (for this example, a large generator
trip). If only electromechanical relays are installed and no digital fault
recorder is available, it can be difficult to determine the root cause of the
trip event. This article demonstrates how to analyze a generator trip with
limited information on hand.
A N A LY S IS Figure 1 shows the sequence of events
The initial investigation determined there captured by the numerical line current
was a three-phase bus fault on the low side differential relays located at the high side of
of the generator step-up transformer (GSU). the generator GSU and switchyard breaker.
Follow-up investigation through data analysis The first event occurred at 19:02:56 and
determined there were four individual events. was due to a three-phase bus fault. The

Figure 1: Sequence of Events Compiled from Numerical Line Current Differential Relays

COMBUSTION TURBINE GENERATOR TRIP ANALYSIS NETAWORLD • 19

RELAY COLUMN

Figure 2: One Line Diagram Figure 3a: Three-Phase Bus Fault on GSU Low Side

Figure 3b: Direct Transfer Trip to Switchyard Breaker via Figure 3c: Disconnect on High Side of Adjacent GSU Opened
Numerical Line Current Differential Relays

Figure 3d: Lockout Relay Reset Figure 3e: Switchyard Breaker Closed

second and third events occurred at 19:09:17 Figure 3a through Figure 3e illustrate the
and 19:20:32, respectively. The fourth sequence of events leading up to the restoration
event occurred at 19:24:56. This time, the of the adjacent generator.
switchyard breaker was successfully closed,
energizing the adjacent GSU. The adjacent generator was brought back on
gear at time equal to 19:28:35.

SE QUE NC E OF EVENTS Figure 4 shows the inrush current measured

Figure 2 shows the overall one-line diagram for by the numerical line current differential relays
the power system. following closing the switchyard breaker.

20 • WINTER 2020 COMBUSTION TURBINE GENERATOR TRIP ANALYSIS

 RELAY COLUMN

Figure 4: Inrush Current Following Closing Switchyard Breaker

C ON C L U S I ON
Steve Turner is in charge of system
Advantages offered by numerical protection protection for the Fossil Generation
relays include: Department at Arizona Public Service
Company in Phoenix. After working
with Beckwith Electric Company, Inc.
• Event reporting
for 10 years, Steve spent two years as a
• Event summary reports consultant in San Diego. His previous
experience includes positions as an Application Engineer
• Event history reports at GEC Alstom and in the international market for SEL
focusing on transmission line protection applications. Steve also
• Event reports worked for Duke Energy (formerly Progress Energy), where he
developed the first patent for double-ended fault location on
• Sequential events recorder report overhead high-voltage transmission lines and was in charge
of all maintenance standards in the transmission department
This article demonstrates how the event for protective relaying. Steve has BSEE and MSEE degrees
recording taken from the numerical line from Virginia Tech University. He has presented at numerous
conferences including Georgia Tech Protective Relay Conference,
current differential relays protecting the line to Western Protective Relay Conference, ECNE, and Doble User
the faulted GSU can be used to verify that the Groups, as well as various international conferences. Steve is
overall system protection operated properly. a senior member of IEEE and a member of the IEEE PSRC.
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NETA WINTER AD 2019 - option 1.indd 1 10/11/2019 3:19:48 PM

 THE ALL -NEW
JOURN AL EXPERIEN CE.
WELCOME TO NETAWORLDJOURN AL.ORG

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V I S I T NE TAW O R L D J O U R N A L . O R G TO DAY
SAFETY CORNER

BASIC FALL
PROTECTION
B Y PA U L CH AM BERL AIN, American Electrical Testing Co. LLC

Fall protection requirements and equipment varies depending upon

where the work is being performed. The regulations can be confusing
for some employees, so it is up to the manager or safety professional to
understand the work, the environment the work is being performed in,
and the equipment needed to mitigate the hazard of falling from height.

W H E N IS P ROT ECTI ON guardrails are constructed. They must consist

R E QUIRE D? of a top rail, mid-rail, or balusters, and a
toe-board. Code requires they be a certain
In general industry, which the Occupational
height, withstand a certain weight load, and
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
be constructed in a specific manner. Since
defines as all industries not included in
the building you are working in is not under
agriculture, construction, or maritime, fall
construction, guardrails are likely in place. If
protection is required anytime there is a fall
there are no guardrails, then a safety net or
of 4 feet or more from an unprotected edge or
personal fall protection system (i.e. anchorage,
side. In summary:
lanyard, or harness) is required.
1910.28(b)(1)(i) In construction, which OSHA defines as
Except as provided elsewhere in this section, the construction work, alteration, and/or repair,
employer must ensure that each employee on a including painting and decorating, the
walking-working surface with an unprotected requirements for fall protection are slightly
side or edge that is 4 feet (1.2 m) or more above different.
a lower level is protected from falling by one or
more of the following: 191026.501(b)(1)
(a) Guardrail systems; Each employee on a walking/working surface
(b) Safety net systems; or (horizontal and vertical surface) with an
(c) Personal fall protection systems, such as unprotected side or edge which is 6 feet or more
personal fall arrest, travel restraint, or above a lower level shall be protected from falling
positioning systems. by the use of guardrail systems, safety net systems,
or personal fall arrest systems.
In most cases, since general industry is NOT
a construction environment, fall protection Unlike in general industry, the construction
is provided using guardrails that are required standard for OSHA requires protection of a
as part of building code. OHSA and building side 6 feet or more above a lower level. The
codes are very specific about how these means and methods of protection have not

24 • WINTER 2020 BASIC FALL PROTECTION

 SAFETY CORNER

PHOTO: © ISTOCKPHOTO.COM/PORTFOLIO/IBRAVE

changed; you can still use guardrails, personal 1910.29(b)

fall protection, or safety nets. However, the (1) The top edge height of top rails, or equivalent
height at which height protection becomes guardrail system members, are 42 inches, plus
required has changed. It is worthwhile or minus 3 inches, above the walking-working
to mention that OSHA 1910.269, Power surface. The top edge height may exceed
Generation, Transmission and Distribution 45 inches, provided the guardrail system meets
generally follows the construction standard all other required criteria.
(2) Midrails, screens, mesh, intermediate
for fall protection (1926 Subpart M) with
vertical members, solid panels, or equivalent
some slight differences. These differences
intermediate members are installed between
usually pertain to working on transmission
the walking-working surface and the top
towers, poles, and protection from falls due to edge of the guardrail system as follows when
electrical shock and flash. there is not a wall or parapet that is at least
21 inches high:
(i) Midrails are installed at a height midway
W H AT I S RE QU IR E D?
between the top edge of the guardrail
OSHA and building codes present very specific system and the walking-working surface;
requirements for guardrails to properly protect (ii) Screens and mesh extend from the
employees from falls. Per OSHA’s general walking-working surface to the top rail
industry standard, guardrails must adhere to and along the entire opening between
the following: top rails supports;

BASIC FALL PROTECTION NETAWORLD • 25

SAFETY CORNER
(iii) Intermediate vertical members (such Personal fall protection must consist and adhere
as balusters) are installed no more to the following, which is summarized from the
than 19 inches apart; and construction standard:
(iv) Other equivalent intermediate
members (such as additional midrails 1926.502(d)
and architectural panels) are installed (1) Connectors shall be drop forged, pressed
so that the openings are not more than or formed steel, or made of equivalent
19 inches wide. materials.
(3) Guardrail systems are capable of (2) Connectors shall have a corrosion-resistant
withstanding, without failure, a force of at finish, and all surfaces and edges shall be
least 200 pounds applied in a downward smooth to prevent damage to interfacing
or outward direction within 2 inches of the parts of the system.
top edge, at any point along the top rail. (3) Dee-rings and snaphooks shall have a
(4) When the 200-pound test load is applied in minimum tensile strength of 5,000 pounds.
a downward direction, the top rail of the (4) Dee-rings and snaphooks shall be proof-
guardrail system must not deflect to a height tested to a minimum tensile load of 3,600
of less than 39 inches above the walking- pounds without cracking, breaking, or
working surface; taking permanent deformation.
(5) Midrails, screens, mesh, intermediate (5) Snaphooks shall be sized to be compatible
vertical members, solid panels, and other with the member to which they are connected
equivalent intermediate members are to prevent unintentional disengagement of
capable of withstanding, without failure, the snaphook by depression of the snaphook
a force of at least 150 pounds applied in keeper by the connected member, or shall be
any downward or outward direction at any a locking type snaphook designed and used
point along the intermediate member. to prevent disengagement of the snaphook
(6) Guardrail systems are smooth-surfaced by the contact of the snaphook keeper by
to protect employees from injury, such as the connected member. Effective January 1,
punctures or lacerations, and to prevent 1998, only locking type snaphooks shall be
catching or snagging of clothing. used.
(7) The ends of top rails and midrails do not (6) Unless the snaphook is a locking type and
overhang the terminal posts, except where designed for the following connections,
the overhang does not pose a projection snaphooks shall not be engaged:
hazard for employees. (i) directly to webbing, rope or wire rope;
(8) Steel banding and plastic banding are not (ii) to each other;
used for top rails or midrails. (iii) to a dee-ring to which another
(9) Top rails and midrails are at least snaphook or other connector is attached;
0.25 inches in diameter or in thickness. (iv) to a horizontal lifeline; or
(v) to any object which is incompatibly
There are a few differences for temporary shaped or dimensioned in relation to
guardrails in the construction standard from the the snaphook such that unintentional
requirements set forth in the general Industry disengagement could occur by the
standard, but they are negligible. Many of these connected object being able to depress
requirements for the construction of guardrails the snaphook keeper and release itself.
are used as part of building codes. (7) On suspended scaffolds or similar work
platforms with horizontal lifelines which
If a guardrail is infeasible, personal fall may become vertical lifelines, the devices
protection or a safety net must be used, and used to connect to a horizontal lifeline shall
OSHA has very specific requirements for be capable of locking in both directions on
guardrail use and construction. the lifeline.

26 • WINTER 2020 BASIC FALL PROTECTION

 SAFETY CORNER
(8) Horizontal lifelines shall be designed, (ii) limit maximum arresting force on an
installed, and used, under the supervision employee to 1,800 pounds when used
of a qualified person, as part of a complete with a body harness;
personal fall arrest system, which maintains (iii) be rigged such that an employee can
a safety factor of at least two. neither free fall more than 6 feet, nor
(9) Lanyards and vertical lifelines shall have a contact any lower level;
minimum breaking strength of 5,000 pounds. i. This is 4 feet in the General
(10) When vertical lifelines are used, each employee Industry standard, as discussed
shall be attached to a separate lifeline. previously
(11) Lifelines shall be protected against being cut (iv) bring an employee to a complete stop
or abraded. and limit maximum deceleration
(12) Self-retracting lifelines and lanyards which distance an employee travels to
automatically limit free fall distance to 2 3.5 feet; and,
feet or less shall be capable of sustaining (v) have sufficient strength to withstand
a minimum tensile load of 3,000 pounds twice the potential impact energy of
applied to the device with the lifeline or an employee free falling a distance
lanyard in the fully extended position. of 6 feet, or the free fall distance
(13) Self-retracting lifelines and lanyards which permitted by the system, whichever is
do not limit free fall distance to 2 feet (0.61 less.
m) or less, ripstitch lanyards, and tearing (17) The attachment point of the body belt shall
and deforming lanyards shall be capable be located in the center of the wearer’s back.
of sustaining a minimum tensile load of The attachment point of the body harness
5,000 pounds (22.2 kN) applied to the shall be located in the center of the wearer’s
device with the lifeline or lanyard in the back near shoulder level, or above the
fully extended position. wearer’s head.
(14) Ropes and straps (webbing) used in (18) Body belts, harnesses, and components shall
lanyards, lifelines, and strength components be used only for employee protection (as part
of body belts and body harnesses shall be of a personal fall arrest system or positioning
made from synthetic fibers. device system) and not to hoist materials.
(i) When work is to be performed near (19) Personal fall arrest systems and components
electrical power lines or equipment it subjected to impact loading shall be
must be Arc Rated. immediately removed from service and shall
(15) Anchorages used for attachment of personal not be used again for employee protection
fall arrest equipment shall be independent until inspected and determined by a
of any anchorage being used to support competent person to be undamaged and
or suspend platforms and capable of suitable for reuse.
supporting at least 5,000 pounds per (20) The employer shall provide for prompt rescue
employee attached, or shall be designed, of employees in the event of a fall or shall
installed, and used as follows: assure that employees are able to rescue
(i) as part of a complete personal fall themselves.
arrest system which maintains a safety (21) Personal fall arrest systems shall be inspected
factor of at least two; and prior to each use for wear, damage
(ii) under the supervision of a qualified and other deterioration, and defective
person. components shall be removed from service.
(16) Personal fall arrest systems, when stopping a (22) Body belts shall be at least one and five-
fall, shall: eighths (1 5/8) inches (4.1 cm) wide.
(i) limit maximum arresting force on an (23) Personal fall arrest systems shall not be
employee to 900 pounds when used attached to guardrail systems, nor shall they
with a body belt; be attached to hoists with few exceptions.

BASIC FALL PROTECTION NETAWORLD • 27

SAFETY CORNER
(24) When a personal fall arrest system is used at 29 CFR 1910, General Industry Standards
hoist areas, it shall be rigged to allow the and Regulations in Subpart D – Walking and
movement of the employee only as far as the Working Surfaces and Subpart R – Special
edge of the walking/working surface. Industries, and in OSHA 1926, Construction
Industry Regulations under Subpart M – Fall
Protection.
C ONC LUSION
Falls are the number-one cause of injury and
death in industry. Understanding when it Paul Chamberlain has been the Safety
is needed and how to employ it correctly, Manager for American Electrical Testing
which includes providing the right equipment Co., LLC since 2009. He has been in the
safety field for the past 21 years, working
to prevent an employee fall, is important
for various companies and in various
to mitigate that potential injury. More industries. He received a Bachelor of
information and other specifics regarding Science in safety and environmental
fall protection can be found under OSHA protection from Massachusetts Maritime Academy.



TECH QUIZ

No. 132

PROTECTIVE RELAYING
James (Jim) R. White,
Vice President of Training
Services, has worked for
Shermco Industries Inc. B Y JA M E S R . W H I TE , Shermco Industries
since 2001. He is a NFPA
Certified Electrical Safety
Compliance Professional This edition of Tech Quiz covers protective relays. Many years ago, as I was teaching
and a NETA Level 4 Senior a protective relay class, a student asked, “What are these things?” I replied, “Relays,”
Technician. Jim is NETA’s
principal member on NFPA to which he answered, “No, relays are those little black plastic things that go
Technical Committee NFPA click-click.” I made sure to call them protective relays from then on. Things in the
70E®, Electrical Safety in protective relaying field have progressed rapidly over the years, and digital protective
the Workplace®, NETA’s
principal representative on relays are now the norm as is digital test equipment.
National Electrical Code®
Code-Making Panel (CMP)
13, and represents NETA
1. One question always seen on the NETA 3. What does Figure 1 illustrate?
on ASTM International exams is about protective relay ANSI a. Mho relay characteristic
Technical Committee numbering. What is the protective relay b. Ohm relay characteristic
F18, Electrical Protective number for a synchronizing relay? c. Reactance relay characteristic
Equipment for Workers. a. 25 d. Offset relay characteristic
Jim is Shermco Industries’
principal member on NFPA
b. 32
Technical Committee for c. 52 X
NFPA 70B, Recommended d. 86
nZ L
Practice for Electrical
Equipment Maintenance 2. Which protective relay looks inside a
and represents AWEA on
the ANSI/ISEA Standard
generator?
203 Secondary Single-Use a. Distance relaying
Flame Resistant Protective b. Mho relays
Clothing for Use Over c. Ohm relays R
Primary Flame Resistant d. Loss-of-excitation relays
Protective Clothing. An
IEEE Senior Member, Jim
received the IEEE/IAS/PCIC
Electrical Safety Excellence Figure 1: Which Relay?
Award in 2011 and NETA’s
Outstanding Achievement
Award in 2013. Jim was
Chairman of the IEEE
Electrical Safety Workshop
in 2008 and is currently
Vice-Chair for the IEEE IAS/
PCIC Safety Subcommittee.

30 • WINTER 2020 TECH QUIZ

 TECH QUIZ
4. Looking at the internal schematic in Figure b
2, identify the following components:

a. _____________________________ d
_____________________________ S1

b. _____________________________
a S1
_____________________________

c. _____________________________
_____________________________

d. _____________________________

_____________________________
c
1 5 7

2 6 8
= SHORT FINGERS

Figure 2: Internal Schematic

See answers on page 116.

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TECH TIPS

GROUND
TESTING
PROCEDURES
BY J EFF J OW ET T, Megger

Effective ground testing is an informed combination of instrumentation

and procedure. Accuracy, resolution, safety, noise suppression, graphics,
clamp features, and general reliability are all critical, as they are with any
electrical testing. But effective and accurate ground testing depends as
much on adherence to procedure as it does on quality of instrumentation.
If the operator does not understand and diligently apply correct procedure,
the highest quality instrument will be little more than a waste of money.
Some relatively common electrical tests basically amount to connecting
a pair of leads and pressing a test button, but not so ground testing!
Random hookup and intuitive operation get the operator nowhere.

FA LL OF P OT E NTI AL electrode being tested. The unique frequency

The basis for ground testing is found in the of the square wave provides a test signal against
fundamental procedure known as fall of which the tester can measure.
potential (FOP). A long test lead — often as
long as the operator can provide or manage Measurement is accomplished by means of
— is stretched out with a metal rod or the second test circuit: potential. A long lead
probe clipped to the end. When the tester is is similarly strung out, and a metal probe is
energized, a current circuit is established by an driven into the soil. This is normally in the
alternating square wave through the soil to the direction of the current probe but need not be

32 • WINTER 2020 GROUND TESTING PROCEDURES

 TECH TIPS

if obstructions impede. This circuit measures

voltage drop caused by soil resistance, and
the two measured parameters — current
and potential — calculate resistance through
Ohm’s Law. The tester displays resistance to the
location point of the potential probe.

This may sound simple, but it isn’t. The

problem lies in determining just what is being
measured. Move the potential probe, and
the tester will calculate a new resistance to
the new location. Even if the distance to the
probe is maintained constant but in a different
direction, the reading may differ. This is due to
local soil anomalies from one probe placement
to another. This is where correct procedure
defines a reliable test. Indeed, if no study is
done by the operator and the leads are merely
stretched out for their lengths and a reading
taken, a correct measurement may be achieved.
Unfortunately, this is often done in the field,
but it is pure luck. Figure 1: Successful FOP Test with Instrument Setup

The correct procedure is to take an arbitrary

number of measurements in a line and graph
the distance at which the reading was taken
versus resistance at that point (Figure 1).

What is hoped for is a level graph line at a

satisfactorily low value. This accomplishes
two things: It identifies the steadily rising
graph where the measured ground resistance
runs directly into the extraneous resistance
of the current probe, and it reveals local soil
inconsistencies that could severely distort a
single reading (Figure 2).

S I M P L IF IE D FA LL OF
PO T E N T IA L
Fall of potential is the best overall method,
but it requires considerable work and possibly
too much room to stretch leads. What then?
Other methods have been derived, some for the
purpose of saving time and others for dealing Figure 2: Comparison of Failed and successful FOP Graphs. The
with difficult test conditions. The first of these, continuously rising graph line (top) may include correct resistance
called simplified fall of potential, requires reading, but it is unrecognizable. The extended horizontal line in the
only three measurements rather than enough correct test (bottom) clearly identifies ground resistance.

GROUND TESTING PROCEDURES NETAWORLD • 33

TECH TIPS

to draw a graph line for possibly hundreds of reading at 62% may not be representative. It
feet. A simple and easy mathematical proof is accepted at the operator’s risk unless the site
substitutes for drawing the graph. The most has previously been proven by more rigorous
atypical of the readings is mathematically prospecting. The rule is a quick and handy
compared to the average and then calculated backup test on sites where distances and
as a percentage accuracy. The operator makes directions have been established by rigorous
a decision as to whether this is an acceptable testing. But a new test runs the risk of a gamble.
accuracy. If so, the average is submitted as the
test result. If all three readings were the same,
then this would provide added assurance. But Slope
non-homogeneity of soil, especially around The other reason for established test procedures
graded construction sites, often precludes this. is to effectively address difficult situations. The
main challenge is insufficient space in which
An obvious spinoff here is to dispense with to extend test leads far enough to separate the
any math and merely move the potential probe resistance field around the current probe from
back and forth a few times and decide whether that of the electrode being measured. A coherent
the readings fall reasonably well together. This FOP graph cannot be constructed, and the
could be referred to as the eyeball method. graph line continues to rise as more resistance is
It lacks genuine method but is probably the
added with each move of the potential probe. By
most widely used procedure, at least for less
far the most popular means of dealing with this
demanding locations. An experienced operator
issue is the slope method (Figure 3).
may indeed have sufficiently keen powers of
discernment, but if third parties are involved
If the graphed resistance line continues to rise,
(i.e. inspectors, clients, insurance, lawyers),
most likely the correct value is there somewhere
it may be more practical to do the math and
— it just can’t be discerned from viewing the
submit the report.
graph. Still, even a partial FOP graph can
come in handy. Only three measurements are
62% R ULE necessary for the proof. These are at 20%, 40%,
Finally, the 62% rule brings simplicity down and 60% of the distance to the current probe.
to its base level. Mathematics tracing back to From these three numbers, a slope coefficient,
the ancient Greek scholars supports the 62% typically referenced by the Greek letter μ, is
rule. But none of that is necessary to apply to calculated and referenced to a table commonly
ground testing. All the ground test operator available in the ground testing literature. As the
needs to know is that the 62% position on an slope coefficient represents the distance to the
FOP graph is the one that will give the most potential probe over the distance to the current
accurate reading. probe and the latter is known, the distance at
which the correct ground resistance reading
So why aren’t all ground test readings taken at should be taken is calculated by solving this
that position and be done with it? The answer simple equation: dp/dc = μ for dp.
is because the mathematics is based on an ideal
model, and few construction sites, industrial The actual ground resistance reading can then
sites, or anywhere else are likely to conform to be determined by either reading the graph line
ideality. Grading mixes topsoils from different or physically placing a potential probe at that
locations. The soil may be naturally stony. distance and taking the reading. But suppose
There may be a large subterranean rock, power the calculated μ value cannot be found on the
cable, water main, ground water, or other non- table? That would indicate the resistance field
uniformity to contend with. Put simply, the of the current probe is contained completely

34 • WINTER 2020 GROUND TESTING PROCEDURES

 TECH TIPS

within that of the test ground and cannot be

successfully determined. What then?

Intersecting Curves
The fallback is intersecting curves. This is a
difficult and tedious procedure to be avoided
if possible, but it works when nothing else will.
Two sets of graphs are constructed. One set is
of three portions of FOP graphs working from
an edge of the grid. These will keep rising. If Figure 3: Typical Slope Method Layout
they did not, they would be complete FOP
graphs and intersecting curves wouldn’t be
necessary. But since these are not readable FOP
graphs, where is the 62% distance? For that, a
second set of graphs is constructed by selecting
arbitrary points for the electrical center of
the grid at a distance x from the connection
on the edge of the grid and then locating the
62% accordingly. The arbitrary values of x are
plotted against the 62% resistances on each of
the curves. These three graph lines will coincide
at one point (Figure 4) for the correct distance
of x from the true electrical center of the grid
to the point of attachment of the test lead(s) at
the edge. All other values for x are wrong (not Figure 4: Center of Triangle Formed by
the true electrical center), and so the resistances Graph Lines is Ground Resistance
will scatter, with only the correct resistance
being common to all three graphs.

