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UNIT IV ROUTING
outing and protocols: Unicast routing - Distance Vector Routing - RIP - Link State
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Routing – OSPF– Path-vector routing - BGP - Multicast Routing: DVMRP – PIM
4.1Routing
● A Router is a process of selecting path along which the data can be transferred from
source to the destination. Routing is performed by a special device known as a router.
● A Router works at the network layer in the OSI model and internet layer in
TCP/IP model
● A router is a networking device that forwards the packet based on the information
available in the packet header and forwarding table.
● The routing algorithms are used for routing the packets. The routing algorithm is
nothing but a software responsible for deciding the optimal path through which
packet can be transmitted.
● The routing protocols use the metric to determine the best path for the packet
delivery. The metric is the standard of measurement such as hop count, bandwidth,
delay, current load on the path, etc. used by the routing algorithm to determine the
optimal path to the destination.
● The routing algorithm initializes and maintains the routing table for the process
of path determination.
The most common metric values are given below:
● H op count:Hop count is defined as a metric that specifiesthe number of passes
through internetworking devices such as a router, a packet must travel in a route to
move from source to the destination. If the routing protocol considers the hop as a
primary metric value, then the path with the least hop count will be considered as the
best path to move from source to the destination.
● Delay:It is a time taken by the router to process,queue and transmit a datagram to
an interface. The protocols use this metric to determine the delay values for all the
links along the path end-to-end. The path having the lowest delay value will be
considered as the best path.
● Bandwidth:The capacity of the link is known as abandwidth of the link. The
bandwidth is measured in terms of bits per second. The link that has a higher transfer
rate like gigabit is preferred over the link that has the lower capacity like 56 kb. The
protocol will determine the bandwidth capacity for all the links along the path, and
the overall higher bandwidth will be considered as the best route.
● Load:Load refers to the degree to which the network resource such as a router or
network link is busy. A Load can be calculated in a variety of ways such as CPU
utilization, packets processed per second. If the traffic increases, then the load value