Four Potential
Another problem associated with applying FOP
to large grids is that their shapes can become
more and more asymmetrical, rendering it
increasingly difficult to apply even a fair guess
as to the electrical center. Since these grids can
also have very low resistances, it is easy to fall
into incoherent results if a proven method isn’t
followed. A means of addressing this is the
four potential method, but unlike slope and
intersecting curves, it can require prohibitively
long leads. The tester is connected to an arbitrary
point on the edge of the grid. Leads are stretched
in a straight line, and six critical values are taken
at 0.2, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, and 0.8 of the distance
to the current probe (Figure 5). These results are
processed through four simple + and – formulae Figure 5: Typical Layout for Four Potential Method

GROUND TESTING PROCEDURES NETAWORLD • 35

TECH TIPS

switch positions, and physical shunting is

not necessary. Three test probes are placed
in a triangle around the ground electrode
being tested, and six two-point resistance
measurements are taken between each pair of
probes and between each probe and the ground
under test (Figure 6). Similar to four potential,
these six test results are processed through
four simple equations for resistance of the test
ground, and agreement provides assurance.

Dead Earth
Finally, under the worst of urban conditions,
with virtually no room for leads or place to
drive probes, the two-point star delta test
becomes the only option. The second test lead
is attached to any convenient low-resistance
return: a metal fence post, building structure,
Figure 6: Star Delta Test Configuration or best of all, the water pipe system. Test
current circulates through the earth to the
that yield the correct ground resistance. The water pipe system or other connection and
four results should substantially agree, imparting back to the tester through a lead (Figure 7). A
confidence to the calculation. series loop is measured, and its success counts
on the return element being of negligible
resistance. This is commonly called the dead
Star Delta earth method because the return is not part of
Two methods remain for confines so tight an electrical system. It’s not especially accurate
that even minimal extension of current and or reliable, but sometimes it’s all that remains.
potential leads is prohibitive. One of these is
star delta. The tester is shunted into a two–
terminal configuration, either X – PC or CONCLUSI ON
C1P1 – P2C2. Modern testers have selector A ground test performed by random hookup will
likely yield some result, but it’s no more reliable
than rolling dice. Because the earth is so vast,
adherence to established procedure is mandatory.
Know the procedures, where and why they apply,
and results will be trustworthy and effective.

Jeffrey R. Jowett is a Senior Applications

Engineer for Megger in Valley Forge,
Pennsylvania, serving the manufacturing
lines of Biddle, Megger, and Multi-
Amp for electrical test and measurement
instrumentation. He holds a BS in biology
and chemistry from Ursinus College. He
was employed for 22 years with James G. Biddle Co., which
became Biddle Instruments and is now Megger.
Figure 7: Dead Earth Test Setup

36 • WINTER 2020 GROUND TESTING PROCEDURES

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COVER STORY

CHALLENGES IN
TRANSFORMER
PROTECTION
TESTING

BY SCOT T COOP ER, OMICRON electronics

While the basic premise of transformer differential protection is

straightforward, numerous features are employed in modern relay
algorithms to compensate for challenges presented by the transformer
differential application. As a result, developing appropriate test quantities
and properly quantifying results can be challenging with traditional
functional differential testing.

40 • WINTER 2020 CHALLENGES IN TRANSFORMER PROTECTION TESTING

 COVER STORY
frequently performed throughout the life cycle
of a relay. During commissioning, this type of
test can further assure whether threshold and
time elements are set according to the settings
specified by engineering. The following sections
describe typical tests and their challenges.

Pickup Testing
Even the simple differential element pickup
test, when performed manually, requires the
test designer to calculate the nominal operating
current amplitude, or tap, for each winding.
The currents on the winding are simply
increased from zero until the relay trips. The
pickup current value is then converted back to
per-unit and compared to the setpoint.

Slope Testing
For differential characteristic tests in the slope
region, the proper phase shift is determined
from the transformer three-line diagram. For
three-phase tests, balanced quantities of a given
multiple of tap and phase shift matching the
application are applied to two or more current
windings, which simulates a balanced load.
Currents on one side are then incrementally
increased until the differential element
operates. For tests of a single differential
element phase, realistic through-fault current
phasors must be calculated. Evaluating the
results of slope characteristic tests is not
straightforward as there is significant variation
in the restraint current calculation between
PHOTO: © ISTOCKPHOTO.COM/PORTFOLIO/MINEMERO
differential relay manufacturers such as the
maximum per-unit phase current, minimum
per-unit phase current, average per-unit
phase current, sum of the per-unit phase
currents, or other calculations. In addition,
CHALLENGES IN TRADITIONAL some differential relays incorporate a reference
FUNCTIONAL TESTING winding in the restraint calculation that can be
A traditional functional test assures that all fixed or calculated automatically.
measurements and derived quantities are
measured and calculated accurately, and that If the simulation of single-phase faults is
the overall relay hardware — including inputs desired, calculation of test values is more
and outputs — function properly. Therefore, complex, and the relay’s method of zero-
the test quantities of a traditional functional sequence elimination must be considered. To
test are defined as a sequence of steady- simplify this process, dedicated software tools
state or phasor values. This type of testing is exist that calculate the required steady state

CHALLENGES IN TRANSFORMER PROTECTION TESTING NETAWORLD • 41

COVER STORY
ldiff
lop (pu)
12
11 87R Restrained Element
U87P
10
9
8
SLP2
7 SLP1
6
5
4 DIOPR
3
2
1
O87P
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
DIRTR IRT lrst (pu)
lbias ²

Figure 1: Transformer Differential Relay Figure 2: Adaptive Slope Characteristic and

Incorporating a Cubic Spline in the Differential Supervisory Relay Word Bits Used by SEL-487E
Operating Characteristic Transformer Differential Relay

quantities by using an internal transformer security mode. Of course, traditional ramping

model. The software module can then directly tests cannot be used in these cases. Instead, the
inject the quantities, measure back the pick- characteristic is verified by applying a series
up or trip signals, and assess the steady state of tests incorporating rest, pre-fault, and fault
accuracy. These tools have limitations when the states.
relay applies adaptive characteristics or works
in the time domain instead of the frequency
domain. Inrush and Overexcitation
Blocking
To further complicate testing, modern relays To restrain the differential element during
incorporate several additional characteristic magnetizing inrush, most relays use both the
features. For example, some relays incorporate 2nd and 4th harmonic content of the calculated
cubic splines to smooth the transition between phase differential currents (Figure 3).
slope 1 and slope 2 (Figure 1). Testing in
the cubic spline region requires additional During inrush, 2nd harmonic content of the
calculations. resultant current varies with closing angle.
To prevent mis-operations of the differential
Another feature that can complicate testing
is an adaptive slope characteristic (Figure 2).
These schemes are applied to restrain operation
of the differential elements for external faults
that might cause current transformer (CT)
saturation, unbalancing the differential, and
cause a mis-operation.

When functional testing a differential

characteristic incorporating an adaptive slope,
the applied slope is determined by pre-fault
current. To test slope 2 on these devices, pre- Figure 3: COMTRADE Recording of
fault state duration and pre-fault current Transformer Inrush Showing Time Domain Plot
amplitude are coordinated with the relay (left) and Calculated Harmonic Content at the
settings, which causes the relay to shift to a high Time Indicated by the Yellow Marker (right)

42 • WINTER 2020 CHALLENGES IN TRANSFORMER PROTECTION TESTING

 COVER STORY
element due to closing angle, modern digital
relays incorporate a variety of special schemes.
The most common uses the highest measured

Differential/Operate Current
harmonic in any phase to restrain all phases.

2
However, other devices use cross-phase

pe
Slo
averaging, where the average even harmonic
content in all phases is used to restrain the Trip Region
differential in all phases, which can substantially 1
pe
complicate testing. In these cases, test operators 5th Harmonic Pickup Slo

frequently use only three-phase tests, leaving MPU

these features untested. To test these elements,

composite waveforms containing fundamental
frequency and the harmonic under test are
Restraint Current
used. One test method consists of increasing
fundamental current until the relay operates, Figure 4: Differential Characteristic Illustrating
then increasing only the harmonic content until Operation of the 5th Harmonic Restraint in
the relay restrains, then calculating the harmonic a Beckwith Transformer Relay. When the 5th
percentage and comparing to the relay settings. harmonic threshold of the differential current is
reached, the differential element pickup setting is
A completely different inrush blocking
increased to prevent mis-operation. As with inrush,
algorithm analyses the current signals in the
testing is performed using a composite waveform
time domain. If the current dwells close to
consisting of the fundamental and 5th harmonic
zero and is unipolar, it is considered an inrush
frequencies.
condition. This method has better sensitivity
on new core materials that generate very low
2nd harmonic content on inrush. This type of
algorithm cannot be tested with traditional
functional testing methods.

In addition to inrush conditions, transformer

magnetizing current can also increase during
transformer overexcitation, possibly resulting
in an improper differential element trip. To
mitigate this possibility, the 5th harmonic
content of the differential current is measured,
and if a preset threshold is reached, the
differential element is either desensitized or
completely restrained (Figure 4).

Restricted Earth Fault Figure 5: Restricted Earth Fault on Transformer Phase (left); Resultant
Phasor Diagram (right)
Restricted earth fault, or ground differential
elements are gaining popularity. Related to
the transformer differential element, restricted Functional testing of these schemes requires
earth fault elements protect against faults the test designer to properly calculate phase-
occurring near the neutral end of wye-connected current phasors for internal and external faults
transformer windings. In these schemes, the to check proper operation. Additional logic is
calculated zero sequence current from the wye also incorporated to create operating windows
winding phase currents is compared to the and provide protection when the transformer is
measured ground current (Figure 5). energized from one side only.

CHALLENGES IN TRANSFORMER PROTECTION TESTING NETAWORLD • 43

COVER STORY
Is This Testing Adequate? a system-based testing solution. The reliability
Even after surmounting the challenges of of a simulation result depends on accurate input
functional testing, the fundamental question of data. To make the testing tool practical for
setting adequacy remains mostly unanswered. technicians and engineers in the field, we must
If the relay does not operate quickly, securely, find a solution that yields numerically stable and
reliable results and apply heuristics where data is
and dependably during a power system event,
not available.
the goal of the protection system has not been
met. There may be a better way.
Transformer Model
SY S T E M -B A S E D TESTI NG Relevant power system scenarios include low-
OF T RANSF OR MER frequency transient events such as faults as well
DIF F E RE NT IA L P ROTECTI ON as low-frequency non-linear phenomena such
A system-based testing approach can reduce as inrushes and overexcitation. High-frequency
testing challenges and ensure the settings are phenomena in the power system are not
relevant to the transformer protection relay due
adequate. The idea is simple:
to internal algorithms and the cut-off frequency
of anti-aliasing hardware filters. Therefore low-
• To ensure the relay trips for an internal
frequency transformer models are suitable for
fault, simulate realistic internal faults to
system-based transformer protection testing.
test the response of the relay.
• To ensure the relay is secure against The more physical, geometrically based, and
tripping for through-faults, simulate detailed the transformer model is, the more
realistic through-faults and verify the relay accurate simulation results will be. However,
does not operate. Thus, a system-based parameter availability imposes the major
testing solution calculates the testing constraint on the accuracy of the simulation
quantities within a subtransient power results in the field. From a field technician
system simulation, directly outputs the perspective, the main source of information is
signals with an amplifier, measures the the transformer nameplate. Information about
response, and assesses the result. core material and dimensions, number of
winding turns, and geometry of the winding is
not normally available. Thus, it is important that
Transformer Simulation
the model can be parametrized from nameplate
When defining a system-based test case, do data using reasonable heuristics that are based on
not think about the element or algorithm guidelines provided in international standards
under test; instead, consider the power system and by expert working groups.
incidents this element is supposed to act on,
for example: The mutually coupled coils model that is
used in the described solution was proposed
• Faults external to the protected zone by Brandwajn and Dommel and offers a
• Faults internal to the protected zone reasonable compromise between precision
0 Turn-to-turn faults and parameter detail. The same principle is
0 Turn-to-ground faults utilized in various free and commercial EMT
• Inrush during energization simulation tools.
• Transformer overexcitation due to
overvoltage
• CTs saturation and ratio errors External Faults
The fault current contribution to an external
The electromagnetic transient (EMT) simulation phase fault mainly depends on the positive
of these incidents is one of the cornerstones for sequence impedance of the transformer, which

44 • WINTER 2020 CHALLENGES IN TRANSFORMER PROTECTION TESTING

 COVER STORY

6a Positive-Sequence Equivalent Circuit 6b Influence of Three-Limb Core

6c Influence of Grounding Impedance 6d Influence of Wye-Winding with Isolated Neutral

6e Influence of Delta Winding 6f Influence of Compensation Winding

Figure 6: Influence of Various Factors on Two-Winding Transformer Zero-Sequence Equivalent Circuit

can be derived from the short-circuit voltage compensation winding, and neutral grounding.
on the nameplate. However, the simulation of Figure 6a – Figure 6f show how these factors
ground faults requires reasonable zero-sequence affect the zero-sequence equivalent circuit
short-circuit impedances for the transformer of a two-winding transformer. P, S, M,
that are not always available on the nameplate. N, and C in the figure subscripts denote
The zero-sequence impedance is influenced primary, secondary, magnetizing, neutral, and
by the core type, vector group, presence of a compensation, respectively.

CHALLENGES IN TRANSFORMER PROTECTION TESTING NETAWORLD • 45

COVER STORY
The effect of core type and compensation winding the case of turn-to-ground faults and into three
on transformer zero-sequence impedance can be sub-coils in case of turn-to-turn faults, therefore
estimated using heuristics, based on the guidelines allowing a branch with a fault resistance RF to
in ISO/IEC 60076-8:1997. Accordingly, a be inserted in the newly introduced terminals
system-based testing solution heuristically between the sub-coils (Figure 7).
estimates unknown impedances:
Determining the short-circuit impedance of
and the split sub-coils requires knowledge of the
inductive leakage factors, which again are
based on a transformer positive-sequence, not specified by a transformer nameplate. To
short-circuit impedance where: estimate inductive leakage factors, detailed
transformer geometrical data would be required.
Since the data is not commonly accessible for
relay protection engineers, we are left to rely on
heuristic estimations of inductive leakage factors.

Internal Faults Different heuristics were proposed in M.

Kezunovic et al, Darwish et al, and Palmer-
For the simulation of internal transformer Buckle et al. Keeping our use case in mind, the
faults, the system-based testing solution relies
most challenging scenario for the sensitivity of
on a widely accepted method described in
a restricted earth fault protection function is
Bastard et al. The method extends an original,
faults close to the neutral with just a few short-
mutually-coupled-coils transformer model,
circuited turns and high fault resistance. In
splitting the faulted coil into two sub-coils in
such a scenario, the principle of proportionality
plays a higher role than the principle of
leakage. In other words, a contribution of fault
and winding resistance to the equivalent short-
circuit impedance is higher than a contribution
of leakage inductance. Therefore, different
inductive leakage factor heuristics yield similar
simulation results for many test scenarios.

Saturating Core
Figure 7: Splitting Faulted Coil of Wye Winding into Two All differential relays must incorporate features
Parts (left) and Faulted Coil of Delta Winding into Three to provide security during magnetizing inrush
Parts (right). and transformer overexcitation, both sources
of significant differential current during these
events. To achieve realistic simulated waveforms
for these phenomena, the non-linear saturation
characteristic of the transformer core must be
simulated. Therefore, an iterative approach
for inclusion of non-linear inductors into the
solution is utilized.

To simulate the non-linear transformer core,

the system-based testing solution takes winding
resistances and the magnetizing branch out of
Figure 8: Switching from Series to Parallel R-L Circuit the mutually-coupled transformer coils model

46 • WINTER 2020 CHALLENGES IN TRANSFORMER PROTECTION TESTING

 COVER STORY
and transforms the magnetizing branches from Relay
series R-L circuits to parallel R-L circuits with
non-linear inductor (Figure 8).
Infeed Transformer
CB A CT A CT B CB B
For a core-type transformer with concentric
Y d5
windings, Cigre Working Group 33.02
recommends placing the non-linear inductor CT-N
across a coil closest to the core. The saturation
of yokes and unwound limbs (for a five-limb
transformer) in the transformer model are
neglected, as a reasonable estimation of their Y d5
saturation characteristics requires detailed
knowledge of transformer design parameters
or results of non-standard transformer tests. Figure 9: Single-Line Diagram and Transformer
The advantage of using only three non- Parameterization for System-Based Testing
linear inductances per transformer includes
a better simulation performance and
simpler parametrization compared to more Colombo and Santagostino and usually do not
sophisticated non-linear transformer models. have to be adapted.

For scenarios with residual flux (or remanence),

the testing solution uses a non-linear hysteretic Test Cases
inductor model based on the principles of Defining a system-based test document requires
EMTP Type-96, which is widely accepted in some rethinking of existing testing procedures.
power system simulations. For example, instead of defining a 2nd harmonic
content, we simulate the energization of the
power transformer at various closing angles.
S E T T IN G UP AND Instead of defining a differential and restraining
EXE C U T I N G A current, we simulate through faults and internal
S Y S T E M- B AS E D T E S T differential zone faults. All these scenarios can
While all these details of the simulation be defined within a single-line diagram of the
are daunting, they are taken care of by the transformer and the surrounding power system.
modelling in the software. Compared to
functional testing, the test setup is much From a systematic standpoint, a test document
simpler. Starting from a standard power starts with a metering check, followed by test
transformer topology (Figure 9), only the CT cases for stability. The differential relay is not
ratios and the transformer nameplate data must supposed to trip for normal load current or
be entered: faults on the buses outside of the differential
zone. It may happen that the overcurrent
• Vector group element trips with some time delay for outside
• Rated voltages faults. The fault can be dragged from a toolbar
• Rated power in the software and dropped on the bus.
• Short circuit voltage / impedance
• No-load current To test the differential trip, the fault can also be
• Core type dropped on the power transformer. For a turn-
to-ground fault close to the star-point (<5%)
The parameters for the saturating core are a differential element might not be sensitive
set automatically to typical values according enough; therefore, a REF element, if applied,
to heuristic estimation of magnetization will pick up the fault. Similarly, for turn-to-
characteristic parameters outlined in Cigre and turn faults with both terminals close to each

CHALLENGES IN TRANSFORMER PROTECTION TESTING NETAWORLD • 47

COVER STORY

a) Fault incident during energization

b) Sympathetic inrush due to energization of parallel transformer

c) CT Saturation during external fault

Figure 10: Time Domain Plot from a System-Based Testing Case Illustrating Inrush and Resultant
CT Saturation

other, the differential element might not be without adding complexity. Line protection
sensitive enough; a negative sequence element systems where the transformer is within the
might pick up this type of fault. protected zone can also be easily tested.

To test stability during inrush, both breakers

are in an open state. Within the test case, an BENEFI TS & DRAWBAC K S
event will close the breaker, causing an inrush The biggest benefits of the system-based
condition. By changing the closing angle, the test approach are simplicity and the ability
amount of inrush in each phase can be altered. to ensure the protection system is working
under real-world conditions. As it is relay
Apart from these major test cases, additional independent, the test document for the same
real-world scenarios can be tested, including type of transformer is identical, independent
sympathetic inrush, fault during inrush, of the relay manufacturer. And because it
external faults with CT saturation, and only simulates realistic incidents, it will work
overexcitation due to overvoltage (Figure 10). for every relay algorithm improvement in the
future.
Since a system-based testing solution can
control multiple test sets from one PC’s On the downside, system-based testing requires
software, three-winding transformers or REF some rethinking of existing testing procedures.
protection can be tested without rewiring the The harmonic content of the test signal during
test setup. Protection schemes for phase shifting an inrush is realistic for the type of transformer,
transformers can be tested the exact same way but it cannot be set exactly below or above a

48 • WINTER 2020 CHALLENGES IN TRANSFORMER PROTECTION TESTING

 COVER STORY
certain threshold. Therefore, functional testing P. Palmer-Buckle, K. Butler, N. Sarma, and A.
still has its place. Kopp. “Simulation of Incipient Transformer
Faults,” 1998 Midwest Symposium on Circuits
and Systems (Cat. No. 98CB36268), Notre
C ON C L U S I ON Dame, IN, USA, 1998.
So where do we invest our precious testing time
CIGRE Working Group 33.02 Internal
and resources? If a differential relay is accurate
Overvoltages. TB 039, Guidelines for
when set to a certain threshold and has been
Representation of Network Elements When
tested several times throughout its lifecycle
Calculating Transients, https://e-cigre.org/
— for example during prequalification —
publication/039-guidelines-for-representation-
functional testing is sufficient. But if the goal
of-network-elements-when-calculating-
of commissioning is to ensure that a differential
transients.
relay and its engineering adequately protect the
power system and transformer, system-based E. Colombo and G. Santagostino. “Results
testing is the right tool. of the Enquiries on Actural Network
Conditions when Switching Magnetizing
and Small Inductive Currents and on
REFERENCES Transformer and Shunt Reactor Saturation
V. Brandwajn, H. W. Dommel, and I. Characteristics,” Electra, Vol. 94, pp. 35-53,
I. Dommel. “Matrix Representation of 1984.
Three-phase N-Winding Transformer for J. G. Frame, N. Mohan, and T. Liu.
Steady-State and Transient Studies,” IEEE “Hysteresis Modeling in an Electromagnetic
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Transient Program,” IEEE Transactions on
Vols. PAS-101, No. 6, pp. 1369-1378, 1982. Power Apparatus and Systems, Vols. PAS-101,
ISO/IEC 60076-8:1997, Power Transformers No. 9, pp. 3404-3412, 1982.
— Application Guide. George Alexander, David Costello, Brad
P. Bastard, P. Bertrand, and M. Meunir. “A Heilman, and Jason Young. “Testing the
Transformer Model for Winding Fault SEL487E Relay Differential Elements,” SEL
Studies,” IEEE Transactions on Power Application Guide, Vol IV AG2010-07, p 11.
Delivery, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 690-699, 1994.
M. Kezunovic, B. Kasztenny, and Z. Scott Cooper is the Application and
Galijasevic. “A New ATP Add-On for Training Engineer for OMICRON in St.
Modeling Internal Faults in Power Petersburg, Florida. He has thirty years of
Transformers,” American Power Conference, experience in a variety of roles including
substation commissioning, application
Chicago, 2000. engineering, power plant operations, and
H. A. Darwish, A. I. Taalab, and H. technical training. He is active in the
IEEE PSRC and has written numerous papers and magazine
E. Labana. “Step-by-Step Simulation
articles. Scott is a graduate of the United States Navy Nuclear
of Transformer Winding Faults for Propulsion program.
Electromagnetic Transient Programs,”
2005/2006 IEEE/PES Transmission and
Distribution Conference and Exhibition,
Dallas, TX, 2006.

CHALLENGES IN TRANSFORMER PROTECTION TESTING NETAWORLD • 49

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FEATURE

INVESTIGATING AN
ELECTROMECHANICAL
DIFFERENTIAL RELAY
MISOPERATION
B Y A L E X R ANG EL , Saber Power Services, LLC

52 • WINTER 2020 INVESTIGATING AN ELECTROMECHANICAL DIFFERENTIAL RELAY MISOPERATION

 FEATURE

Transformer differential protection

based on ANSI 87 is one of the most
common protection methods for large
power transformers due to its outstanding
speed and accuracy. However, given the
complexity of this method when applied on
delta-wye grounded transformers, mistakes
made during the design and/or installation
phases might not be detected promptly and
can eventually cause an undesired operation
— it could take months or years! This
article analyzes the transformer differential
protection schemes of two 25 MVA,
138/12.47 kV transformers feeding a main–
tie–main scheme and investigates how
improper installation and commissioning
of a tie breaker caused a full outage at an
industrial facility.

DIF F E RENTI AL PROTECTI ON

Discussing differential protection starts with one of the
most basic electrical laws: Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL).
The KCL law states: “The algebraic sum of the currents
entering a node (or a closed boundary) is zero.” In
other words, the amount of current that enters an
PHOTO: © ISTOCKPHOTO.COM/PORTFOLIO/JANDRIELOMBARD

electrical node must equal the amount of current

that exits the node. If these currents are unequal,
an unintended path for current flow is present.
Figure 1 shows a basic KCL representation.

Differential relays apply KCL to protect electrical

equipment (e.g. bus, transformer, line) by using
current transformers (CTs), which must be installed
at each connection point to obtain the total current Figure 1: Kirchhoff’s
summation. To perform the summation, each set Current Law
of CTs must be brought into a protective device.
A more modern approach allows the current values to be
transmitted between relays using fiber optics (outside of the
scope of this article).

INVESTIGATING AN ELECTROMECHANICAL DIFFERENTIAL RELAY MISOPERATION NETAWORLD • 53

FEATURE
polarity and their resulting currents into the
relay are 180 degrees out of phase. For a more
thorough explanation of current flow and CT
polarity, refer to “What is so Negative About
Negative Sequence? Part 2,” NETA World,
Summer 2018. Figure 2 shows a typical bus
differential protection scheme.

TRANSFORMER
DI FFERENTI AL
PROTECTI ON USI NG
ELECTROMECHANI CAL
RELAYS
Transformer differential protection was
originally performed using electromechanical
Figure 2: Bus Differential Protection Scheme relays. Many of these devices are still in service
today and are now available with digital relays
as well. These electromechanical relays require
a set of currents at each side of the transformer
(restraint currents) to undergo physical
summation (operate current) to determine
the fault location (internal or external) using a
percentage characteristic method. For a detailed
explanation of this method, refer to the ABB
Type HU and HU-1 Transformer Differential
Relays Instruction Manual. Figure 3 shows the
restraint and operate currents in a differential
electromechanical relay.
Figure 3: Differential Protection Using an Electromechanical Relay
(Simplified) One of the biggest challenges in transformer
It is important to note that CT polarity in differential protection is the delta-wye
these systems plays an important role: The CTs grounded transformer configuration, which
must be installed and wired so that the total is widely applied. In this configuration, the
current summation adds up to zero on load delta-side windings connect one side of a given
and external faults. This is only possible if the winding (i.e. the polarity side) to the opposite
CTs at each end of the apparatus have opposite side of an adjacent winding (i.e. non-polarity

Figure 4: 30-Degree Shift on a Delta-Wye Grounded Transformer

54 • WINTER 2020 INVESTIGATING AN ELECTROMECHANICAL DIFFERENTIAL RELAY MISOPERATION

 FEATURE

Figure 5: Delta-Connected Secondary CTs

side). With this connection type, currents Note: Proper tap selection must be considered
entering the delta side of the transformer in transformer differential protection. However,
are considered to be phase-to-phase, while in the misoperation being analyzed here, TAP1
currents exiting the wye-grounded side of the and TAP2 were properly selected and did not
transformer are considered to be phase-to- contribute to the issue. Therefore, they will not
ground with all three of the latter windings be discussed further.
grounded on one side. This configuration
creates a 30-degree phase shift between the Figure 5 shows the proper CT configuration to
low- and high-voltage currents, which must be used for transformer differential protection
be considered to properly apply transformer with electromechanical relays. Due to the
differential protection. Figure 4 shows the opposing CT polarity, the restraint currents
phase-angle relationship between the delta- entering the relay are 180 degrees apart.
and wye-grounded primary currents (A phase
shown only). For a more detailed analysis, refer
to Amberg and Rangel’s Tutorial on Symmetrical EXI STI NG SYSTEM
Components. The system discussed in this paper consists of
two incoming 138 kV transmission lines; each
line feeds a 138 kV breaker. Each breaker then
C U R R E N T C OM P E NS AT ION feeds a 25 MVA, 138 kV/12.47 kV transformer.
A N D E L E C TROM E C H A NIC AL On the low-voltage side, each transformer feeds
R E L AY S a 12.47 kV breaker, which then feeds a 12.47
The previous section described a 30-degree kV bus (identified as bus A and bus B). Each
phase shift between both sides of a transformer. bus provides power to three different feeders
To cancel out the CT secondary currents (and (identified as 1, 2, and 3 on bus A and 4, 5, and
satisfy KCL), this shift must be addressed by 6 on bus B). A connection between bus A and
wye-ground connecting the CTs on the delta bus B exists through a tie breaker connected to
side while delta connecting the CTs on the wye- both buses.
grounded side. This CT delta configuration
creates phase-to-phase secondary currents and CTs on the high-voltage side of the
therefore rotates the phase angles by 30 degrees. transformer are wye-ground connected (CT
With this final shift, both sets of secondary ratio of 100:5), while CTs on the low-voltage
currents have a phase angle difference of 180 side of the transformer are delta connected
degrees. (CT ratio of 1200:5). Since the 12.47 kV

INVESTIGATING AN ELECTROMECHANICAL DIFFERENTIAL RELAY MISOPERATION NETAWORLD • 55

FEATURE

Δ Y Δ
Y

Δ
Δ

Δ Y Δ
Y

Figure 6: One-Line Diagram of Existing System (Simplified)

buses are part of the differential scheme by PHASE-TO-GROUND FA ULT

design, the CTs at the load side of each feeder, On 11/29/2017, a C-phase-to-ground fault
as well as one set of CTs from the tie breaker, occurred downstream of feeder 5. A digital
must be connected to the 87T relays (every relay had recently been installed to protect
set connected in delta and paralleled). Figure feeder 5, and an event report was generated
6 shows a simplified one-line diagram of the during the fault. The event report shows that
system. the fault in the system lasted approximately
three cycles and had a maximum current value
of approximately 2,400 ARMS. During this fault,
differential protection relays 87T1 and 87T2
tripped, and a full blackout was experienced
at this facility (both 138 kV breakers opened).
Figure 7 shows the oscillography generated by
the feeder 5 relay during the ground fault.

TROUBLESHOOTI NG
Site personnel identified the ground fault
downstream of feeder 5, determined that both
87 relays had misoperated, and requested
assistance from a third-party testing company
to investigate the reason for the misoperations.
The relay flags had been cleared, the lockout
relays had been reset, the 138 kV breaker on
the A side was closed (the system became
Figure 7: C-Phase to Ground Fault on Feeder 5

56 • WINTER 2020 INVESTIGATING AN ELECTROMECHANICAL DIFFERENTIAL RELAY MISOPERATION

 FEATURE
partially energized), and loading was kept to a wiring exiting the breaker and b) the restraint
minimum until the root cause was determined. channel at 87T2. The measured currents
were a) 1.0 Amp (expected) and b) 0.6 Amps
The half of the system that was re-energized (unexpected). Figure 8 shows a simplified
had a very low load; therefore, performing schematic of the current testing performed at
troubleshooting and commissioning was feeder 5 and the 87T2 relay (A-phase measured
difficult. Additionally, because the 87T1 relay values only).
was electromechanical, it was not possible to
obtain all restraint currents at once (a digital According to KCL, 0.4 Amps are flowing in an
relay is able to capture these currents through unknown path. Site personnel mentioned that
a triggered event report). It was decided to the tie breaker had been replaced months ago
troubleshoot the other half of the system that due to aging. It was not put in service (i.e. the
was still de-energized and isolated. breaker and the isolating switches remained
opened). However, connections were made
To verify the restraint currents flowing into to put it in service if needed. It was also
87T2, current was injected from the feeder mentioned that the 87T relays had nuisance
breaker CT terminal blocks back into the tripped in the past and that these events
relay. Given that the CT burden is much began to happen shortly after this breaker’s
higher than the wiring and the relay inputs, installation. A visual inspection performed
it was not necessary to lift the wires prior to at the tie breaker’s wiring cabinet revealed
testing. A single balanced Amp was injected at that shorting screws had been installed at
each polarity connection point at the feeder 5 the CT shorting blocks connected to the
breaker CT terminal blocks (ST2X-1, ST4X- 87T relays (Figure 9). Using a digital clamp
1, ST6X-1), and current measurements were meter verified that the missing 0.4 Amps were
taken with a digital clamp meter at a) the field flowing into this unintended path. Since the

Figure 8: Current Testing at Feeder 5 Breaker Figure 9: Tie Breaker CT Terminal Blocks,
(Simplified) Shorting Screws Inserted

INVESTIGATING AN ELECTROMECHANICAL DIFFERENTIAL RELAY MISOPERATION NETAWORLD • 57

FEATURE
CTs are delta-connected, their windings were mismatch between operate and restraint
shorted and a current path through this short currents must be low and according to
was created (refer to Figure 8), which then relay manufacturer specifications.
created an outstanding operate current. This
operate current would become high enough
during an external fault to cause the 87T CONCLUSI ON
relays to erroneously declare an internal fault The process of replacing substation apparatus
and trip. due to aging and/or limitations is very
common, and all new instrumentation devices
introduced into the system (i.e. CTs) must
LE SSONS LE A RNED
be fully tested and commissioned to ensure
Several lessons were learned from these proper operation. Without proper testing and
misoperations: commissioning, mistakes can go undetected
and eventually cause misoperations.
• When replacing substation apparatus,
individual components that are part of the
specific apparatus might affect the system. REFERENCES
In the case of outdoor breakers, current
Alexander, C. and Sadiki, M. Fundamentals of
transformers must be fully tested and
Electric Circuits, 3rd Edition. The McGraw-
commissioned prior to re-energizing the
Hill Companies, Inc., 2007.
system to ensure proper operation.
• The use of electromechanical differential Rangel, A. “What Is So Negative about
relays on a delta-wye grounded transformer Negative Sequence? Part 2.” NETA World,
adds complexity due to the CT delta Summer 2018.
connection on the wye-grounded side ABB, Inc. Type HU and HU-1 Transformer
of the power transformer. These delta- Differential Relays Instruction Manual, 1999.
connected CTs must never be shorted
because the non-polarity side of one phase Amberg, A. and Rangel, A. Tutorial on
is always connected to the polarity side of Symmetrical Components, 1st Edition
another phase. (ebook). Schweitzer Engineering
Laboratories, Inc. Accessed March 7, 2016
• Whenever CTs are introduced into a at https://cdn.selinc.com/assets/Literature/
system but are not to be used, they can be Publications/White%20Papers/LWP0010-01_
connected wye-grounded and shorted out
TutorialSymmetrical-Pt1_AR_20130422.pdf.
(they must never be left open).
• Protection systems (in this case, the
differential relays) must be recommissioned Alex Rangel is a Protection and Controls
anytime they are modified. One simple Engineer for Saber Power Services, LLC.
Alex is NETA Level 4 certified, has been an
check is to meter the operate current
IEEE member for 11 years, and has been
upon loading the power transformer. a registered Professional Engineer (PE) in
A digital clamp meter can be used for the state of Texas since 2014. He received a
electromechanical relays; for digital relays, BSEE and an MSE from the University of
a meter command should suffice. The Texas at Austin in 2009 and 2011, respectively.

58 • WINTER 2020 INVESTIGATING AN ELECTROMECHANICAL DIFFERENTIAL RELAY MISOPERATION

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FEATURE

TESTING TECHNIQUES FOR

PROTECTION-CLASS
CURRENT
TRANSFORMERS
DI N E S H CH H AJ ER an d SUG H OSH K UBER, Megger USA

Relaying current transformers serve as critical components in the design

of a protection scheme. CT performance under fault conditions should
be within its operating characteristics for a true representation of fault
magnitudes and reliable operation of the protection scheme. To ensure
proper installation and operation, CTs are often subjected to one or more
tests performed in accordance with standards including IEEE C57.13.1,
IEC 60044–1, and IEC 60044–6.
IEEE C57.13.1, Guide for Field Testing of require high levels of AC voltage to plot the
Relaying Current Transformers describes field saturation characteristics and determine the
test methods that assure CTs are connected knee point. Special application CTs such as
properly, are of marked ratio and polarity, and TPY, TPZ, or generator CTs may require
are in a condition to perform as designed both thousands of volts to perform this test. This
initially and after being in service for a period requirement not only makes it a challenging
of time. Performing the recommended ratio,
situation in the field environment, but also
polarity, winding resistance, and excitation
poses safety concerns for operating personnel.
tests on each tap of a multiple-tap CT can be
a labor- and time-intensive job. Combined
This conventional method of testing CTs in
with substation assets such as transformers and
circuit breakers with multiple CTs per phase, it the field has been used for years with some
is a complex task to obtain reliable and accurate limitations and drawbacks. With modern
results. advancement in digital processing and solid-
state technology, efforts have been made to
An excitation test performed using the perform those same tests quickly, safely, and
secondary voltage injection method could with a high degree of accuracy and reliability.

62 • WINTER 2020 TESTING TECHNIQUES FOR PROTECTION-CLASS CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

 FEATURE

PHOTO: © ISTOCKPHOTO.COM/PORTFOLIO/DEEPBLUE4YOU

A LT E R N AT IVE T E S T ING Many field-portable instruments are unable to

T E C H N I QU E S deliver that level of AC voltage and wattage.
An excitation test on protection class CTs This makes the test difficult to perform for
utilizing nominal frequency 50/60 Hz some applications and requires significant
sinusoidal voltage signal is one of the most safety precautions that must be taken before
challenging tests to perform, as it requires performing the test. The DC voltage technique
a high voltage/wattage source to drive the can be employed to achieve core saturation
CT into saturation to measure its core and overcome these limitations. IEC 60044-
characteristics. When testing a C800 class CT, 6 Annex B-3 explains the alternate way to
test voltage can typically be around 800 V perform a CT excitation test.
RMS, and for some special cases, 1,300 V may
be required to achieve 1 A excitation current The flux generated in the core can be
for saturation. For some IEC-class CTs, test represented by
voltage can easily reach 4,000 V RMS to
achieve 1 A saturation. (1)

TESTING TECHNIQUES FOR PROTECTION-CLASS CURRENT TRANSFORMERS NETAWORLD • 63

FEATURE

ṽ v
saturation can then be mathematically converted
back to an equivalent 50 Hz/60 Hz saturation.
+ This will then achieve the same result as the
t t conventional AC excitation test technique.
–
Figure 2 shows an excitation test result with
a knee-point voltage of around 14 kV. The
Figure 1: The area under the curve is flux generated using the AC and advantage of the DC method is to eliminate the
DC method. need for higher levels of AC voltage and achieve
the same results by utilizing a DC voltage at or
The integral of voltage over a period of time below the available line voltage. The technique
would be a measure of flux (Φ) produced as allows testing CTs with higher knee-point
shown in equation (1). It can be generated by voltages using the same concept with a slightly
using AC or DC excitation voltage. The area longer test duration. Additionally, lower levels
under the curve reflects the flux produced as of DC test voltage allow safer testing conditions
shown in Figure 1. and a portable, lightweight instrument ideal for
field conditions.
Flux can be increased by utilizing either of the
two methods. Either the time period can be CT demagnetization is an important step to
kept constant as the voltage is increased, or the ensure that the core has no residual magnetism.
voltage can be kept constant with an increase This can be achieved by reducing the hysteresis
in time. The conventional method used by the loops starting from saturation through a series
industry over the years has been to keep the time of similar DC excitation reoccurring cycles in
period constant (or fixed frequency at 50/60Hz) opposite directions with progressively reduced
as the voltage is increased. Alternatively, the magnitudes.
DC voltage can be kept the same and the time
can be prolonged until the core is saturated. By
integrating the constant DC voltage over time, CONCURRENT TESTI N G
the core saturation can be determined. This TECHNI QUE
The conventional testing method works on
the concept of keeping the primary circuit
open, applying an AC voltage to the secondary
winding, and measuring secondary voltage/
current along with primary voltage values to
obtain test parameters such as ratio, polarity,
winding resistance, and excitation characteristics
curve. For a multi-tap CT, these tests are repeated
for each tap either through a manual operation
or by utilizing an automatic switching technique.

The concurrent testing technique uses the

transformer’s ampere-turn principle to obtain
the recommended test results for all the taps
and any inter-tap combination simultaneously.

(2)

The turns ratio (N2/N1) of a CT is a ratio of

Figure 2: Saturation Test with Knee-Point Voltage around 14 kV the applied voltage on the secondary side to the

64 • WINTER 2020 TESTING TECHNIQUES FOR PROTECTION-CLASS CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

 FEATURE
measured voltage on the primary side as shown
in equation (2). The concurrent technique
applies the test voltage across the complete
secondary winding and measures the voltage
across each secondary tap position in addition
to the primary winding induced voltage.
Concurrent testing test connections to a multi-
tap CT can be made as shown in Figure 3.

With those measurement values, the ratio

for each tap position can be calculated
simultaneously as shown in equation 3.

(3)

The excitation characteristics can also be

obtained for all the taps by performing an
excitation test across the complete secondary
winding and measuring voltages across all the
taps throughout the test duration. Measured
tap voltages along with calculated turns
ratios and secondary current can be utilized
to plot the excitation curves for all the tap
combinations concurrently. Figure 3: Multi-Tap CT Concurrent Testing Technique Connection
Setup
A DC winding resistance test for a CT
secondary winding is performed to detect any Furthermore, the test results from AC
shorted turns or high-resistance connection concurrent method are compared with the DC
point(s) in the CT secondary circuit. The concurrent method for accuracy.
same concurrent technique can be employed
to measure the winding resistance of each
tap combination by applying a DC current AC Excitation vs DC
through the entire secondary winding and Excitation Test
measuring the voltage drop across each tap Four types of protection CTs (C400 and
position. C800) with varying saturation characteristics
were tested in the field using the AC and DC
methods explained in the previous section.
C OM PA R AT IVE ANALYSIS The excitation test was conducted between the
This section focuses on the performance X1–X5 taps of the CT. Their characteristics are
characteristics of a CT using two techniques shown in Figure 4 a, b, c, and d.
discussed in the previous sections: the DC
excitation method and the concurrent test From Figure 4, the saturation curves for two
technique. A comparative analysis of test C400 and two C800 CTs obtained from AC
results from excitation tests performed using and DC excitation methods provided similar
the AC method and DC method is discussed. excitation characteristics and knee-point values.
The accuracy of testing a multi-tap CT in AC The difference in knee point measured using
concurrent method is examined by comparing the ANSI 45 method (tangent at 45° angle) for
the test results obtained from testing the the two methods (AC and DC) was found to
same CT on a tap-by-tap basis (AC method). be negligible.

TESTING TECHNIQUES FOR PROTECTION-CLASS CURRENT TRANSFORMERS NETAWORLD • 65

FEATURE

Figure 4: Comparison of AC and DC Test Method Results

Concurrent AC vs ampere-turns principle as given in equation

Non-concurrent AC Test (2). The field results from the AC excitation
test across different taps using concurrent
Excitation Tests. Performing an excitation test
and non-concurrent measurement methods
using the non-concurrent method involves are provided in Figure 5. The field results
measuring voltage/current across individual show that the excitation curves using the
taps. The concurrent method measures the concurrent measurement method follow the
voltage drop across all the taps simultaneously non-concurrent measurements. The results
and calculates the secondary current using the also confirm that the concurrent method could

Table 1: Ratio Test Comparison

Non-Concurrent Concurrent
Name
Tap Plate Measured Error (%) Measured Error (%)
X1-X2 200 : 5 200.021 : 5 0.01 200.095 : 5 0.048
X1-X4 800 : 5 799.892 : 5 -0.013 800.386 : 5 0.048
X2-X5 1000 : 5 999.99 : 5 0.00 1000.246 : 5 0.025
X3-X4 500 : 5 499.904 : 5 -0.012 500.156 : 5 0.031

66 • WINTER 2020 TESTING TECHNIQUES FOR PROTECTION-CLASS CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

 FEATURE

Figure 5: Comparison of Non-Concurrent Figure 6: Comparison of Concurrent AC and

AC and Concurrent AC Test Method Results DC Test Method Results

improve testing efficiency by reducing the test Concurrent DC vs Concurrent AC Test.

time considerably without compromising the The concurrent DC method follows the same
accuracy of test results. connection and working procedures of a
concurrent AC method. DC voltage is applied
Ratio Test. For concurrent tests, equation (3) across the CT secondary, and the voltage across
can be used to calculate the ratio of each tap by individual taps is measured simultaneously.
simultaneously measuring the voltage drop across The excitation characteristics of a C800-type
each tap (V12, V23, V34, V45) and the voltage CT using AC and DC concurrent methods is
induced on the primary (Vh). Table 1 provides field shown in Figure 6.
results of both a non-concurrent and concurrent
test across the same taps of a CT. From Table 1,
The linear portions of the AC and DC
it can be observed that the differences in results
method excitation curves are observed to be
between the two methods are negligible.
following each other closely. The knee point
Winding Resistance Test. A DC current is for CT saturation using the DC method is
applied to the secondary winding of a CT and similar to that for the AC method. The minor
the voltage drop across each tap is measured differences in the lower part of the curves could
individually. The connections for this test are be attributed to the non-linear characteristics
the same as the ratio test. The winding resistance of CT excitation response in that region and
of different tap positions measured using non- the low-voltage range selection (<5 V) of the
concurrent and concurrent methods is provided instrument during the measurement.
in Table 2. The field results show that the
resistance values do not differ much between the The DC method can be used to test CTs with
two methods. high saturation points, such as TPY and TPZ
that are used in locations where high transient
Table 2: Comparison of Winding Resistance and sub-transient currents are expected. Figure
Test Results 7 shows the result of a CT with a high knee-
Measured Resistance(mΩ) point value of close to 14,000 V.
Tap Non-Concurrent Concurrent
Testing CTs such as TPY and TPZ is very
X2-X3 53 50
difficult when only the AC method is
X1-X4 406 405
employed, as the voltage required to saturate
X2-X5 504 504
the core is high. On the other hand, the
X3-X5 456 454 DC method only requires a voltage below

TESTING TECHNIQUES FOR PROTECTION-CLASS CURRENT TRANSFORMERS NETAWORLD • 67

FEATURE
be utilized in place of AC excitation and
individual tap-by-tap testing techniques
without compromising the accuracy and
reliability of the results. Demagnetization is
highly recommended after a DC excitation test
to minimize any residual magnetism in the core
of the CT.

REFERENCES
IEC 60044-6, Instrument Transformers Part
6: Requirements for Protective Current
Transformers for Transient Performance.
Figure 7: Testing CT with High Knee-Point IEEE C57.13.1-2006, Guide for Field Testing
Using the DC Method of Relaying Current Transformers.
United States Patent: Concurrent Transformer
line power value to achieve core saturation
Test System and Method. Patent No. US
characteristics for these types of CTs.
9,128,134 B2, Date of Patent: Sep. 8, 2015.

C ONC LUSION
Dinesh Chhajer manages Megger
It is vitally important to test protection class
USA’s Technical Support Group.
CTs during installation and periodically
His responsibilities include
thereafter to ensure they work as intended
providing engineering consultation
for power system protection applications.
and recommendations in relation
The tests recommended for CT testing in to testing of transformers, batteries,
the industry standards are well established. circuit breakers, and other substation assets. Dinesh
However, methods used to perform those tests has presented numerous white papers related to asset
are evolving. maintenance and testing at various conferences
within power industry. Dinesh previously worked as
Efforts are being made to create safer operating an Application Engineer at Megger and a substation
conditions, test special-application CTs, and design Engineer at Power Engineers Inc. He
and improve the efficiency and productivity is an IEEE member and a licensed Professional
of the test system through automation, Engineer in Texas. Dinesh received his MS in
intelligent data processing, and developing electrical engineering from the University of Texas
smart algorithms utilizing basic principles of at Arlington.
transformer operation and electromagnetics.
Sughosh Kuber is a Relay and
New measurement techniques proposed in this Protection Applications Engineer
article, although unique, utilize the concepts at Megger North America, where
well-described in electrical textbooks. DC he provides technical support to
excitation and the concurrent method of service companies and utilities
testing offer an alternative approach for testing responsible for reliable operation
CTs that provides the same measurements of electrical networks. Sughosh brings over 9 years
and results as conventional techniques of field experience and academic research in power
recommended in various international systems from protection schemes and testing to data
standards. The comparative analysis between analysis for energy efficiency and sustainability.
different methods indicates that DC excitation Sughosh received his MS in electrical engineering
and the concurrent method of testing can from New Mexico State University.

68 • WINTER 2020 TESTING TECHNIQUES FOR PROTECTION-CLASS CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

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FEATURE

TESTING AND COMMISSIONING

A DISTRIBUTION
RECLOSER IN GRID-TIE
SOLAR FARMS
BY MOHIT SHARMA, Megger, an d L UIS M ONT OYA, P E, FlexGen Power Systems, formerly ABM

Rapid photovoltaic (PV) penetration into the electric grid has mandated
deeper operational and technical understanding of protection schemes
in PV farms. An effective protection scheme ensures a grid-connected
system functions reliably and securely, and testing and commissioning the
entire protection scheme to prove its operational success is of paramount
importance. This article presents a standard grid-tie photovoltaic farm
architecture and discusses how to restore the system to regular operation
using reclosing schemes.

72 • WINTER 2020 TESTING AND COMMISSIONING A DISTRIBUTION RECLOSER IN GRID-TIE SOLAR FARMS
 FEATURE

Distributed generation (DG) is increasingly

widespread across the nation’s utility landscape,
but uniform policies that allow renewable energy
generators to connect to the utility grid were
missing until recently. This significantly complicates
renewable energy installations and has likely
deterred the adoption of customer-sited DG. To
address these complications, IEEE introduced
interconnection standard IEEE Std. 1547 in
2003 to facilitate deployment of renewables and
other forms of DG by specifying technical and
institutional requirements and the terms by which
utilities and DG system owners must abide.

IEEE and North American Reliability Corporation

(NERC) standards exist to address the reliability
needs of interconnected electricity systems. These
standards apply to the bulk electrical system (BES)
specified by the BES definition adopted by the
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) in
March 2014.

In some cases, norms apply to devices and needs

beyond the BES. As more distributed energy
resources are connected to the grid, their impact
on the bulk power system is becoming substantial.
At higher penetration levels, issues may develop in
transmission line loading, grid voltage, and system
frequency during regular or disturbed operation.
Therefore, extensive testing and commissioning
of devices that are part of distributed generation
and their interconnection have gained careful
consideration. This article looks at protection
testing of recloser controllers that are a crucial part
of many grid-tied renewable energy systems.
PHOTO: © ISTOCKPHOTO.COM/PORTFOLIO/SNVV

SYSTEM DESCRI PTI ON

A typical utility-scale solar photovoltaic system is
shown in Figure 1. The system is divided into three
subsystems: direct current system, alternate current
collector system, and distribution-level system.

• The direct current system consists of solar

arrays, combiner boxes, fuses, and disconnects
all operating on DC power. Each subsystem’s
specific overcurrent protection needs are based

NETAWORLD • 73
FEATURE

Figure 1: One-Line Diagram for Utility-Scale Solar Farm Main Zones

on the requirements of array-combiner I NTERCONNECTI ON AN D

boxes. PROTECTI ON
• The alternate current collector system is IEEE Std. 1547-2018 describes the requirements
located on the AC side of the inverter and for interconnecting solar PV farms. A
typically consists of a 480 V AC common photovoltaic solar farm classifies as a distributed
bus. energy resource (DER) and therefore must
comply with operational requirements to respond
• The distribution-level system appears at
the output of the collector system. Power to abnormal voltages and frequency events in the
from the solar farm is injected via a step- utility line.
up transformer, which transforms system
voltage from 480 V AC to 12.5 KV AC Conditions for interconnection include active
allowing interconnection to distribution and reactive power capability and voltage/
line voltages. This subsystem consists power requirements. The three-phase inverters
of potential transformers (PTs), current are responsible for adjusting these in the
transformers (CTs), medium-voltage system. The inverters act as a link between the
underground and overhead cable, a revenue DC system and the AC collector system as
meter, and a medium-voltage recloser shown in Figure 1.
switch equipped with an electronic relay.
Figure 2, a detailed view of the distribution
Inverters in the solar farm transform energy level system, indicates the location of the
from DC to AC. Each inverter has overcurrent recloser switch and relay.
and overvoltage protection. The DC protection
side is isolated from the AC side, including The MV recloser and its relay system should
isolated ground fault systems. Indeed, respond to utility EPS disturbances. IEEE Std.
individual protection schemes apply to each 1547 establishes response-time requirements
subsystem. However, this paper focuses on for mandatory disconnection due to loss of
protection requirements for the distribution- phase, area EPS fault conditions, and out of
level system. limit voltage or frequency. Table 1 and Table 2

74 • WINTER 2020 TESTING AND COMMISSIONING A DISTRIBUTION RECLOSER IN GRID-TIE SOLAR FARMS
 FEATURE
Table 1: Response Requirements to Abnormal Voltages
Voltage Range Clearing Time Allowable Clearing Time
(% of rated voltage) (seconds/cycles) (seconds)
Grid Voltage > 120 0.16/10 Max 0.16
Grid Voltage > 110 2.0/125 1.0 to 13
Grid Voltage < 0.7 2.0/125 2.0 to 21
Grid Voltage < 0.45 0.16/10 0.16 to 2
SOURCE: IEEE STD. 1547-2018

Table 2: Response Requirements to Abnormal Frequency

Frequency (Hz) Clearing Time (seconds)
Freq > 62 0.16
Figure 2: Distribution Level System for Solar Freq > 61.2 300
PV Interconnection
Freq < 58.5 300
Freq < 57 0.16
indicate boundaries for voltage and frequency, SOURCE: IEEE STD. 1547-2018
respectively.

During fault conditions, grid voltage (line disconnection and reconnection of the solar PV
side of the recloser switch) could experience farm to maintain production while the solar
excursions outside of normal operating values PV injects the maximum power available. The
resulting in power fluctuations. Therefore, recloser sequence should be coordinated with
the standard recommends two levels of the local area EPS since automatic reclosing
undervoltage and overvoltage. To comply, onto a circuit needs approval from the affected
system voltage on the utility side of the recloser utility. Abnormal conditions should result
must be monitored. The MV recloser switch
controller chosen for this article is capable
Overvoltage (59)
of receiving six voltage inputs. Three inputs
are from the utility side, sourced from three Undervoltage (27)
0.5 kVA distribution transformers; three inputs Over frequency (81O)
are from the generating side, sourced from OR
three low-energy capacitive voltage sensors Under frequency (81U)

located in the bushings of the solid dielectric Phase and Ground

recloser. Overcurrent
(51P, 51G, 50P, 50G)
Single Pole Open (SPO) Recloser
The standard also proposes underfrequency Anti-islanding Logic OR Trip
and overfrequency levels that directly address
the system’s protection stability and are Manual Push Button Trip

indirectly responsible for unintentional

islanding. Yellow Handle Operation

OR
When an MV recloser switch operates and Relay Sleep Mode
isolates a PV farm from the grid, a relay
mechanism must guarantee reconnection once
Battery Fail
grid conditions are normal and healthy voltage
is established. Schemes involving automatic
reclosing (Figure 3) can ensure proper Figure 3: MV Recloser Switch Relay Trip Conditions

TESTING AND COMMISSIONING A DISTRIBUTION RECLOSER IN GRID-TIE SOLAR FARMS NETAWORLD • 75

FEATURE
in momentary cessation of operating mode, TESTI NG AND
and restoration of connection behavior must COMMI SSI ONI NG
be coordinated for proper reclosing time For reliable operation of an interconnected
characteristics. system, testing and commissioning protection
elements for the MV recloser switch must be
External conditions such as battery failure, performed with satisfactory results.
manual push-button trip, yellow-handle
operation, and relay sleep mode must be
considered in the MV reclosing sequence. Functional Tests
Functional tests include testing individual
protective elements that are used in the
Time Delay
(cycle) logic of the MV recloser switch controller
for interconnection requirements. The
microprocessor-based controller under test can
Under Over accommodate two-phase voltage: one phase
Voltage Voltage
Trip Trip current and one neutral current winding. It is
also capable of functioning as either a single-
100.0
pole or three-pole trip and close for reclosing
No
applications.
5.0
Operation
Region • Undervoltage/Overvoltage Elements.
Pick Up
(volts) Two undervoltage and overvoltage
56.9 100.2 125.2 136.6 elements are set in phase-to-neutral (Ph-
N) volts secondary. Time delays are set
Figure 4: Voltage Element Settings in units of cycles (Figure 4). Any modern
Time Delay
relay test equipment that can provide
(cycle) three-phase voltages can be used.
• Pickup Test. Figure 5 shows that the
pickup test can be designed using step-
Under Over ramp decrements with nominal secondary
Frequency Frequency voltage as a pre-fault condition. The start
Trip Trip
of the ramp can be set to 110% of the
expected level-1 pickup (100.2 V) value
5.0 No and the stop can be at 90%. Users can
Operation perform a three-phase and/or a single-
Region Pick Up phase ramp to validate all fault types:
(Hz)
ABC, AB, BC, CA, AN, BN, CN. Setting
Figure 5: Undervoltage Level-159.3
Pickup Test
60
Setup 60.5

Table 3: Undervoltage Level-1 Pickup Test Results

Pickup Minimum Value EXPECTED VALUE Maxiumum Value Allowed % Error % Error ✓/✗
100.30 U 95.190 100.20 105.21 5.0 0.1 ✓

Test Values
Channel Phase Ramp
Magnitude Ø (*) f (Hz)
Voltage A-N Amp 100.300 V 0.00 60.00
Voltage B-N Amp 100.300 V 120.00 60.00
Voltage C-N Amp 100.300 V 240.00 60.00

76 • WINTER 2020 TESTING AND COMMISSIONING A DISTRIBUTION RECLOSER IN GRID-TIE SOLAR FARMS
 FEATURE
the dwell time is also crucial in this performed to check whether the
application since undervoltage elements reclosing logic works as intended
are associated with time delay. Figure 5 and the recloser goes to lockout state
shows that the time delay between each if any permanent fault exists. For
increment is kept higher than 100 cycles. the reclosing cycle to be initiated,
the controller provides the ability to
• Timing Test. This timing test can be
set logic equations as a setting. This
done using two state sequences. The
setting is a rising-edge detect setting
first state can be set to simulate nominal
and is supervised by recloser status.
load conditions with a specified time
It is usually programmed to trigger
duration; the second state can be set as
when the trip condition goes true.
a sudden drop in voltage to simulate the
Additionally, the controller under test
undervoltage fault condition. Figure 6A
has independent settings for single-
and Figure 6B show the setup. Refer to
pole and three-pole operation mode.
Table 4 for results. Similarly, overvoltage
Special attention is needed to set the
tests can be performed.
test template to work as per the set
• Reclosing Elements operation mode.
0 Unsuccessful reclose test. As the The scheme uses a three-phase
name indicates, this test can be recloser capable of tripping and
closing all three phases in unison. It
is designed for just one reclose shot
before going to the lock-out state in
case of a permanent fault.
Popularly, state sequencer is used
to design a test template to validate
Figure 6A: Undervoltage Level-1 Timing the auto-reclosing sequence in the
Test Setup: Load Condition State MV recloser switch controller. Both
controller and recloser on the pole
can be simultaneously tested. Any
modern test equipment with an
interface to connect the control cable
can be used. In a situation where only
Figure 6B: Undervoltage Level-1 Timing Test controller testing is desired, there is
Setup: Fault Condition State no need for special equipment with

Table 4: Undervoltage Level-1 Timing Test Result

Prefault Time((cy)) Operation Time Measured (cy) Minimum Value (cy) Maximum Value (cy) ✓/✗
120.0 100.8 99.65 101.6 ✓

Channel Prefault Fault

Magnitude Ø (*) f (Hz) Magnitude Ø (*) f (Hz)
Current A-N 0.10 A 0.00 * 60.00 Hz 1.00 A 0.00 * 60.00 Hz
Current B-N 0.10 A 120.00 * 60.00 Hz 1.00 A 120.00 * 60.00 Hz
Current C-N 0.10 A 240.00 * 60.00 Hz 1.00 A 240.00 * 60.00 Hz
Voltage A-N 113.83 V 0.00 * 60.00 Hz 95.00 V 0.00 * 60.00 Hz
Voltage B-N 113.83 V 120.00 * 60.00 Hz 95.00 V 120.00 * 60.00 Hz
Voltage C-N 113.83 V 240.00 * 60.00 Hz 95.00 V 240.00 * 60.00 Hz

TESTING AND COMMISSIONING A DISTRIBUTION RECLOSER IN GRID-TIE SOLAR FARMS NETAWORLD • 77

FEATURE
the interface. One can use binary – State 3 can be simulated similar to
outputs on test equipment to simulate state 2 where the fault condition
breaker conditions. still persists. As part of an
agreement with utility operators
Depending on the number of shots,
the state-sequencer file can be for reconnection, the controller
adjusted for the number of states. under test is set to wait four hours
Since one shot is programmed in before going to lockout if it doesn’t
the controller under test, the total read three-phase healthy voltage.
number of states needed will be five. For testing purposes, the wait can
– A pre-fault state 1 is needed to be reduced since it is just a timer.
simulate load conditions with the The event report shown in Figure
breaker closed for the amount 7 indicates a three-phase lockout
of time the controller takes to (79LO3P) trigger after the timer,
reset from a past lockout. If the which is set to 23 cycles in this
controller is already in the reset particular scenario, expires.
state, there is no need to delay. 0 Successful reclose test. As the
– State 2 can be programmed to name indicates, this test verifies
simulate trip conditions that that the reclosing logic works as
initiate a reclosing sequence. intended and goes to reset state if
In this state, test equipment any temporary fault exists. Similar
expects to receive a trip signal; to the unsuccessful reclose test, state
therefore, the timeout has to be sequencer can be used. Moreover, this
long enough in case there are test will ensure whether the set open
any timed elements in trip logic. interval timer for the reclose shot
According to the logic diagram of works as expected. State 1 and state
the trip output described in the 2 can be copied and pasted from the
previous section, a single-phase previous test. State 3 can be simulated
undervoltage condition can be as a recloser breaker opening
simulated as a fault. condition with a timeout equal to the
minimum trip duration timer set in
the controller. The timer is usually set
around 40 cycles for motor-operated
reclosers; it is seen to be around 12
cycles for fast reclosers. This 40-cycle
timer effectively adds on to any open
interval time for auto-reclosing;
therefore, it is better practice to have
separate states for reporting purposes.
Keeping that in mind, state 4 can
be designed for the test equipment
waiting to receive a reclose signal with
a timeout little more than the set
open interval time for shot 1.
0 Yellow operating-handle test. Some
reclosers are equipped with a yellow
operating handle that permits manual
opening of the recloser. Pulling the
Figure 7: Event Report of Unsuccessful Reclose Check handle down trips and locks open

78 • WINTER 2020 TESTING AND COMMISSIONING A DISTRIBUTION RECLOSER IN GRID-TIE SOLAR FARMS
 FEATURE
the main contacts and opens the • Frequency Elements
low-voltage closing circuit of the
Both underfrequency and overfrequency
recloser. The status of the handle is
elements must be tested for their pickup
provided through the control cable level and operation time. These elements
to the controller. The contacts in the are independent in the controller and
trip/close circuits open and stay open follow a definite time operation concept
when the respective external handles where the timer starts the moment pickup
on individual poles are pulled to lock- is reached and stops after the set operation
open positions. In many situations, time irrespective of the frequency level.
just one of the opto-isolated wetting It is crucial to know the unit (cycles or
inputs of the controller monitors seconds) of the set time before advancing
the combined status of the handle to all the tests.
for individual recloser poles. The
controller drives to three-phase For pickup tests, frequency ramp is done
lockout after sensing a time-qualified with a long sequence to control the phase
rising edge on that input. angle at each step of the sequence to
create a smooth waveform and not one
Binary outputs on any modern test with jumps. The formula to calculate
equipment can be used to mimic phase shift to obtain smooth is based
the handle status when the recloser on the rotating phasors with different
breaker is not connected to the pulsation (frequency).
controller. Simulating a closed contact
condition to that wetting voltage Vectors A1 and A2 in Figure 8 represent
input indicates a normal system, present and future frequency vectors. The
whereas an open contact condition algorithm is recursive and is based on
provides a handle operation state to calculating the phase angle of the phasor
the controller. State 1 and state 2 in with higher frequency to make sure that
when the frequency needs to change, the
the test software can be designed in
previous frequency and new frequency
the same fashion as an unsuccessful
vectors are overlapped indicating a
reclose test with an addition of
continuous transition.
providing closed binary output status
for the yellow handle. State 3 should The time from one step to another must
have open binary output. be deterministic to calculate the phase

A1 ϕ 1 (t) = ω1t

ϕ2 (t) = ω2t – ϕ0

A2 At t = t1 ϕ 1 = ϕ2

ω1t ω1t1 = ω2t1 – ϕ2

ω2t
ϕ2 = (ω2 - ω1) t1 = 2π(f2 – f1) t1

Figure 8: Frequency Vectors on Time Axis

TESTING AND COMMISSIONING A DISTRIBUTION RECLOSER IN GRID-TIE SOLAR FARMS NETAWORLD • 79

FEATURE
angle of the next phasor and know The frequency elements of the controller
exactly when the frequency changes. For operate on the frequency determined
that reason, test software often uses the from the A-phase source-side voltage
method that employs state change on terminal. An undervoltage supervision
zero-crossing. check is also programmed to ensure
frequency elements do not operate for
Another important concept is to
Time Delay a fault condition, since faults create
understand
(cycle) the relay’s measurement
transients that can result in incorrect
technique. Most relays adjust processing
system frequency measurement.
algorithms to track the frequency, and this
Over
Under the operate time
Frequency elements are blocked until the
can make seem shorter
Voltage Voltage system voltage recovers above the specified
or longer than expected. The response
Trip Trip threshold, which is set to 12.5 Volts in the
time of the frequency elements to a valid
100.0 test example. Figure 9 shows the settings
frequency change is around three cycles in
considered for this article.
the controller under test. The testing crew
No
5.0 must be cautious not to miss entering a
Operation Frequency elements are pretty tight
time interval of more than three cycles
Region on tolerances, and entering the right
Pick Up
between frequency changes in the test (volts) information is crucial. Tri-time tolerance
software. for the controller under test is +/- 0.25
56.9 100.2 125.2 136.6
cycle plus +/- 0.1%, and pickup accuracy
is +/- 0.01 Hz. Figure 10 shows a test setup
screen with all the useful information.
Time Delay
(cycle) Prefault phase-to-neutral voltage of 69 V,
higher than a UV block setting of 12.5 V,
is entered. Note that the software is
programmed to use two binary inputs on
Under Over the test equipment. Input 1 will trigger
Frequency Frequency
Trip Trip when pickup is achieved, whereas input
2 will be triggered after the operation
time lapses. A start time of three cycles is
5.0 No typically used to account for frequency
Operation
Region Pick Up
tracking purposes explained earlier.
(Hz) Figure 11, Figure 12, Figure 13, and
59.3 60 60.5 Figure 14 show the results of frequency
elements. Pickup and timing tests are
Figure 9: Frequency Element Settings
both necessary.

Figure 10: Frequency Elements Test Setup

80 • WINTER 2020 TESTING AND COMMISSIONING A DISTRIBUTION RECLOSER IN GRID-TIE SOLAR FARMS
 FEATURE
Commissioning and
Interoperability Tests
This group of tests includes field tests that
are useful to check system operation and
interoperability — that is, the dynamic
response of grid-tie inverters and recloser
switch at the point of common coupling
(PCC).

Step 1. Verify system components. A field Figure 11: Underfrequency Pickup Test Results
commissioning group must verify the
engineering parameters and confirm proper
programming for the inverters and recloser
control settings. Test results should be
documented to comply with ANSI/NETA
ATS and coordination study requirements. The
local SCADA system should provide the status
of each inverter.

Step 2. Verify the complete sequence:

1. The utility will intentionally drop a phase.

2. Immediately followed by the phase drop, Figure 12: Underfrequency Timing Test Results
the recloser switch must disconnect, and
inverters should not produce any power.
3. The utility brings back the missing phase
and restores voltage. Immediately, the
recloser takes action to verify healthy
voltages on the grid side.
4. Verification time is usually available as a
setting in the recloser relay logic and can
be tested easily.
5. After this delay, reclose occurs and
voltages are restored to the grid and the Figure 13: Overfrequency Pickup Test Results
line side of the inverters.
6. Voltage is restored, and the inverters
should be timed to verify the start of
power production after approximately five
minutes.
7. The same procedure is repeated dropping
each phase.

Step 3. A final recommended step is phase

sequence verification. A drop in A-phase
voltage on the recloser switch side should
result in the same phase drop on the recloser. Figure 14: Overfrequency Timing Test Results

TESTING AND COMMISSIONING A DISTRIBUTION RECLOSER IN GRID-TIE SOLAR FARMS NETAWORLD • 81

FEATURE
Similarly, other phases should be tested for a Even though it is not possible to subject the
complete phase sequence. MV recloser protection system to all possible
scenarios in a constantly changing grid, it
is important to have a testing methodology
C ONC LUSION to validate protection system settings and
The requirements for grid connection of coordinated response with other parts of the
distributed generation need detailed scrutiny solar farms, i.e. inverters.
to comply with EPS requirements. This article
presents relay protection testing procedures to
aid in validating the MV recloser control and Mohit Sharma is currently part of the
operation as part of a PV solar farm system. engineering team at Megger where he
designs, develops, and validates testing
solutions in the areas of system protection
Strategic steps in the relay testing routines and automation. In 2015, he joined
included validation of the real operation for Megger as an Applications Engineer for
the MV recloser at the PCC, including detailed protective relay products after receiving
practical scenarios where the relay protection his MS in electrical power systems engineering from North
Carolina State University, Raleigh. Mohit obtained his
system must respond properly for continuity BTech in electrical engineering from the National Institute
of service (i.e. reconnection and coordinated of Technology, Bhopal, India, and worked with India-bulls
verifications) as well as protection of equipment Power as an Electrical Maintenance Engineer responsible for
assets (i.e. coordinated disconnection and lock- the testing and maintenance of LV and MV switchgear. He is
out.) currently a member of IEEE-PSRC.

Luis Montoya, PE, has worked in the

industry in several positions in the electrical
industry as an Engineering Manager in
low- and medium-voltage electrical testing
and design. He is currently a Senior Systems
Engineer for FlexGen Power Systems and
a PhD candidate in electrical engineering
at North Carolina State University with a concentration in
power system and power electronics, including active power
harmonic filters. Luis was a senior engineer in designing and
testing solutions for utility-scale project substations and solar
farms. He most recently led efforts in arc flash analysis, protection
coordination, MV and LV field testing, and power quality
field testing and solutions. Luis graduated from the National
University of Colombia with a BS in electrical engineering with
a concentration in power systems and received his MSEE from
the University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee with an emphasis in
power electronics and renewable energy.

TESTING AND COMMISSIONING A DISTRIBUTION

RECLOSER IN GRID-TIE SOLAR FARMS
 POWER THROUGH WITH
CONFIDENCE

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INDUSTRY TOPICS

IMPACT OF SFRA
SETUP ISSUES ON
TRANSFORMER
FREQUENCY
RESPONSE
B Y M ICH AEL D. W OL F, P E, Doble Engineering Co.

Sweep frequency response analysis (SFRA) is a popular test to confirm

the mechanical and electrical integrity of a transformer. However, the
resulting traces can be difficult for field personnel to interpret due
to the visual nature of the data. It is more straightforward to compare
numbers against prior data or against a stated limit than to interpret subtle
differences in SFRA traces. If setup-related issues are not addressed during
the testing process, return trips are often required to take additional shots
to represent the transformer more accurately. These trips cost time and
resources, so being able to identify a setup problem early can keep extra
work to a minimum. A trained eye can focus in on a problem area quickly
and identify a test setup issue promptly. Such confidence only comes at
the expense of hours spent analyzing data. This article discusses common
setup problems and their impacts.

84 • WINTER 2020 IMPACT OF SFRA SETUP ISSUES ON TRANSFORMER FRQUENCY RESPONSE

 INDUSTRY TOPICS

PHOTO: © ISTOCKPHOTO.COM/PORTFOLIO/YOUR_PHOTO

B A S IC C ONC E P T S vertical axis, while very-low attenuation (most

SFRA testing hinges on sending a signal into a of the signal returning to the test set) is shown
transformer winding at a known frequency and at the highest vertical ranges.
measuring back the signal received at the other
end of the test circuit. This process is repeated To summarize: The more negative the dB, the
across the desired frequency range. The higher the attenuation; the closer it is to zero,
difference between the signal that goes into the the lower the attenuation.
transformer and the signal that comes out is
the attenuation of the signal, which is plotted
THE TEST
on a vertical axis for each tested frequency
on the horizontal axis. The individual data The transformer under test is a network of
points become a trace as the test progresses resistive, inductive, and capacitive (RLC)
and sweeps through the desired frequency. elements made up of the transformer’s
The attenuation is plotted as decibels (dB). magnetic circuit, windings, insulation, and
The trace is plotted on a graph with high countless other components that create power
attenuation (very little signal returning to transformers as we know them. The impedance
the test set) at the lowest ranges of the graph’s of inductive and capacitive elements, by their

IMPACT OF SFRA SETUP ISSUES ON TRANSFORMER FRQUENCY RESPONSE NETAWORLD • 85

INDUSTRY TOPICS

Figure 1: Drastic Example of Poor Lead Grounding

nature, are dependent on physical properties — CONCERN OVER SETU P

areas, lengths, distances. Therefore, changes to In any electrical test, it is well understood that
those physical properties will create a change in
correct and consistent test setup is essential for
the impedance of the corresponding segment of
repeatable, representative test results. SFRA
the RLC network. Impedance is also dependent
tests are also dependent on consistent test setup
on frequency.
between different test sessions. Changing setup
may cause changes in the RLC network of the
As the range of sweeping frequencies remains
transformer by introducing varying capacitances,
the same between different test sessions,
resistances, and inductances. This variation
damage, physical changes, and/or electrical
may mask other concerning changes in the
changes that occur inside the transformer will
change the impedance of various inductive and transformer itself, or it may create false positives.
capacitive elements and will also change the If variations between past and present traces are
level of attenuation of the input signal. noted, all efforts should be made to troubleshoot
possible setup errors before accepting the traces
In addition, and perhaps even more as representative of the transformer.
important, these changes may yield different
frequencies at which the inductive and
Poor Grounding
capacitive elements resonate with each other
when compared to previous tests. Observing Among the more common SFRA setup
left-right movement or the disappearance problems, poor grounding practices can
(or creation) of the various extrema points massively impact the expected traces. This is not
between different test sessions are key aspects just the grounding of the transformer itself, but
to look for, as they indicate some physical the entire grounding path of the measurement
or electrical changes to those capacitive and setup. If the grounding path introduces
inductive elements. Extrema points are the additional impedances due to poor connections,
local maximum and minimum points on the signal will be measured with respect to a
the traces that resemble peaks and V-shaped different reference, resulting in changes to the
valleys, to put a common visual to the term. traces. Typically, poor tank grounding influences

86 • WINTER 2020 IMPACT OF SFRA SETUP ISSUES ON TRANSFORMER FRQUENCY RESPONSE

 INDUSTRY TOPICS

Figure 2: Example of Very Poor Test Lead Connection

the entirety of the trace and may be seen across Poor Test Lead Connections
the high-voltage open circuit (HVOC), low- When test leads are poorly connected to
voltage open circuit (LVOC), and high-voltage
the bushing terminals, extra impedances
short circuit (HVSC) traces. The traces may
are introduced into the measurement lead
appear jagged, noisy, shifted to a higher (-)dB,
circuit. These additional impedances cause
and may not follow an expected shape.
the characteristic impedance of measurement
cables to change, which will impact the
Poor connections on the test lead ground clamps
response of the transformer. These impedance
can also produce wide-ranging changes in the
changes impact a wide range of frequencies and
response and will most likely be apparent when
comparing phases in a given test session. If will yield poor comparison to prior traces with
the test lead ground clamp is not adequately good lead connections.
grounded, the impedance of the test lead
changes, impacting the higher frequencies of the In the traces shown in Figure 2, the red trace
swept range. The impact can move further down was captured initially. Noting the jagged
the frequency range with worsening ground lead nature of the trace, the tester determined
connections. These seemingly minor changes that troubleshooting was required. Bushing
to the grounding circuit can make dramatic terminal connections were cleaned thoroughly
changes similar to that shown in Figure 1. In less with a wire brush and solvent. After ensuring a
significant cases, the changes may begin much robust metal-to-metal connection between the
higher in the frequency range. test lead clamps and the bushing terminals, the
blue trace was captured. The resulting response
In Figure 1, the blue trace was captured during follows an expected shape with less jagged
routine testing. The tester identified something features.
was wrong and began to troubleshoot. The
connections at the test lead grounds were
cleaned up with a wire brush to ensure solid Varying Tap Changer Positions
metal-to-metal contact. This resolved the initial When load tap changers or deenergized tap
issue and resulted in the red trace. changers (DETC) change position, the way

IMPACT OF SFRA SETUP ISSUES ON TRANSFORMER FRQUENCY RESPONSE NETAWORLD • 87

INDUSTRY TOPICS

Figure 3: Drastic Example of Different Tap Changer Positions

Figure 4: More Subtle Example of Different Tap Changer Positions

the tapped winding interacts with the various they are in the same positions as previously
RLC networks of the transformer will change. recorded traces prior to testing to ensure no
This interaction will impact the response of additional uncertainties are introduced into the
the swept frequencies through the transformer, analysis. It should be noted that changing taps
and different tap positions will cause different on one specific winding will not only impact
responses. The extent of the differences will that winding’s response, but may also impact the
depend on the specific design of the transformer responses of other windings; for example, low-
and the tap positions being compared. Tap voltage open circuit traces may also change upon
changers should always be checked to ensure DETC position change on the high-voltage

88 • WINTER 2020 IMPACT OF SFRA SETUP ISSUES ON TRANSFORMER FRQUENCY RESPONSE

Figure 5: Varying of Stabilizing Tertiary Winding Configuration

winding. This is due to the changing interaction can cause the transformer’s response to change.
between the RLC components of the high- Some stabilizing tertiary windings may come out
voltage and low- voltage windings. to a single bushing at one corner of the delta,
which could be either grounded or ungrounded
In the example in Figure 3, the prior (red) trace while the SFRA tests are performed on the
and the present (blue) trace were tested before primary and secondary windings. Some stabilizing
and after a planned DETC position change. The tertiary windings have one corner of the delta
transformer was fully tested before the DETC brought out to two bushings, which can either be
was moved to ensure it was in good condition shorted and left floating, shorted and grounded,
and aligned with prior results. The unit was then open and floating, or open and grounded. These
tested after the DETC was moved to attain new changes will impact the interaction of the circuit
baseline results. After changing DETC positions, elements that make up the RLC network inside
new SFRA baseline traces should always be the transformer and will result in variations
captured to enable future analysis. to the response while performing SFRA tests.
The changing response will most likely be seen
In Figure 4, the red trace was captured just before in traces captured on all windings within the
a DETC change; the blue trace was captured transformer, to varying degrees on each winding.
immediately after a change. Notice how the
changes are far less drastic than in Figure 3, which In the example shown in Figure 5, the prior (red)
emphasizes how important the specific design of HVOC trace and the present (blue) HVOC traces
the transformer is to the degree responses may were found to have different characteristics upon
change when changing tap positions. review in the field. After troubleshooting, it was
determined that the stabilizing tertiary winding
was in a different configuration when tested in
Stabilizing Tertiary Winding the factory compared to the configuration when
Configuration first assembled in the field. The tertiary was
Much like the impact varying tap positions may manipulated to be open, open and grounded,
have on a transformer’s response, manipulating closed, and finally closed and grounded to ensure
the configuration of a stabilizing tertiary winding that a matching configuration was found. After

IMPACT OF SFRA SETUP ISSUES ON TRANSFORMER FRQUENCY RESPONSE NETAWORLD • 89

INDUSTRY TOPICS
testing in the exact tertiary configuration as in the the tested transformer will change and will
initial trace, the responses lined up extremely well. show deviations between traces of different
After matching with the factory results, notes test sessions. These changes can be misleading
describing the test setup were documented to give to the tester and potentially mask other more
testers more guidance for future SFRA testing. meaningful issues. By identifying and ruling
out possible setup discrepancies as the traces
are being recorded, corrections can be made,
C ONC LUSION and the setup can be adjusted immediately,
It is essential to remember what an SFRA ensuring the traces correctly and accurately
trace shows: the attenuation of the output represent the transformer’s condition.
signal compared to the input signal of
the test set. As frequencies are varied, the
inductive and capacitive elements that make Michael D. Wolf, PE, is a
up the transformer respond differently. Those Principal Engineer in the Client
inductive and capacitive elements are also Services Engineering department
dependent on physical parameters — lengths, at Doble Engineering in Folsom,
areas, distances, materials — so physical or California. He has been in the
electrical changes inside the transformer will power industry since 2008 in
influence the way the countless inductive substation commissioning and maintenance support
and capacitive elements respond to varying roles. Michael has a BSEE from Clarkson University,
frequency. If the test setup does not remain a MEPE from Worcester Polytechnic Institute, and is
consistent between test sessions, the a licensed electrical power engineer.
interactions between the RLC parameters of

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INDUSTRY TOPICS

UNDERSTANDING
AND AVOIDING
BATTERY
FAILURE
B Y R ODRICK J . VAN WART, AVO Training Institute

Earthquakes, hurricanes, tsunamis, wildfires, and the like do not occur

with any predicted great frequency. Nonetheless, we have established
precautionary programs that protect people and property from the
physical threats posed by such events. In recent times, however, we have
witnessed all too well the impact these events can have on the quality of
our lives and businesses.
Our world has become highly — in many validate the significance of routine UPS service
cases, wholly — dependent upon electricity. as a highly effective means to reduce the effects
This energy source supports our global of downtime.
economy, e-commerce, and communications.
When primary AC systems fail, DC storage
systems in the form of uninterruptable power BATTERY MAI NTENAN C E
supplies are required. The prime source of this AND TESTI NG
backup power is batteries. There are several philosophies and ambition
levels for maintaining and testing batteries.
An Eaton Corporation root-cause study
revealed that two-thirds of downtime events 1. Replace batteries when they fail or
stem from preventable causes. The good die. This option includes minimal or no
news is that routine established condition maintenance and testing. Obviously, not
and performance monitoring coupled testing batteries at all is the least costly
with the IEEE-recommended preventative when considering only maintenance costs,
maintenance (PM) can appreciably reduce but the risks are high, and the consequences
downtime. In fact, the same load-loss report must be considered. Batteries have a limited
indicated that clientele without any PM were lifetime, and they can fail earlier than
more likely to experience a UPS failure than expected. Time between outages is usually
those who complete the IEEE recommended long, and if outages are the only occasions
maintenance visits. These findings alone battery capability is confirmed, risk is high

92 • WINTER 2020 UNDERSTANDING AND AVOIDING BATTERY FAILURE

 INDUSTRY TOPICS

PHOTO: © ISTOCKPHOTO.COM/PORTFOLIO/ETAJOE

that reduced — or no — back-up will be Maintenance costs are higher, but this is
available when needed. Using batteries to the cost for a reliable back-up system. The
back up important installations without any best testing scheme is a balance between
idea of their current health invalidates the maintenance costs and the risks of losing
whole concept of a reliable system. the battery and supported equipment.
Each company is different, and each must
2. Replace after a certain time with
individually weigh the cost versus risk of
minimum or no maintenance and testing. battery maintenance
This can also be a risky approach. It is also a
waste of capital if the batteries are replaced The batteries in any UPS require routine
earlier than needed. Properly maintained inspection and maintenance regardless of their
batteries can and do live longer than the age or warranty status — even maintenance-
predetermined replacement time. free batteries are only deemed maintenance-free
because they do not require adding water on an
3. Implement a serious maintenance and as-needed basis. Industry studies have shown
testing program to ensure the batteries that up to 20 percent of UPS failures can be
are in good condition, prolong their attributed to bad batteries; temperature and
life, and determine the optimal time for cumulative discharges including micro-cycling
replacement. A maintenance program are the primary culprits. When performing
including inspection and impedance preventive maintenance, data is obtained
and capacity testing is the way to track a from ohmic testing procedures during which
battery’s state of health. Degradation and impedance or conductance measurements trace
faults will be found before they become battery performance and identify any batteries
serious, and surprises can be avoided. with potential internal failures.

UNDERSTANDING AND AVOIDING BATTERY FAILURE NETAWORLD • 93

INDUSTRY TOPICS
B AT T E RY FA ILURE over time corresponding to the increase
Each battery type has multiple failure modes, in electrical resistance of the grids to carry
some of which are more prevalent than others. the current. Impedance will also increase
Some failures manifest themselves with use and as capacity decreases. Sediment build-up
aging such as sediment build-up due to excessive (shedding) is a function of the amount of
cycling. Others such as positive grid growth cycling a battery endures. Shedding is the
(oxidation) occur naturally. It is just a matter sloughing off of active material from the
of time before the battery fails. Maintenance plates, converting to white lead sulphates.
and environmental conditions can increase or • Sediment build-up is the second reason
decrease the risks of premature battery failure.
battery manufacturers leave space at the
bottom of the jars to allow for a certain
• Positive grid corrosion is the expected
amount of sediment before it builds up
failure mode for flooded lead-acid
to the point of shorting across the bottom
batteries. The grids are lead alloys (lead
of the plates, thus rendering the battery
calcium, lead-antimony, lead-antimony-
selenium) that convert to lead oxide over useless. The float voltage will drop, and the
time. Since lead oxide is a larger crystal amount of the voltage drop depends upon
than lead metal alloy, the plate grows. The how relatively “hard” the short is. Shedding,
growth rate has been well characterized in reasonable amounts, is normal.
• Corrosion of the top lead, which is the
and is considered when designing batteries.
connection between the plates and the
Many battery data sheets specify clearance
posts, is difficult to detect even with a
at the bottom of the jar to allow for
visual inspection since it occurs near the
plate growth in accordance with its rated
top of the battery and is hidden by the
lifetime, e.g. 10 or 20 years.
cover. The battery can fail due to the
At the designed end of life, the plates high current draw during discharge. The
may have grown sufficiently to pop heat build-up when discharging results
the tops off the batteries. But excessive in melting, causing the battery to crack
cycling, temperature, and overcharging open, and then the entire string drops off-
can also increase the speed of positive line, resulting in a potentially catastrophic
grid corrosion. Impedance will increase failure.

Top Lead Corrosion

94 • WINTER 2020 UNDERSTANDING AND AVOIDING BATTERY FAILURE

 INDUSTRY TOPICS

Everything looks good (left) until closer inspection reveals that sulfation has caused the plate to expand
and breach the container (right).

• Plate sulphation is an electrical path specific gravity of the acid gets too low, the
problem. A thorough visual inspection lead dissolves into it. Since the liquid (and
in vented lead acid (VLA) batteries can the dissolved lead) are immobilized by the
sometimes find traces of plate sulphation. glass matte, when the battery is recharged,
Sulphation is due to low charger voltage the lead comes out of solution and forms
settings or incomplete recharge after an threads of thin lead metal, known as
outage. Sulphates form when the volts per dendrites, inside the matte. In some cases,
cell (VPC) are not set high enough during the lead dendrites short through the matte
recharge. Sulphation will lead to higher to the other plate. The float voltage may
impedance and a lower capacity. drop slightly but impedance can detect this
failure mode easily.
• Dry-out is a phenomenon that occurs
primarily in valve regulated lead acid • Thermal run-away occurs when a battery’s
(VRLA) batteries due to excessive heat internal components melt down in a self-
(lack of proper ventilation), high ambient sustaining reaction. The impedance and
temperatures, and overcharging, which can float current increase in advance of thermal
cause elevated internal temperatures. At run-away. Thermal run-away is relatively
elevated internal temperatures, the sealed easy to avoid simply by using temperature-
cells will vent through the pressure relief compensated chargers and properly
valve (PRV). When sufficient electrolyte ventilating the battery room or cabinet.
is vented, the glass matte is no longer in Temperature-compensated chargers reduce
contact with the plates, thus increasing the charge current as the temperature
internal impedance and reducing battery increases. Remember that heating is a
capacity. This failure mode is one of function of the square of the current. Even
the more common failure modes of though thermal run-away may be avoided
VRLA batteries and is easily detected by by temperature-compensated chargers, the
underlying cause is still present.
impedance testing.
• Soft (aka dendritic) shorts and hard
shorts occur for a number of reasons. Hard CONCLUSI ON
shorts are typically caused by paste lumps Systematic inspections and an effective
pushing through the matte and shorting preventive maintenance plan can ensure
out to the adjacent (opposite polarity) standby battery systems are capable of
plate. Soft shorts, on the other hand, are supporting the critical role UPS systems play
caused by deep discharges. When the in maintaining power to critical loads.

UNDERSTANDING AND AVOIDING BATTERY FAILURE NETAWORLD • 95

INDUSTRY TOPICS
R E F E R E NC E S William L. Tafoya, PhD. “FBI Report on
Eaton Corp. “The Benefits of a Preventive Cyber Terror,” FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin,
Maintenance Service Plan for Your UPS November 2011.
SVS-WP04,” https://www.eaton.com/content/
dam/eaton/markets/healthcare/knowledge- Rodrick J. Van Wart is a Senior
center/white-paper/the-benefits-of-a-preventive- Consultant and Instructor at AVO Training
in Dallas, and an Instructor at the Omega
maintenance-service-plan-for-your-UPS.pdf,
Institute for Continuing Education. His 47
March 22, 2009. years of experience in the electrical industry
includes chairing test development for the
IEEE 450, IEEE Recommended Practice for
International Code Council’s inspector
Maintenance, Testing and Replacement of Vented exams, overseeing development of Iowa’s electrical licensing
Lead-acid Batteries for Stationary Applications. and permitting programs, and providing training for the state’s
Electrical Examining Board members and support staff. Rod
IEEE 1188, IEEE Recommended Practice served several municipalities as an electrical and mechanical
for Maintenance, Testing and Replacement inspector, earned Public Management certification from Drake
of Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid Batteries for University, and is a Certified Building Official. A subject
Stationary Applications. matter expert in adult learning precepts and instruction in a
classroom setting, he designed and implemented new curriculum
Megger Battery Testing Guide 2012, Megger subject matter and was awarded Top Gun status at Mike Holt’s
Corp., Dallas, Texas. Instructor Training Conference. During the last four years of his
18-year US Navy career, Rod certified apprentices and third-class
National Security Council. “The Comprehensive nuclear electricians logging 336,800 hours of total student contact
National Cyber-Security Initiative,” http://www. time. He currently serves as a member of the IEEE PES/ESSB
globalsecurity.org/security/library/policy/national/ Committee on Working Groups 450, 484 (Vice Chair), 485,
1188, 1578, and 1679.
cnci_2010.htm, October 29, 2010.
1945
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ADVANCEMENTS IN INDUSTRY

PF MEASUREMENTS
ON COMPLETE

B Y M ATH IEU L ACH ANCE, OMICRON electronics Canada Corp.

Power factor (PF) measurement has been performed on stator windings

for many decades and is a widely accepted and recommended tool to
assess the insulation system of individual bars/coils and for complete
stator windings. The test is known to be sensitive to several global defects
such as the degree of curing of the bonding materials, moisture ingress,
contamination, and thermal aging.
In addition, the power factor tip-up variation 2. IEC/TS 60034-27-3, Rotating
of this test is commonly used to detect the Electrical Machines – Part 27: Dielectric
void content of insulation. The power factor Dissipation Factor Measurements on
tip-up test compares the results of two PF Stator Winding Insulation of Rotating
measurements performed at two different
Electrical Machines
voltages. Outside of North America, the PF
measurement is often referred to as dielectric
dissipation factor (DDF) or the tangent delta Both offer useful information and guidance
test, where the tangent of the loss angle is instead regarding the test procedure, test voltage, and
recorded. The difference between PF and DDF data interpretation. One thing they have in
is negligible for values below 10%. common is that neither document provides
absolute limits as pass/fail criteria for complete
Two main standards specifically cover power/ stator windings. This creates additional
dissipation factor testing for rotating machines:
challenges for data assessment. Without pass/fail
1. IEEE Std. 286, Recommended Practice criteria, the test is classified as a diagnostic test,
for Measurement of Power Factor Tip- and the data must be analyzed and assessed with
Up of Electric Machinery Stator Coil care. Typically, a combination of four parameters
Insulation is used for the assessment:

98 • WINTER 2020 PF MEASUREMENTS ON COMPLETE STATOR WINDINGS

 ADVANCEMENTS IN INDUSTRY

PHOTO: © ISTOCKPHOTO.COM/PORTFOLIO/KOPITINPHOTO

1. Variation of the PF values in time (trend

evaluation)
2. Change in power factor between two
prescribed voltages (tip-up values)
3. PF value at low voltage
4. PF value at high voltage
Figure 1: End-Potential Grading (EPG)
This article reviews challenges that can be faced
when performing an assessment of PF data end-winding area. This material can be found
on complete stator windings and will discuss under various names in the literature: Semi
the reason global absolute values should not conductive grading, end winding stress grading,
be used. A modern approach to evaluate PD or EPG are only a few names; all indicate the
activity in stator winding from the PF data will same area. EPG is illustrated in Figure 1.
also be discussed.
The purpose of EPG is to distribute electric
field lines over a longer portion of the bars at
EN D - P O T E NT IA L the exit of the stator slots. Even if insulation
G R A D IN G ( E P G) is applied at the end-winding area, this area is
Rotating machines with a rated voltage of at high-voltage potential due to the capacitive
6 kV and above usually have end-potential coupling between the conductor and the
grading (EPG) tape or paint installed in the ground. Without EPG, a high local electric

PF MEASUREMENTS ON COMPLETE STATOR WINDINGS NETAWORLD • 99

ADVANCEMENTS IN INDUSTRY
This behavior creates additional losses at higher
voltage levels. As voltage is increased, the
resistance of EPG decreases. The loss current
(I2) increases, which results in an increase of
resistive losses. It is important to know that
this surface current is not an indication of the
health of the bulk insulation (Figure 4) and will
be added to the total measured test current.

Figure 2: Electric Field Distribution: (left) without EPG, (right) with EPG Various compounds are used for EPG, and
each of them has its own conductive behavior.
The chosen material will remarkably affect
I power factor values when voltage is increased
above voltage breakdown (VBD), which is
usually significantly lower than the rated line-
to-ground (L-G) voltage of the machine.

POWER FACTOR TI P-U P

VBD V Power factor tip-up is the difference between
two PF values obtained from two measurements
Figure 3: Typical Current-Voltage at two different voltages. Historically, when
Curve of a Given EPG testing complete windings in North America,
measurements are performed at 0.25 x UN/√ 3
Copper Wire
field would appear at the laminated
(High Voltage)core as and at UN/√ 3, where UN is the rated line-to-
I shown in Figure 2. This would result in high line voltage. The test is mainly used to detect
partial discharge (PD) activity. voltage dependent anomalies in the winding
such as those that create PD activity.
IR IR
Currently,
(Surface
silicon carbide (SiC) is the primary (Surface
component of EPG and is responsible for its
Currents) The theory of
Currents) partial discharges is
grading properties. The conductive behavior comprehensive and is beyond the scope of
of EPG is voltage-dependent and non-linear. this article. However, a short description
VBD When voltage
V is increased, the SiC layer is helpful from this point forward. Even
becomes more and more OCP conductive, resulting though normal PD activity is present in most
(Outer Corona Protection)
in a behavior shown in Figure 3. medium- and high-voltage stator windings,
PD can result from different anomalies. When
these anomalies occur, the discharges will
Copper Wire
(High Voltage) result in a small amount of dissipated energy.
If there are several PD events, the amount of
dissipated energy might be measurable during
a PF measurement. PD activity only occurs
IR IR
(Surface (Surface
above a specific inception voltage level that is
Currents) Currents) dependent on the insulation system and the
type of defect.

When performing a power factor tip-up

OCP test, the value obtained at 0.25 x UN/√ 3
(Outer Corona Protection)
is assumed to be exempt from PD activity,
Figure 4: Schematic of Surface Current Circulating around Insulation while the value at UN/√ 3 is assumed to

100 • WINTER 2020 PF MEASUREMENTS ON COMPLETE STATOR WINDINGS

 ADVANCEMENTS IN INDUSTRY
contain the dissipated energy from the PD It is not feasible to install guard electrodes
activity if present in the winding. In theory, a on every bar of completely assembled stator
difference between these two measured values windings. Therefore, tip-up values obtained
would indicate the presence of significant PD in the field — even for healthy machines —
activity. However, with only two measuring are usually higher than values recorded in the
points, it can be difficult to distinguish losses factory on individual coils/bars. Some EPG
caused by a voltage-dependent defect from can be conductive even at lower voltage. For
the expected increased losses caused by the this reason, it is not recommended to compare
conduction behavior of EPG. It is even more values from individual coils/bars with the
difficult to establish a tip-up limit because values obtained in the field on a complete
of the wide variety of EPG used by different assembled winding.
manufacturers.

PD HYSTERESI S
G U A R D IN G F OR Modern power factor test instruments are now
I N D IVID U AL B A RS/C OILS able to record as many points as necessary
The power factor tip-up test is commonly used and take measurements during the decreasing
for quality control on newly manufactured voltage stage of the test. Instead of simply
coils and bars. Depending on the measuring the tip-up value between two points,
manufacturer and on customer requirements, instruments can now record many data points,
it can be performed on each coil/bar or on enabling visualization of the power factor
samples of a production lot. voltage sweep curves. These curves can be used
to extract additional information and enhance
To remove the influence of EPG, various diagnostic capability.
guarding techniques are used in the factory that
cause the test to become more sensitive to the
void content within the bulk insulation and less
sensitive to the conduction behavior of EPG.
Figure 5 shows a schematic of one guarding
technique; Figure 6 illustrates the difference
between measurements on a single coil with
and without guard electrodes. Guard electrodes
are not perfect, and a small contribution of
surface currents is usually still measurable even
with some guarding techniques.

Figure 5: Stator Bar with Guard Electrodes

4,00 4,00
Tan Delta [%] Tan Delta [%]
3,50 3,50

3,00 3,00 With guard rings

2,50 2,50

% 2,00 % 2,00

1,50 1,50

1,00 1,00

0,50 Without guard rings 0,50

0,00 0,00
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

V V

Figure 6: PF Voltage Sweep Curves: (left) without Guard Rings, (right) with Guard Rings
3,50
Power factor (%)
3,00
PF MEASUREMENTS ON COMPLETE STATOR WINDINGS
2,50 NETAWORLD • 101
2,00
%
ADVANCEMENTS IN INDUSTRY
PD usually occurs above a certain voltage not all PD activity will exhibit this behavior.
level and results in small current impulses For example, corona-type PD is known to have
that create additional losses. Two parameters similar PDIV and PDEV values and therefore
are commonly measured during offline PD will
4,00
not exhibitTanthe hysteresis curve. Figure 7
Delta [%]
4,00

measurements: shows the results of a PF measurement of a

3,50 3,50

winding
3,00
with high inner PD activity; Figure 3,00

a) PD inception voltage (PDIV): the voltage 8 2,50

shows the PF results of a winding with low 2,50

at which PD appears when voltage is %

inner
2,00
PD activity; Figure 9 shows an example % 2,00

increased of1,50a winding with no significant inner PD 1,50

activity.
1,00 1,00

b) PD extinction voltage (PDEV): the voltage 0,50 Without guard rings 0,50

at which PD disappears when voltage is 0,00 0,00

Using power factor voltage sweep curves can

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

0
decreased.
4,00 help
4,00 the test operator visualize whether the
Tan Delta [%] Tan Delta [%] V
3,50 increase
3,50 in power factor, with respect to the
In4,00many cases, PDIV is higher than PDEV. 4,00
With guard rings
3,00 Tan Delta [%] voltage,
3,00 is due to partial
Tan Delta [%] discharges or simply
This
3,50 means that, for a winding with high PD 3,50
2,50 the
2,50normal conduction behavior of EPG.
3,50

activity,
3,00 losses can be higher when the voltage 3,00 Power factor (%) With guard rings
% 2,00 % 3,00
2,00
is 1,50
decreased versus when voltage is increased.
2,50 2,50
1,50
2,50
It is believed this behavior creates so-called
% 2,00
1,00 MACHI NE CONSTRUCTIO N
% 2,00
1,00
2,00
PD 1,50 hysteresis in PF curves when performing
% 1,50
0,50 Without guard rings Machine construction can significantly
0,50
an0,00upward and a downward voltage ramp. In
1,00
1,50
1,00
influence the expected PF results for traditional
0,00
various measurements, thisWithout correlation
guard rings was 1,00
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000
0,50 0,50
tip-up values and for PF voltage sweep curves.
confirmed
0,00 between PD activity V and a hysteresis 0,00
0,50 A-BCG V
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

2000 1000

4000 2000

6000 3000

8000 4000

10000 5000

12000 6000

14000 7000
of PF curves. It is important to mention that 0,00
V When performing PF measurements
0 V on a clean
3,50 and healthy stator winding V that does not have
Power factor (%)
3,00
3,50
an EPG area, no significant increase of losses
2,50 Power factor (%) with respect to increased voltage is expected.
3,00 0,90
2,00 A0,85stator winding with rated
Power factor (%) voltage of 6 kV
2,50
%
1,50
and0,80 below is an example of a machine that
2,00
% 1,00
does
0,75 not have an EPG area. However, some

1,50
manufacturers
0,70
have started to install EPG on
0,50 A-BCG % 0,65
1,00 machines
0,60
operating at lower voltage, especially
0,00
0,50 A-BCG if 0,55
they are inverter fed. Figure 10 shows the
0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000 10000

12000 12000

14000 14000

0,00
V
results
0,50
of a healthy and clean 4.16 kV machine
A-BCG
0,45
0

2000

4000

6000

8000

without EPG; Figure 11 shows a retired 4 kV

Figure 7: PF Voltage Sweep Curve with High 0,40
V machine with high PD activity and no EPG.
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000
Inner
0,90
PD Activity
Power factor (%) V
0,85
0,90
0,80 2.00
Power factor (%) Power factor (%)
0,85
0,75 1,80

0,80
0,70 1,60

% 0,75
0,65 1,40

0,70
0,60 1,20

% 0,55
0,65 % 1,00

0,60
0,50 0,80
A-BCG
0,55
0,45 0,60

0,50
0,40 0,40
A-BCG A-BCG
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

0,45 0,20

0,40 0,00
V
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

2.00
V (%)
Power factor V
1,80
Figure
2.00
1,60 8: PF Voltage Sweep Curve with Some Figure 9: PF Voltage Sweep Curve with Low
Power factor (%)
Inner PD Activity
1,80
1,40 Inner PD Activity
1,60
1,20 2.50

% 1,40
1,00 Power factor (%)
1,20
0,80 2.00

102 • WINTER 2020

% 0,60
1,00 PF MEASUREMENTS ON COMPLETE STATOR WINDINGS
0,80
0,40 1.50
A-BCG
0,60
0,20 %
 A-BCG 1.50
0,20

0,00
% 0.50

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000
1.00

V 0.00

ADVANCEMENTS IN INDUSTRY

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000
0.50

V
0.00

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000
2.50 4.50
Power factor (%)
Power factor (%) 4.00 V
2.00 3.50
4.50
3.00 Power factor (%)
4.00
1.50
2.50
% % 3.50
2.00
1.00 3.00
1.50
2.50
% 1.00
0.50 2.00
0.50
1.50
0.00 0.00
1.00

500

1000

1500

2000

2500
0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000
0.50
V V
0.00

Figure 10: PF Voltage Sweep Curve of a Figure 11: PF Voltage Sweep Curve of a

500

1000

1500

2000

2500
4.50
Power factor (%)
Healthy 4 kV Machine
4.00 Retired
4,50 4 kV Machine with V High PD Activity
Power factor (%)
3.50 4,00

3.00 3,50
4,50
Power factor (%)
The
%
2.50 number and length of slots can also 3,00
4,00

significantly
2.00
impact expected values. Machines %
2,50
3,50
2,00
that
1.50
have many short slots will be subjected to 3,00
1,50
1.00
higher
0.50
influence from the surface current caused %
2,50
1,00
2,00 A-BCG
by0.00EPG. This is because the surface current 0,50
1,50
becomes dominant in comparison with the
0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

0,00
1,00
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

10000
current that goes throughV bulk insulation (refer 0,50
A-BCG
V
back to Figure 4). An example can be seen in 0,00
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

10000
Figure
4,50 12, where PFPower
measurements
factor (%)
of a healthy
and
4,00
clean winding show a large increase of PF V

Figure 12: High Power

2.50
values
3,50
with respect to voltage. The PF values Lossfactor
Contribution
(%)
from EPG
3,00
start
2,50
at 1.50% at 1,000 V and increase to 2.00
2.50
approximately
%
2,00
3.85% at 9,500 V. This is another different points in time, increased
Power factor (%) power factor
1.50
factor
1,50 to consider if tip-up limits are applied to a is
%
generally
2.00 a sign of insulation deterioration
complete
1,00 stator winding. or1.00aging. A comparison between phases and
A-BCG 1.50
0,50 between
% 0.50
similar machines can be useful, and
0,00
empirical limits based on measurements
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

10000

1.00
A S S E S S ME N T performed on similar machines can also be
0.00
V
Neither IEEE 286 nor IEC 60034-27-3 currently established. In any case, Vit is recommended to
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

0.50

publish limits for complete stator windings. consult

0.00
with the machine
A-BCG B-ACG manufacturer
C-ABG or the
IEC 60034-27-3 does include limits for individual test equipment manufacturer when PF values
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

2.50
V
coils and bars using Power
guard
factorelectrodes.
(%) However, display
7.00
an upward
A-BCG
trendB-ACG
over time.
C-ABG
it is important to mention that many have
2.00
Power factor (%)
6.00
questioned
1.50
those values; they are viewed as too If7.00
no historical data is available, the ability
5.00
restrictive
% by some and overly lenient by others. to perform an assessmentPower factor (%) from one single
6.00
In addition, these limits should not be applied
1.00 measurement
%
4.00
is limited. PD hysteresis can
for complete stator windings. The difficulty of 5.00
therefore
3.00
be used to verify the presence of PD
0.50
establishing global limits results from numerous within
%
4.00
2.00 the insulation. In addition, a comparison
variables
0.00 such as various insulating materials, between
3.00
1.00 phases of the machine could also be
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

different conductive behaviorV of installed EPG, used

2.00
0.00 if the neutral point can be isolated.
and the geometry of the machine itself.
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

A-BCG B-ACG C-ABG 1.00

V
0.00 A-BCG B-ACG C-ABG
Power factor values, tip-up values, and voltage CONCLUSI ON
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

7.00
V
sweep
6.00
curves shouldPower
befactor
recorded
(%)
and trended Power
7.00 factor measurement
A-BCG Power B-ACG provides
C-ABG a general
factor (%)
over
5.00
time. When measurements are recorded assessment of insulation with limited capability
6.00

during similar environmental conditions at to7.00

detect localized weak points. Therefore, the
5.00
4.00 Power factor (%)
% 6.00
4.00
3.00
%
5.00
3.00
PF2.00
MEASUREMENTS ON COMPLETE STATOR WINDINGS
4.00
2.00
NETAWORLD • 103
1.00 %
3.00
1.00
0.00
 %
0,80
1.00
0,60

0,40
A-BCG 0.50

ADVANCEMENTS IN INDUSTRY
0,20

0,00

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000
0.00

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000
V
values do not represent the most deteriorated In this specific case, it wasV necessary to increase
part of the winding, as a large power factor the
4.50test voltage up to U To display the PD
N. (%)
Power factor
value
2.50 can be due to voids distributed all over hysteresis
4.00
curves with enough resolution,
the winding or a fewPower
single, heavily aged bars or
factor (%) a 3.50
minimum of 10 data points is usually
3.00
coils. The impact of the latter case is potentially
2.00
recommended.
2.50
Therefore, the voltage was
much
1.50
more severe for the longevity of the increased
%
2.00
using increments of 0.1 x UN. The
winding. It is, however, good practice to perform
% results
1.50 are shown in Table 2 and Figure 14.
measurements
1.00
whenever possible and to trend 1.00

the
0.50
values throughout the asset’s lifetime. If an Comparing
0.50 the data from 2012 (Table 2 and
increase in power factor values or tip-up values is Figure
0.00
14) to the data of 1991 (Table 1 and

500

1000

1500

2000

2500
observed,
0.00 further investigation including visual Figure 13) shows significant increase of all
V
0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000
inspection and additional electrical tests can be values for all three phases. Increased PF values
triggered to complete the Vassessment. could
4,50
be expected due to aging since the
4.50
Power factor (%) measurements
4,00
were Power
taken 20
factor (%) years apart. After
4.00
all,
3,50at the time of the 2012 measurements, the
C3.50
ASE S T UDY machine
3,00 had been operating for a little more
3.00
In2.50January 2012, power factor measurements than
%
2,50 30 years. However, the losses in phase A

%
were
2.00 performed on a 6.4 kV, 5.6 MVA hydro were
2,00
more than twice the losses measured in
1,50
generator
1.50 as part of a planned outage. The the other two phases. In addition, hysteresis
1,00
machine
1.00 was manufactured in 1981. The behavior
0,50
was noticeable in all three phases,
A-BCG but
neutral
0.50
point was disconnected to test each predominantly
0,00 on phase A. For these reasons,
0.00
individual phase separately, and the line additional electrical tests were recommended to

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

10000
0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

terminals were isolatedV from the system as investigate the results. V

recommended by relevant standards.
4,50
The results of a dielectric frequency response
The Power factor (%)
4,00 only available historical data from 1991 is (DFR)
2.50
analysis confirmed the presence of an
Power factor (%)
illustrated
3,50 in Table 1 and Figure 13. anomaly
2.00
on phase A. To locate the defect in
3,00

2,50 1.50
%
Table
2,00
1: PF Data from 1991 Table
% 2: PF Measurements before Repairs
1,50 1.00

1,00 PF at PF at
A-BCG 0.50
0,50 0.2 X UN PF at UN PF Tip-up 0.2 X UN PF at UN PF Tip-up
0,00
Phase A 0.75% 2.33% 1.58% Phase
0.00 A 3.74% 6.03% 2.29%
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

10000

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000
Phase B 0.90% V2.35% 1.45% Phase B 1.51% V3.12% 1.61%
A-BCG B-ACG C-ABG
Phase C 0.74% 2.29% 1.55% Phase C 1.68% 3.08% 1.40%

2.50 7.00
Power factor (%) Power factor (%)
6.00
2.00
5.00

1.50
4.00
% %
1.00 3.00

2.00
0.50
1.00

0.00 0.00
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

V V
A-BCG B-ACG C-ABG A-BCG B-ACG C-ABG

Figure 13: PF Voltage Sweep Curves from Figure

7.00
14: PF Voltage Sweep Curves before
7.00
1991 Power factor (%) Repairs
6.00
Power factor (%)
6.00

5.00
5.00

• WINTER 2020
4.00
104 %
4.00 PF MEASUREMENTS
%
ON COMPLETE STATOR WINDINGS
3.00
3.00

2.00
 A-BCG B-ACG C-ABG

7.00

ADVANCEMENTS IN INDUSTRY
Power factor (%)
6.00

5.00

Table 3: PF Measurements after Repairs REFERENCES

4.00
%
3.00

PF at IEEE Std. 286-2000, Recommended

2.00
0.2 X UN PF at UN PF Tip-up Practice for Measurement of Power Factor
1.00
Phase A 1.72% 3.01% 1.29%
Tip-Up of Electric Machinery Stator Coil
0.00
Insulation, pp 1-29, 2001, doi: 10.1109/
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000
Phase B 1.81% 3.28% 1.47%
V IEEESTD.2001.92415.
Phase C 2.02%
A-BCG 3.23% C-ABG 1.21%
B-ACG
IEC/TS 60034-27-3, Rotating Electrical
7.00 Machines – Part 27: Dielectric Dissipation
Power factor (%)
6.00 Factor Measurements on Stator Winding
5.00
Insulation of Rotating Electrical Machines,
4.00
2015.
%
3.00 M. G. Krieg-Wezelenburg. “Dielectric
2.00 Dissipation Factor Measurements on
1.00
Stator Insulation — Results from a Global
0.00
Survey,” 2020 IEEE Electrical Insulation
Conference (EIC), Knoxville, TN, USA,
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

V
A-BCG B-ACG C-ABG
2020, pp. 269-273, doi: 10.1109/
EIC47619.2020.9158740.
Figure 15: PF Voltage Sweep after Repairs
R. Omranipour and S. U. Haq. “How Critical
are IEC 60034-27-3 Maximum Values
for Dielectric Dissipation Factor and Tip-
the winding, an AC dielectric withstand test at
Up to Determine the Reliability of Motor
1.5 x UN was initiated. A breakdown occurred
Stator Insulation?” 2015 IEEE Electrical
in one coil located in the middle of the winding
Insulation Conference (EIC), Seattle, WA,
of phase A before reaching the final voltage
USA, 2015, pp. 364-368, doi: 10.1109/
level.
ICACACT.2014.7223474.
The failed coil was isolated from the winding,
and the electrical tests were repeated. The Mathieu Lachance joined OMICRON
results of the power factor measurements, after electronics Canada Corp. in 2019 and
repairs, are shown in Table 3 and Figure 15. presently holds the position of Regional
Application Specialist for rotating machines
Following the repairs, the losses of phase A and partial discharges. He previously
worked as a test engineer in the fields
were similar to losses from phase B and phase of partial discharges and high voltage.
C. Figure 15 also shows that hysteresis behavior Mathieu received a BS in electrical engineering from Université
has significantly diminished. Nevertheless, the Laval in 2014.
values are still significantly higher (100%) than
the data from 1991 and indicate insulation
deterioration on all three phases.

PF MEASUREMENTS ON COMPLETE STATOR WINDINGS NETAWORLD • 105

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54
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INSIGHTS & OBSERVATIONS — NETA CAP SPOTLIGHT

AEMC ®

INSTRUMENTS:
OVER 125 YEARS OF TECHNICAL HERITAGE
AND INNOVATION IN TEST INSTRUMENTATION
NETA Corporate Alliance Partners (CAPs) are a
group of industry-leading companies that have
joined forces with NETA to work together toward
a common aim: improving quality, safety, and
electrical system reliability.

In our continuing CAP Spotlight series, we

highlight some of their individual successes. In JOHN OLOBRI
this issue, NETA World interviews John Olobri, Director of Sales and
Marketing for AEMC® Instruments in Foxborough, Massachusetts.

NW: What is something NETA World Arnoux family. AEMC was originally known
readers don’t know about AEMC? as a premier supplier of current measurement
probes, and we still hold that position. Today,
Olobri: AEMC Instruments originally started we offer a wide range of test instruments for
in business in the United States in Boston, ground resistance testing, insulation resistance
Massachusetts, in 1976 as Instrumentation testing, power and energy monitoring, and
Corporation. It was a distribution arm of much more. Chauvin Arnoux in France was
Chauvin Arnoux based in Paris, France. one of the first developers of the multimeter.
As the business grew, a production facility
opened in Dover, New Hampshire, in the early NW: What recent company achievement or
1980s, and two additional business units were milestone are you particularly proud of?
added. A name-change to Advanced Electrical
Measurement and Control took place as it was Olobri: As a world-leading manufacturer
a better fit for the company’s business model, of ground resistance test instrumentation,
and in the early 1990s, the name was shortened we continually look for ways to advance the
to AEMC® Instruments as it is known today. technology to address the needs of the customer.
The company is incorporated as Chauvin Our latest offering to test the ground resistance
Arnoux® Inc., d.b.a. AEMC® Instruments. of towers such as electrical transmission and
It is still privately held and owned by the cellular communication has greatly improved

108 • WINTER 2020 AEMC® INSTRUMENTS: OVER 125 YEARS OF TECHNICAL

HERITAGE AND INNOVATION IN TEST INSTRUMENTATION
 INSIGHTS & OBSERVATIONS — NETA CAP SPOTLIGHT
the safety of the technician doing the test, the
quality of the test results, and the cost to get the
job done. Our tower tester is capable of testing
towers while they are energized or de-energized.
In the case of electrical transmission towers, we
can accomplish the testing without the need
for a crew to climb the tower to disconnect
the overhead ground conductor that runs
from tower to tower in the transmission line.
This alone saves considerable time and money
for the utility company and is much safer for
the personnel doing the work. The test results
provided by this instrument include footing
resistance of individual and total tower legs,
quality of the overhead ground conductor
bonding to the tower, leakage current, stray
voltage, and a resistance vs frequency plot that
provides valuable information of the reactive AEMC’s Groundflex® Field Kit
component — important to determine the
amounts of data. It will also help us simplify
effects of a lightning strike on the tower. All
connectivity for the user who is interested in
of this testing can be completed in 30 to 40
getting the job done right without spending
minutes where it would take several hours
an excessive amount of time learning computer
with other test methods. Today, several major
technology to make that data communication
electrical utility companies have standardized
happen. Springboarding off the developments of
on our tower tester as the required instrument battery technology for the automotive industry
for their technicians and electrical contractors to and others will provide us an opportunity to
use to verify that their transmission towers are offer longer operation of test and measuring
within acceptable ground-resistance values. instrumentation particularly in the area of data
logging, which inherently is mostly used in
NW: What evolution do you see on the unattended operation.
horizon that will have a positive impact on
your work? NW: What challenges do you see going
forward for the industry?
Olobri: The cost and reliability of digital
communication technology and the wide use Olobri: A most important challenge that
of smart devices such as cell phones and tablets faces the test instrumentation industry is in
has given us the opportunity to effectively configuration simplification and presentation
provide remote operation and access to test of application-oriented measurement results.
instrumentation. It allows the technician Technicians and engineers today are pulled in
to remain outside hazardous areas while many directions and are under considerable time
performing electrical measurements. It simplifies pressures. The last thing they want to do is spend
and reduces the time to properly configure the hours learning software or the layers of button-
test instrument. It gives us the opportunity to pushing to set up instrumentation. Although
provide real-time information, particularly in great strides have been made in this area, more
power and energy monitoring, to the appropriate needs to be done to literally make instruments
decision makers and engineers anywhere in the as close to plug-and-play as possible and provide
world. Continued developments in this area the operator the confidence that the instrument
will improve reliability of this communication is configured right the first time and the results
and increase the transmission speed of large will be accurate.

AEMC® INSTRUMENTS: OVER 125 YEARS OF TECHNICAL

HERITAGE AND INNOVATION IN TEST INSTRUMENTATION
NETAWORLD • 109
 Industrial Electric Testing, Inc.
EC13004105 • 24 Hour Emergency Service
ACCEPTANCE AND MAINTENANCE TESTING AND REPAIR
• Cables • LV/MV Switches • Reclosers
• LV/MV Circuit Breakers • Relays - All Types • Surge Arresters
• Rotating Machinery • Motor Control Centers • Capacitors
• Meters • Grounding Systems • Batteries
• Automatic Transfer Switches • Transformers • Ground Fault Systems
• Switchgear and Switchboard • Insulating Fluids • Equipotential Ground
Assemblies • Thermographic Surveys Testing

CoNSulTING AND ENGINEERING SERvICES

• Load Studies • Harmonic Investigation
• Transient Voltage Recording and Analysis • Replacement of Insulating Fluids
• Electromagnetic Field (EMF) Testing • Power Factor Studies

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SPECIFICATIONS AND STANDARDS ACTIVITY

ANSI/NETA STANDARDS UPDATE

S-2020
ETA EC
ANSI/N

2020
STANDARD

2020
S

STAND
ARD F
OR

R I C A L
LECT ECIFICATIONS
ANSI/

E
NETA

.O RG
WORLD
.NETA
STANDA

WWW

S IONING SP IPMENT & SYSTEMS

RD FO

C O M M I S
R ELEC

R EQU
POWE
TR

RICAL
ICAL CO

LECT
FOR E
MM
ISSIO
NING
SPECIF
ICATIO

LATEST
NS

EDITION

ANSI / NETA ATS–2017

ANSI/N
2017
ETA ATS-
REVI SI ON UNDERWAY
ANSI/NETA ATS–2017, Standard for Acceptance Testing
Specifications for Electrical Power Equipment & Systems
continues an American National Standard revision process
that is scheduled to be completed by the end of 2020. The
new edition will be released in March 2021.

A project intent notification published in ANSI’s Standards

CE Action on January 3, 2020, announced the opening of a 45-
FO R

TA N
S TA N D A RD

C E P day public comment period. The initial ballot was issued

A C SPECIFIC N
T IO S
A
G on January 17, 2020, and closed on February 18, 2020. A
T ES T IN
TE MS
& SY S
M EN T
EQ U IP
EC TR IC A L PO
W ER
second ballot was issued July 10, 2020, and closed August
FO R EL
REVISION 10, 2020. The administrative approval process from ANSI
UNDERWAY
continues. The revised edition of ANSI/NETA ATS is
scheduled to debut at PowerTest 2021 in Orlando.

ANSI/NETA ATS covers suggested field tests and

inspections for assessing the suitability for initial
energization of electrical power equipment and systems.

112 • WINTER 2020 ANSI/NETA STANDARDS UPDATE

 SPECIFICATIONS AND STANDARDS ACTIVITY
The purpose of these specifications is to assure that tested Voltage classes addressed include:
electrical equipment and systems are operational, are within
applicable standards and manufacturers’ tolerances, and are • Low-voltage systems (less than 1,000 volts)
installed in accordance with design specifications.
• Medium-voltage systems (greater than 1,000 volts and
less than 100,000 volts)
A N S I/ N E TA E T T –2018 • High-voltage and extra-high-voltage systems (greater
R E VIS I ON S C H E DULE D F OR 2021 than 100 kV and less than 1,000 kV)
A project intent notification has been published in ANSI’s
Standards Action in fall 2020, announcing the opening of a References:
45-day public comment period. The initial ballot is expected
in summer 2021. A second ballot is scheduled for issue • ASHRAE, ANSI/NETA ATS, NECA, NFPA 70E,
in fall 2021. The revised edition of ANSI/NETA ATS is OSHA, GSA Building Commissioning Guide
scheduled to debut at PowerTest 2022.

ANSI/NETA ETT establishes minimum requirements ANSI / NETA MTS–2019

for qualifications, certification, training, and experience LATEST EDI TI ON
for the electrical testing technician. It provides criteria for ANSI/NETA MTS, Standard for Maintenance Testing
documenting qualifications for certification and details the Specifications for Electrical Power Equipment & Systems, 2019
minimum qualifications for an independent and impartial Edition, completed an American National Standard revision
certifying body to certify electrical testing technicians. process and received ANSI approval on February 4, 2019.
The revised edition of ANSI/NETA MTS was released in
March 2019 and supersedes the 2015 Edition.
A N S I/ N E TA E C S–2020
L AT E S T E D I T ION ANSI/NETA MTS contains specifications for suggested
ANSI/NETA ECS, Standard for Electrical Commissioning field tests and inspections to assess the suitability for
of Electrical Power Equipment & Systems, 2020 Edition, continued service and reliability of electrical power
completed the American National Standard revision process. equipment and systems. The purpose of these specifications
ANSI administrative approval was received on September is to assure that tested electrical equipment and systems
9, 2019. ANSI/NETA ECS–2020 supersedes the 2015 are operational and within applicable standards and
Edition. manufacturers’ tolerances, and that the equipment and
systems are suitable for continued service. ANSI/NETA
ANSI/NETA ECS describes the systematic process of MTS–2019 revisions include online partial discharge
documenting and placing into service newly installed or survey for switchgear, frequency of power systems studies,
retrofitted electrical power equipment and systems. This frequency of maintenance matrix, and more. ANSI/NETA
document shall be used in conjunction with the most recent MTS–2019 is available for purchase at the NETA Bookstore
edition of ANSI/NETA ATS, Standard for Acceptance Testing at www.netaworld.org.
Specifications for Electrical Power Equipment & Systems.
The individual electrical components shall be subjected to
factory and field tests, as required, to validate the individual
components. It is not the intent of these specifications
to provide comprehensive details on the commissioning PARTI CI PATI ON
of mechanical equipment, mechanical instrumentation Comments and suggestions on any of the standards
systems, and related components. are always welcome and should be directed to NETA.
To learn more about the NETA standards review
The ANSI/NETA ECS–2020 Edition includes updates and revision process, to purchase these standards,
to the commissioning process, as well as inspection and or to get involved, please visit www.netaworld.org or
commissioning procedures as it relates to low- and medium- contact the NETA office at 888-300-6382.
voltage systems.

ANSI/NETA STANDARDS UPDATE NETAWORLD • 113

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TECH QUIZ ANSWERS

No. 132
A N S W E R S
Thomas D. Sandri is A N SW E R S 3. 
a. Figure 1 showed a common Mho (opposite
Training Development characteristic of an Ohm) relay characteristic
Manager at Shermco where:
1. 
a. 25. Also known as a synch-check relay,
Industries. He has been
active in the field of it verifies that two voltages are within the
electrical power and specified quantity and phase angle. These are 
X = reactance, r = resistance, z = impedance
telecommunications for over used mostly for synchronizing a generator
30 years. During his career, with an existing source to be connected to 
It could also show the maximum torque angle
he has developed numerous it, not for synchronizing two generators. (Figure 4) and the values for the three. Any
training aids and training Auto-synchronizing relays are usually used to impedance value that falls inside the circle
guides and has conducted synchronize two generators. means a contact-closed condition.
domestic and international
seminars. Tom supports
a wide range of electrical 2. 
d. Loss-of-excitation. Probably an easy X

and telecommunication question since it has the longest answer. nZ L Maximum

maintenance application A generator uses an exciter to apply a
torque
disciplines. He has DC voltage across the field winding. The angle
been directly involved resulting current produces a magnetic
in supporting test and flux that cuts the windings on the rotor,
measurement equipment producing an output voltage. Figure 3 shows
for over 20 years and is a simple diagram of a generator. This was the
considered an industry simplest one I could find on the internet. R
expert in application
The automatic voltage regulator (AVR),
disciplines, including battery
and dc systems testing and
which is not shown, controls the exciter
output voltage and could be one of many
maintenance, medium- and
types. Increasing the AVR output voltage Figure 4: Mho Relay
high-voltage cables, ground
testing, and partial discharge increases the generator output.
analysis. Tom holds a 4. 
a. Seal-In coil. This is an electro-mechanical
BSEE from Thomas Edison relay. The schematic also shows the seal-in
University in Trenton, contacts.
New Jersey. 
b. Tapped current operating coil. This is a
reverse power relay.

c. Shorting bars, for the CTs

d. Potential operating coils


Figure 2 in the question is a reverse power
relay. To operate, it must see both a voltage
(potential) and a current. It looks for power
Figure 3: Simple Generator System
flow going in the wrong direction.
COURTESY EMERSON AUTOMATION EXPERTS BLOG

116 • WINTER 2020 TECH QUIZ

 TECH QUIZ

b 
Protective relays use their own symbol system.
It’s easy to get confused if you’re not used to
them. This one is a bit quirky. The current
d coil (b) is normally shown as the potential
coils are in Figure 2, but the potential coil (d)
S1 is shown split. Since the shorting bars (c) are
on terminals 5 and 6, the current coil must
be connected there. Terminals 7 and 8 are
a S1
the potential coil terminals and 1 and 2 are
the trip circuit with (a) being the seal-in coil.
This is an IJS Sync-Check relay.

NFPA Disclaimer: Although Jim White is a member

of the NFPA Technical Committee for both NFPA 70E,
Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace, and
NFPA 70B, Recommended Practice for Electrical
Equipment Maintenance, the views and opinions expressed
in this column are purely the author’s and shall not be
c
1 5 7 considered an official position of the NFPA or any of its
technical committees and shall not be considered, nor be
2 6 8
relied upon, as a formal interpretation or promotion of the
= SHORT FINGERS
NFPA. Readers are encouraged to refer to the entire text of
all referenced documents.
Figure 2: Internal Schematic

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 NETA ACCREDITED COMPANIES Setting the Standard

A&F Electrical Testing, Inc. ABM Electrical Power Solutions American Electrical Testing Co., LLC CE Power Engineered Services, LLC
80 Lake Ave S Ste 10 3700 Commerce Dr # 901-903 91 Fulton St., Unit 4 480 Cave Rd
Nesconset, NY 11767-1017 Baltimore, MD 21227-1642 Boonton, NJ 07005-1060 Nashville, TN 37210-2302
(631) 584-5625 (410) 247-3300 (973) 316-1180 (615) 882-9455
www.afelectricaltesting.com
ABM Electrical Power Solutions AMP Quality Energy Services, LLC CE Power Engineered Services, LLC
A&F Electrical Testing, Inc. 317 Commerce Park Drive 352 Turney Ridge Rd 40 Washington St
80 Broad St Fl 5 Cranberry Township, PA 16066-6407 Somerville, AL 35670 Westborough, MA 01581-1088
New York, NY 10004-2257 (724) 772-4638 (256) 513-8255 (508) 881-3911
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ABM Electrical Power Solutions AMP Quality Energy Services, LLC CE Power Engineered Services, LLC
ABM Electrical Power Services, LLC 814 Greenbrier Cir Ste E 41 Peabody Street 9200 75th Avenue N
720 S Rochester Ste A Chesapeake, VA 23320-2643 Nashville, TN 37210 Brooklyn Park, MN 55428
Ontario, CA 91761-8177 (757) 364-6145 (629) 213-4855 (877) 968-0281
(301) 397-3500
abm.com/Electrical ABM Electrical Power Solutions Apparatus Testing and Engineering CE Power Engineered Services, LLC
1817 O’Brien Road 11300 Sanders Dr Ste 29 72 Sanford Drive
ABM Electrical Power Services, LLC Columbus, OH 43228 Rancho Cordova, CA 95742-6822 Gorham, ME 04038
6541 Meridien Dr (724) 772-4638 (916) 853-6280 (800) 649-6314
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Raleigh, NC 27616 CE Power Engineered Services, LLC
(919) 877-1008 Absolute Testing Services, Inc. Apparatus Testing and Engineering 8490 Seward Rd.
8100 West Little York 7083 Commerce Cir Ste H Fairfield, OH 45011
ABM Electrical Power Services, LLC Houston, TX 77040 Pleasanton, CA 94588-8017 (800) 434-0415
2631 S. Roosevelt St (832) 467-4446 (916) 853-6280
Tempe, AZ 85282 www.absolutetesting.com CE Power Engineered Services, LLC
(602) 722-2423 Applied Engineering Concepts 1803 Taylor Ave.
Accessible Consulting Engineers, Inc. 894 N Fair Oaks Ave. Louisville, KY 40213
ABM Electrical Power Services, LLC 1269 Pomona Rd Ste 111 Pasadena, CA 91103 (800) 434-0415
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Charlotte, NC 28206-4210 (951) 808-1040 www.aec-us.com CE Power Engineered Services, LLC
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ABM Electrical Power Services, LLC Advanced Electrical Services 8160 Miramar Road (810) 229-6628
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(408) 466-6920 Calgary, AB T2B 3N4 CE Power Engineered Services, LLC
(403) 697-3747 BEC Testing 10840 Murdock Drive
ABM Electrical Power Services, LLC 50 Gazza Blvd Knoxville, TN 37932
9800 E Geddes Ave Unit A-150 Advanced Testing Systems Farmingdale, NY 11735-1402 (800) 434-0415
Englewood, CO 80112-9306 15 Trowbridge Dr (631) 393-6800
(303) 524-6560 Bethel, CT 06801-2858 www.bectesting.com CE Power Engineered Services, LLC
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ABM Electrical Power Services, LLC www.advtest.com Burlington Electrical Testing Co., LLC Merrillville, IN 46410
3585 Corporate Court 300 Cedar Ave (219) 942-2346
San Diego, CA 92123-1844 American Electrical Testing Co., LLC Croydon, PA 19021-6051
(858) 754-7963 25 Forbes Boulevard (215) 826-9400 CE Power Engineered Services, LLC
Suite 1 www.betest.com 1260 Industrial Park
ABM Electrical Power Services, LLC Foxboro, MA 02035 Eveleth, MN 55734
1005 Windward Ridge Pkwy (781) 821-0121 Burlington Electrical Testing Co., LLC (218) 744-4200
Alpharetta, GA 30005 www.aetco.us 846 Waterford Drive
(770) 521-7550 Delran, NJ 08075 CE Power Solutions of Florida, LLC
American Electrical Testing Co., LLC (609) 267-4126 3502 Riga Blvd., Suite C
ABM Electrical Power Services, LLC Green Hills Commerce Center Tampa, FL 33619
4221 Freidrich Lane Suite 170 5925 Tilghman St Ste 200 C.E. Testing, Inc. (866) 439-2992
Austin, TX 78744 Allentown, PA 18104-9158 6148 Tim Crews Rd www.cepowersol.com
(210) 347-9481 (484) 538-2272 Macclenny, FL 32063-4036
(904) 653-1900 CE Power Solutions of Florida, LLC
ABM Electrical Power Services, LLC American Electrical Testing Co., LLC www.cetestinginc.com/ 3801 SW 47th Avenue Suite 505
11719 NE 95th St. Ste H 34 Clover Dr Davie, FL 33314
Vancouver, WA 98682 South Windsor, CT 06074-2931 Capitol Area Testing, Inc. (866) 439-2992
(360) 713-9513 (860) 648-1013 P.O. Box 259
Suite 614 Control Power Concepts
ABM Electrical Power Solutions American Electrical Testing Co., LLC Crownsville, MD 21032 3750 Las Vegas Blvd S. Unit 3303
4390 Parliament Place 76 Cain Dr (757) 650-0740 Las Vegas, NV 89158
Suite S Brentwood, NY 11717-1265 www.capitolareatesting.com (702) 448-7833
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(800) 434-0415

NETA ACCREDITED COMPANIES NETAWORLD • 119

NETA ACCREDITED COMPANIES Setting the Standard

Dude Electrical Testing, LLC Electric Power Systems, Inc. Electric Power Systems, Inc. Electrical Reliability Services
145 Tower Drive, Unit 9 684 Melrose Avenue 7308 Aspen Lane North 8500 Washington St NE Ste A6
Burr Ridge, IL 60527-7840 Nashville, TN 37211-3121 Suite 160 Albuquerque, NM 87113-1861
(815) 293-3388 (615) 834-0999 Brooklyn Park, MN 55428 (505) 822-0237
www.dudetesting.com (763) 315-3520
Electric Power Systems, Inc. Electrical Reliability Services
Eastern High Voltage, Inc. 2888 Nationwide Parkway Electric Power Systems, Inc. 2275 Northwest Pkwy SE Ste 180
11A S Gold Dr 2nd Floor 140 Lakefront Drive Marietta, GA 30067-9319
Robbinsville, NJ 08691-1685 Brunswick, OH 44212 Cockeysville, MD 21030 (770) 541-6600
(609) 890-8300 (330) 460-3706 (443) 689-2220
www.easternhighvoltage.com Electrical Reliability Services
Electric Power Systems, Inc. Electric Power Systems, Inc. 10606 Bloomfield Ave
ELECT, P.C. 54 Eisenhower Lane North 783 N. Grove Rd Suite 101 Santa Fe Springs, CA 90670-3912
375 E. Third Street Lombard, IL 60148 Richardson, TX 75081 (562) 236-9555
Wendell, NC 27591 (815) 577-9515 (214) 821-3311
(919) 365-9775 Electrical Reliability Services
www.elect-pc.com Electric Power Systems, Inc. Electric Power Systems, Inc. 400 NW Capital Dr
1330 Industrial Blvd. 11912 NE 95th St. Suite 306 Lees Summit, MO 64086-4723
Electek Power Services, Inc. Suite 300 Vancouver, WA 98682 (816) 525-7156
870 Confederation Street Sugar Land, TX 77478 (855) 459-4377
Sarnia, ON N7T2E5 (713) 644-5400 www.epsii.com Electrical Reliability Services
(519) 383-0333 7100 Broadway Ste 7E
Electric Power Systems, Inc. Electric Power Systems, Inc. Denver, CO 80221-2900
Electric Power Systems, Inc. 56 Bibber Pkwy # 1 Padre Mariano (303) 427-8809
21 Millpark Ct Brunswick, ME 04011-7357 272, Of. 602
Maryland Heights, MO 63043-3536 (207) 837-6527 Providencia, Santiago Electrical Reliability Services
(314) 890-9999 2222 W Valley Hwy N Ste 160
www.epsii.com Electric Power Systems, Inc. Electrical & Electronic Controls Auburn, WA 98001-1655
11861 Longsdorf St 6149 Hunter Rd (253) 736-6010
Electric Power Systems, Inc. Riverview, MI 48193-4250 Ooltewah, TN 37363-8762
11211 E. Arapahoe Rd (734) 282-3311 (423) 344-7666 Electrical Reliability Services
Ste 108 221 E. Willis Road, Suite 3
Centennial, CO 80112 Electric Power Systems, Inc. Electrical Energy Experts, LLC Chandler, AZ 85286
(720) 857-7273 8515 Calle Alameda NE W129N10818 Washington Dr (480) 966-4568
Ste A Germantown, WI 53022-4446
Electric Power Systems, Inc. Albuquerque, NM 87113 (262) 255-5222 Electrical Reliability Services
120 Turner Road (505) 792-7761 www.electricalenergyexperts.com 1380 Greg St. Ste. 216
Salem, VA 24153-5120 Sparks, NV 89431-6070
(540) 375-0084 Electric Power Systems, Inc. Electrical Engineering & Service Co., Inc. (775) 746-4466
3209 Gresham Lake Rd. 289 Centre St.
Electric Power Systems, Inc. Suite 155 Holbrook, MA 02343 Electrical Reliability Services
1090 Montour West Ind Park Raleigh, NC 27615 (781) 767-9988 11000 Metro Pkwy Ste 30
Coraopolis, PA 15108-9307 (919) 210-5405 www.eescousa.com Fort Myers, FL 33966-1244
(412) 276-4559 (239) 693-7100
Electric Power Systems, Inc. Electrical Equipment Upgrading, Inc.
Electric Power Systems, Inc. 5850 Polaris Ave., Suite 1600 21 Telfair Pl Electrical Reliability Services
6141 E Connecticut Ave Las Vegas, NV 89118 Savannah, GA 31415-9518 245 Hood Road
Kansas City, MO 64120-1346 (702) 815-1342 (912) 232-7402 Sulphur, LA 70665-8747
(816) 241-9990 www.eeu-inc.com (337) 583-2411
Electric Power Systems, Inc.
Electric Power Systems, Inc. 7925 Dunbrook Rd. Electrical Reliability Services Electrical Reliability Services
1230 N Hobson St. Suite G 610 Executive Campus Dr 9736 South Sandy Pkwy 500 West
Suite 101 San Diego, CA 92126 Westerville, OH 43082-8870 Sandy, UT 84070
Gilbert, AZ 85233 (858) 566-6317 (877) 468-6384 (801) 561-0987
(480) 633-1490 www.electricalreliability.com
Electric Power Systems, Inc. Electrical Reliability Services
Electric Power Systems, Inc. 6679 Peachtree Industrial Dr. Electrical Reliability Services 6351 Hinson Street, Suite A
915 Holt Ave Unit 9 Suite H 5909 Sea Lion Pl Ste C Las Vegas, NV 89118-6851
Manchester, NH 03109-5606 Norcross, GA 30092 Carlsbad, CA 92010-6634 (702) 597-0020
(603) 657-7371 (770) 416-0684 (858) 695-9551
Electrical Reliability Services
Electric Power Systems, Inc. Electric Power Systems, Inc. Electrical Reliability Services 36572 Luke Drive
3806 Caboose Place 306 Ashcake Road suite A 1057 Doniphan Park Cir Ste A Geismar, LA 70734
Sanford, FL 32771 Ashland, VA 23005 El Paso, TX 79922-1329 (225) 647-0732
(407) 578-6424 (804) 526-6794 (915) 587-9440 www.electricalreliability.com

Electric Power Systems, Inc. Electric Power Systems, Inc. Electrical Reliability Services Electrical Reliability Services
1129 E Highway 30 7169 East 87th St. 6900 Koll Center Pkwy Ste 415 9636 Saint Vincent Ave Unit A
Gonzales, LA 70737-4759 Indianapolis, IN 46256 Pleasanton, CA 94566-3119 Shreveport, LA 71106-7127
(225) 644-0150 (317) 941-7502 (925) 485-3400 (318) 869-4244

120 • WINTER 2020 NETA ACCREDITED COMPANIES

 NETA ACCREDITED COMPANIES Setting the Standard

Electrical Reliability Services EnerG Test, LLC High Voltage Maintenance Corp. Hood Patterson & Dewar, Inc.
1426 Sens Rd. Ste. #5 206 Gale Lane 24 Walpole Park S 15924 Midway Road
La Porte, TX 77571-9656 Kennett Square, PA 19348 Walpole, MA 02081-2541 Addison, TX 75001
(281) 241-2800 (484) 731-0200 (508) 668-9205 (214) 461-0760
www.energtest.com
Electrical Reliability Services High Voltage Maintenance Corp. Hood Patterson & Dewar, Inc.
9753 S. 140th Street, Suite 109 Energis High Voltage Resources 1052 Greenwood Springs Rd. 4511 Daly Dr.
Omaha, NE 68138 1361 Glory Rd Suite E Suite 1
(402) 861-9168 Green Bay, WI 54304-5640 Greenwood, IN 46143 Chantilly, VA 20151
(920) 632-7929 (317) 322-2055 (571) 299-6773
Electrical Reliability Services www.energisinc.com www.hvmcorp.com
1402 Preston Road Hood Patterson & Dewar, Inc.
Ste 404. #706 EPS Technology High Voltage Maintenance Corp. 1531 Hunt Club Blvd
Dallas, TX 75254 37 Ozick Dr. 355 Vista Park Dr Ste 200
(972) 788-0979 Durham, CT 06422 Pittsburgh, PA 15205-1206 Gallatin, TN 37066
(203) 679-0145 (412) 747-0550 (615) 527-7084
Electrical Reliability Services www.eps-technology.com
4833 Berewick Town Ctr Drive High Voltage Maintenance Corp. Industrial Electric Testing, Inc.
Ste E-207 Giga Electrical & Technical Services, Inc. 8787 Tyler Blvd. 11321 Distribution Ave W
Charlotte, NC 28278 2743A N. San Fernando Road Mentor, OH 44061 Jacksonville, FL 32256-2746
(704) 583-4794 Los Angeles, CA 90065 (440) 951-2706 (904) 260-8378
(323) 255-5894 www.hvmcorp.com www.industrialelectrictesting.com
Electrical Reliability Services www.gigaelectrical-ca.com/
324 S. Wilmington St. High Voltage Maintenance Corp. Industrial Electric Testing, Inc.
Ste 299 Grubb Engineering, Inc. 24371 Catherine Industrial Dr Ste 207 201 NW 1st Ave
Raleigh, NC 27601 2727 North Saint Mary’s St. Novi, MI 48375-2422 Hallandale Beach, FL 33009-4029
(919) 807-0995 San Antonio, TX 78212 (248) 305-5596 (954) 456-7020
(210) 658-7250
Electrical Reliability Services www.grubbengineering.com High Voltage Maintenance Corp. Industrial Tests, Inc.
8983 University Blvd 3000 S Calhoun Rd 4021 Alvis Ct Ste 1
Ste. 104. #158 Halco Testing Services New Berlin, WI 53151-3549 Rocklin, CA 95677-4031
North Charleston, SC 29406 5773 Venice Boulevard (262) 784-3660 (916) 296-1200
(843) 797-0514 Los Angeles, CA 90019 www.industrialtests.com
(323) 933-9431 High Voltage Maintenance Corp.
Electrical Reliability Services www.halcotestingservices.com 1 Penn Plaza Infra-Red Building and Power Service, Inc.
13720 Old St. Augustine Rd. Suite 500 152 Centre St
Ste. 8 #310 Hampton Tedder Technical Services New York, NY 10119 Holbrook, MA 02343-1011
Jacksonville, FL 32258 4563 State St (718) 239-0359 (781) 767-0888
(904) 292-9779 Montclair, CA 91763-6129 www.hvmcorp.com www.infraredbps.com
(909) 628-1256
Electrical Reliability Services www.hamptontedder.com High Voltage Maintenance Corp. J.G. Electrical Testing Corporation
4099 SE International Way Ste 201 29 Diana Court 3092 Shafto Road
Milwaukie, OR 97222-8853 Hampton Tedder Technical Services Cheshire, CT 06410 Suite 13
(503) 653-6781 3747 W Roanoke Ave (203) 949-2650 Tinton Falls, NJ 07753
Phoenix, AZ 85009-1359 www.hvmcorp.com (732) 217-1908
Electrical Testing and Maintenance Corp. (480) 967-7765 www.jgelectricaltesting.com
3673 Cherry Rd Ste 101 High Voltage Maintenance Corp.
Memphis, TN 38118-6313 Hampton Tedder Technical Services 941 Busse Rd M&L Power Systems, Inc.
(901) 566-5557 4113 Wagon Trail Ave. Elk Grove Village, IL 60007-2400 109 White Oak Ln Ste 82
www.etmcorp.net Las Vegas, NV 89118 (847) 640-0005 Old Bridge, NJ 08857-1980
(702) 452-9200 (732) 679-1800
Electrical Testing Solutions High Voltage Maintenance Corp. www.mlpower.com
2909 Greenhill Ct Harford Electrical Testing Co., Inc. 14300 Cherry Lane Court
Oshkosh, WI 54904-9769 1108 Clayton Rd Suite 115 Magna IV Engineering
(920) 420-2986 Joppa, MD 21085-3409 Laurel, MD 20707 1103 Parsons Rd. SW
www.electricaltestingsolutions.com (410) 679-4477 (410) 279-0798 Edmonton, AB T6X 0X2
www.harfordtesting.com www.hvmcorp.com (780) 462-3111
Electrical Testing, Inc. www.magnaiv.com
2671 Cedartown Hwy SE High Energy Electrical Testing, Inc. High Voltage Maintenance Corp.
Rome, GA 30161-3894 5042 Industrial Road, Unit D 10704 Electron Drive Magna IV Engineering
(706) 234-7623 Farmingdale, NJ 07727 Louisville, KY 40299 141 Fox Cresent
www.electricaltestinginc.com (732) 938-2275 (859) 371-5355 Fort McMurray, AB T9K 0C1
www.highenergyelectric.com (780) 791-3122
Elemco Services, Inc. Hood Patterson & Dewar, Inc.
228 Merrick Rd High Voltage Maintenance Corp. 850 Center Way Magna IV Engineering
Lynbrook, NY 11563-2622 5100 Energy Dr Norcross, GA 30071 3124 Millar Ave.
(631) 589-6343 Dayton, OH 45414-3525 (770) 453-1415 Saskatoon, SK S7K 5Y2
www.elemco.com (937) 278-0811 https://hoodpd.com/ (306) 713-2167
www.hvmcorp.com

NETA ACCREDITED COMPANIES NETAWORLD • 121

NETA ACCREDITED COMPANIES Setting the Standard

Magna IV Engineering Nationwide Electrical Testing, Inc. Potomac Testing Power Systems Testing Co.
96 Inverness Dr E Ste R 6515 Bentley Ridge Drive 12342 Hancock St 4688 W Jennifer Ave Ste 108
Englewood, CO 80112-5311 Cumming, GA 30040 Carmel, IN 46032-5807 Fresno, CA 93722-6418
(303) 799-1273 (770) 667-1875 (317) 853-6795 (559) 275-2171 ext 15
www.n-e-t-inc.com www.powersystemstesting.com
Magna IV Engineering Potomac Testing
Avenida del Condor sur #590 North Central Electric, Inc. 1130 MacArthur Rd. Power Systems Testing Co.
Oficina 601 69 Midway Ave Jeffersonville, OH 43128 600 S Grand Ave Ste 113
Huechuraba 8580676 Hulmeville, PA 19047-5827 Santa Ana, CA 92705-4152
+(56) -2-26552600 (215) 945-7632 Power Engineering Services, Inc. (714) 542-6089
www.ncetest.com 9179 Shadow Creek Ln
Magna IV Engineering Converse, TX 78109-2041 Power Systems Testing Co.
Unit 110, 19188 94th Avenue Northern Electrical Testing, Inc. (210) 590-4936 6736 Preston Ave Ste E
Surrey, BC V4N 4X8 1991 Woodslee Dr www.pe-svcs.com Livermore, CA 94551-8521
(604) 421-8020 Troy, MI 48083-2236 (510) 783-5096
(248) 689-8980 Power Engineering Services, Inc.
Magna IV Engineering www.northerntesting.com 1 Ellis Road, Suite 100 Power Test, Inc.
Suite 200, 688 Heritage Dr. SE Friendswood, TX 77546 2200 Highway 49 S
Calgary, AB T2H 1M6 Orbis Engineering Field Services Ltd. (210) 590-4936 Harrisburg, NC 28075-7506
(403) 723-0575 #300, 9404 - 41st Ave. (704) 200-8311
Edmonton, AB T6E 6G8 Power Engineering Services, Inc. www.powertestinc.com
Magna IV Engineering (780) 988-1455 124 S West St. Suite 200
4407 Halik Street Building E www.orbisengineering.net Alexandria, VA 22314 PowerSouth Testing, LLC
Suite 300 (703) 299-3430 240 Pine Pitch Road
Pearland, TX 77581 Orbis Engineering Field Services Ltd. Cedartown, GA 30125
(346) 221-2165 #228 - 18 Royal Vista Link NW Power Products & Solutions, LLC (678) 901-0205
Calgary, AB T3R 0K4 6605 W WT Harris Blvd www.powersouthtesting.com
Magna IV Engineering (403) 374-0051 Suite F
10947 92 Ave Charlotte, NC 28269 Powertech Services, Inc.
Grande Prairie, AB T8V 3J3 Orbis Engineering Field Services Ltd. (704) 573-0420 x12 4095 Dye Rd
1.800.462.3157 Badajoz #45, Piso 17 www.powerproducts.biz Swartz Creek, MI 48473-1570
Las Condes, Santiago (810) 720-2280
Midwest Engineering Consultants, Ltd. +56 2 29402343 Power Products & Solutions, LLC www.powertechservices.com
2500 36th Ave 13 Jenkins Ct
Moline, IL 61265-6954 Pace Technologies, Inc. Mauldin, SC 29662-2414 Precision Testing Group
(309) 764-1561 9604 - 41 Avenue NW (800) 328-7382 5475 Highway 86 Unit 1
www.Midwestengr.com Edmonton, AB T6E 6G9 Elizabeth, CO 80107-7451
(780) 450-0404 Power Products & Solutions, LLC (303) 621-2776
MTA Electrical Engineers www.pacetechnologies.com 9481 Industrial Center Dr. www.precisiontestinggroup.com
350 Pauma Place Unit 5
Escondido, CA 92029 Pace Technologies, Inc. Ladson, SC 29456 Premier Power Maintenance Corporation
(760) 658-6098 #10, 883 McCurdy Place (844) 383-8617 4035 Championship Drive
Kelowna, BC V1X 8C8 Indianapolis, IN 46268
National Field Services (250) 712-0091 Power Solutions Group, Ltd. (317) 879-0660
651 Franklin 425 W Kerr Rd
Lewisville, TX 75057-2301 Pacific Power Testing, Inc. Tipp City, OH 45371-2843 Premier Power Maintenance Corporation
(972) 420-0157 14280 Doolittle Dr (937) 506-8444 2725 Jason Rd
www.natlfield.com San Leandro, CA 94577-5542 www.powersolutionsgroup.com Ashland, KY 41102-7756
(510) 351-8811 (606) 929-5969
National Field Services www.pacificpowertesting.com Power Solutions Group, Ltd.
1890 A South Hwy 35 251 Outerbelt St. Premier Power Maintenance Corporation
Alvin, TX 77511 Pacific Powertech Inc. Columbus, OH 43213 3066 Finley Island Cir NW
(800) 420-0157 #110, 2071 Kingsway Ave. (614) 310-8018 Decatur, AL 35601-8800
Port Coquitlam, BC V3C 6N2 (256) 355-1444
National Field Services (604) 944-6697 Power Solutions Group, Ltd.
1405 United Drive www.pacificpowertech.ca 5115 Old Greenville Highway Premier Power Maintenance Corporation
Suite 113-115 Liberty, SC 29657 4301 Iverson Blvd Ste H
San Marcos, TX 78666 Phasor Engineering (864) 540-8434 Trinity, AL 35673-6641
(800) 420-0157 Sabaneta Industrial Park #216 (256) 355-3006
Mercedita, PR 00715 Power Solutions Group, Ltd.
National Field Services (787) 844-9366 172 B-Industrial Dr. Premier Power Maintenance Corporation
3711 Regulus Ave. www.phasorinc.com Clarksville, TN 37040 7301 E County Road 142
Las Vegas, NV 89102 (931) 572-8591 Blytheville, AR 72315-6917
(888) 296-0625 Potomac Testing (870) 762-2100
1610 Professional Blvd Ste A Power System Professionals, Inc.
National Field Services Crofton, MD 21114-2051 429 Clinton Ave Premier Power Maintenance Corporation
2900 Vassar St. #114 (301) 352-1930 Roseville, CA 95661 7262 Kensington Rd.
Reno, NV 89502 www.potomactesting.com (866) 642-3129 Brighton, MI 48116
(775) 410-0430 (517) 715-9997

122 • WINTER 2020 NETA ACCREDITED COMPANIES

 NETA ACCREDITED COMPANIES Setting the Standard

Premier Power Maintenance Corporation RESA Power Service Shermco Industries Shermco Industries
4537 S Nucor Rd. #181-1999 Savage Road, 1711 Hawkeye Dr. 2901 Turtle Creek Dr.
Crawfordsville, IN 47933 Richmond, BC V6V OA5 Hiawatha, IA 52233 Port Arthur, TX 77642
(317) 879-0660 (604) 303-9770 (319) 377-3377 (409) 853-4316

Premier Power Maintenance Corporation Reuter & Hanney, Inc., a CE Power Shermco Industries Shermco Industries
1901 Oakcrest Ave., Suite 6 Company 1705 Hur Industrial Blvd 5145 NW Beaver Dr.
Saint Paul, MN 55113 Northampton Industrial Park Cedar Park, TX 78613-7229 Johnston, IA 50131
(612) 616-4236 149 Railroad Dr (512) 267-4800 (515) 265-3377
Ivyland, PA 18974-1448
Premier Power Maintenance Corporation (215) 364-5333 Shermco Industries Shermco Industries
119 Rochester Dr. www.reuterhanney.com 3434 25th Street NE 998 E. Berwood Ave.
Louisville, KY 40214 Calgary, AB T1Y 6C1 Saint Paul, MN 55110
(256) 200-6833 Reuter & Hanney, Inc., a CE Power (403) 769-9300 (651) 484-5533
Company
RESA Power Service 11620 Crossroads Cir Shermco Industries Shermco Industries
46918 Liberty Dr Middle River, MD 21220-2874 5145 Beaver Dr 12796 Currie Court
Wixom, MI 48393-3600 (410) 344-0300 Johnston, IA 50131 Livonia, MI 48150
(248) 313-6868 (515) 265-3377 (734) 469-4050
www.resapower.com REV Engineering Ltd.
3236 - 50 Avenue SE Shermco Industries Shermco Industries
RESA Power Service Calgary, AB T2B 3A3 4510 South 86th East Ave. 1720 S. Sonny Ave.
3890 Pheasant Ridge Dr. NE (403) 287-0156 Tulsa, OK 74145 Gonzales, LA 70737
Suite 170 www.reveng.ca (918) 234-2300 (225) 647-9301
Blaine, MN 55449
(763) 784-4040 Rondar Inc. Shermco Industries Shermco Industries
333 Centennial Parkway North 1375 Church Avenue 7136 Weddington Rd #128
RESA Power Service Hamilton, ON L8E2X6 Winnipeg, MB R2X 2T7 Concord, NC 28027
4540 Boyce Parkway (905) 561-2808 (204) 925-4022 (910) 568-1053
Cleveland, OH 44224 www.rondar.com
(800) 264-1549 Shermco Industries Shermco Industries
www.resapower.com Rondar Inc. 1033 Kearns Crescent 5805 Hwy 43
9-160 Konrad Crescent RM of Sherwood, SK S4K 0A2 Satsuma, AL 36507
RESA Power Service Markham, ON L3R9T9 (306) 949-8131 (251) 679-3224
47119 Cartier Court (905) 943-7640
Wixom, MI 48393-2872 Shermco Industries Shermco Industries
(248) 896-0200 Scott Testing, Inc. 33002 FM 2004 5211 Linbar Dr. Suite 507
245 Whitehead Rd Angleton, TX 77515-8157 Nashville, TN 37211
RESA Power Service Hamilton, NJ 08619 (979) 848-1406 (615) 928-1182
19621 Solar Circle, 101 (609) 689-3400
Parker, CO 80134 Shermco Industries Shermco Industries
www.scotttesting.com
(303) 781-2560 12000 Network Blvd #307-2999 Underhill Ave
Sentinel Field Services, LLC Building D, Suite 410 Burnaby, BC V5A 3C2
RESA Power Service 7517 E Pine St San Antonio, TX 78249-3354 (972) 793-5523
40 Oliver Terrace Tulsa, OK 74115-5729 (210) 877-9090
Shelton, CT 06484-5336 Shermco Industries
(918) 359-0350
(800) 272-7711 Shermco Industries 1411 Twin Oaks Street
www.sentinelpowerservices.com
3731 - 98 Street Wichita Falls, TX 76302
RESA Power Service Shermco Industries Edmonton, AB T6E 5N2 (972) 793-5523
13837 Bettencourt Street 2425 E Pioneer Dr (780) 436-8831
Cerritos, CA 90703 Shermco Industries
Irving, TX 75061-8919
(800) 996-9975 Shermco Industries 11800 Jordy Rd.
(972) 793-5523
www.resapower.com 417 Commerce Street Midland, TX 79707
www.shermco.com
Tallmadge, OH 44278 (972) 793-5523
RESA Power Service Shermco Industries (614) 836-8556
2390 Zanker Road Sigma Six Solutions, Inc.
112 Industrial Drive
San Jose, CA 95131 Shermco Industries 2200 W Valley Hwy N Ste 100
Minooka, IL 60447-9557
(800) 576-7372 3807 S Sam Houston Pkwy W Auburn, WA 98001-1654
(815) 467-5577
Houston, TX 77056 (253) 333-9730
RESA Power Service Shermco Industries (281) 835-3633 www.sigmasix.com
1401 Mercantile Court 233 Faithfull Cr.
Plant City, FL 33563 Shermco Industries Sigma Six Solutions, Inc.
Saskatoon, SK S7K 8H7
(813) 752-6550 7050 109th Ave www.sigmasix.com
(306) 955-8131
La Vista, NE 68117 Quincy, WA 98848
RESA Power Service Shermco Industries (402) 933-8988 (253) 333-9730
6268 Route 31 2231 E Jones Ave Ste A
Cicero, NY 13039 Shermco Industries Southern New England Electrical
Phoenix, AZ 85040-1475
(315) 699-5563 1301 Hailey St. Testing, LLC
(602) 438-7500
Sweetwater, TX 79556 3 Buel St Ste 4
(325) 236-9900 Wallingford, CT 06492-2395
(203) 269-8778
www.sneet.org

NETA ACCREDITED COMPANIES NETAWORLD • 123

NETA ACCREDITED COMPANIES Setting the Standard

Star Electrical Services & General Tidal Power Services, LLC Utilities Instrumentation Western Electrical Services
Supplies, Inc. 1056 Mosswood Dr Service - Ohio, LLC 3676 W California Ave Ste C106
PO Box 814 Sulphur, LA 70665-9508 998 Dimco Way Salt Lake City, UT 84104-6533
Las Piedras, PR 00771 (337) 558-5457 Centerville, OH 45458 (888) 395-2021
(787) 716-0925 (937) 439-9660 www.westernelectricalservices.com
www.starelectricalpr.com Tidal Power Services, LLC www.uiscorp.com
1806 Delmar Drive Western Electrical Services
Taurus Power & Controls, Inc. Victoria, TX 77901 Utilities Instrumentation Service, Inc. 4510 NE 68th Dr Unit 122
9999 SW Avery St (281) 710-9150 2290 Bishop Cir E Vancouver, WA 98661-1261
Tualatin, OR 97062-9517 Dexter, MI 48130-1564 (888) 395-2021
(503) 692-9004 Titan Quality Power Services, LLC (734) 424-1200
www.tauruspower.com 1501 S Dobson Street www.uiscorp.com Western Electrical Services
Burleson, TX 76028 5505 Daniels St.
Taurus Power & Controls, Inc. (866) 918-4826 Utility Service Corporation Chino, CA 91710
19226 66th Ave S. #L102 www.titanqps.com PO Box 1471 (602) 426-1667
Kent, WA 98032-2197 Huntsville, AL 35807
(425) 656-4170 Titan Quality Power Services, LLC (256) 837-8400 Western Electrical Services
7630 Ikes Tree Drive www.utilserv.com 620 Meadow Ln.
Tidal Power Services, LLC Spring, TX 77389 Los Alamos, NM 87547
4211 Chance Ln (281) 826-3781 Western Electrical Services (505) 469-1661
Rosharon, TX 77583-4384 14311 29th St E
(281) 710-9150 Titan Quality Power Services, LLC Sumner, WA 98390-9690 Western Electrical Services
www.tidalpowerservices.com 7000 Meany Ave. (253) 891-1995 8985 Double Diamond Pkwy, #10B
Bakersfield, CA 93308 www.westernelectricalservices.com Reno, NV 98521
Tidal Power Services, LLC (661) 589-0400 (602) 426-1667
8184 Highway 44 Ste 105 Western Electrical Services
Gonzales, LA 70737-8183 Tony Demaria Electric, Inc. 5680 S 32nd St
(225) 644-8170 131 W F St Phoenix, AZ 85040-3832
Wilmington, CA 90744-5533 (602) 426-1667
(310) 816-3130 www.westernelectricalservices.com
www.tdeinc.com

124 • WINTER 2020 NETA ACCREDITED COMPANIES

Be equipped to protect
critical infrastructure.

Level up with
Certification.
ADVANCE YOUR KNOWLEDGE. BUILD FOR TODAY. BUILD FOR THE FUTURE.
Contact your NETA Accredited Company Representative to learn more.
Certification is available only to technicians currently employed by a NETA Accredited Company.
ADVERTISERS
This issue’s advertisers are identified below. MANUFACTURERS AND
Please thank these advertisers by telling them you OTHER SERVICE PROVIDERS
saw their advertisement in NETA World.
Advanced Test Equipment Rentals (ATE Corp). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
AEMC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Aero Tech Laboratories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
AVO Training Institute. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
BCS Switchgear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Belyea Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Bullock Breakers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
ECP Solutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Circuit Breaker Sales Co., Inc.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
High Voltage Inc.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
INDEPENDENT NETA High Voltage Electric Service, Inc.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
ACCREDITED COMPANIES HV Diagnostics, Inc.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Intellirent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Absolute Testing Services, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Megger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inside Front Cover
American Electrical Testing Co., LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 National Switchgear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Apparatus Testing and Engineering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 NETA ANSI/NETA ECS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Eastern High Voltage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 NETA Certification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Electrical Energy Experts, Inc.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 NETA Handbook Series III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Electrical Reliability Services (Vertiv). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 NETA PowerTest 2021 Call for Exhibitors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Elemco Testing Co., Inc.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 NETA PowerTest 2021 Call for Sponsors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
EnerG Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 NETA Training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Harford Electrical Testing Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 NETA World Journal Website. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
High Voltage Maintenance Corp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 OMICRON electronics Corp. USA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Back Cover
Industrial Electric Testing, Inc.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Phenix Technologies, Inc.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Infra-Red Building and Power Service, Inc.. . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Protec Equipment Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
North Central Electric, Inc.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Quality Switchgear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Orbis Engineering Field Services LTD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Raytech. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inside Back Cover
Potomac Testing, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Sertec. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Power Products & Solutions, Inc.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Solid State Exchange. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Power Systems Testing Co.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Southland Electrical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Scott Testing Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Technitrol, Inc.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Shermco Industries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Thyritronics, Inc.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Sigma Six Solutions, Inc.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Utility Relay Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Taurus Power & Controls, Inc.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Tony Demaria Electric, Inc.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Utilities Instrumentation Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

126 • WINTER 2020 ADVERTISERS

 Reliability You Need
Support You Deserve
With a standard 5-YEAR warranty, you can trust that Raytech equipment
is built for the harsh environments of our testing industry.

Free service evaluations and lifetime product support

guarantees quality service that is fast and easy.

Offering the following easy to set up, and easy to use product lines:

• Transformer Ratiometers
• Winding Resistance
• Contact Resistance
• Current Transformer Test Sets
• Power Factor Test Sets

Toll Free: 888 484 3779 | Phone 267 404 2676

RaytechUSA.com 118 South 2nd Street, Perkasie, PA 18944
 Donatello Salvucci
Technical Support Engineer Manager

A Global Company with Local Support:

Setting a New Standard in Customer Service
In a 2020 North American Customer Feedback Survey, 99.2% of our customers
rated us “Excellent.” You can reach our expert engineers for all your applications,
free any time – 24 hours a day, seven days a week.

For equipment support, we offer cost-effective repairs, calibration, hardware

upgrades, and service contracts with turn-around time up to 24 hours. We have
a fleet of loaner devices that are available from one of our service centers in your
area to help reduce downtime.

Call 1-800-OMICRON or visit omicronenergy.com/support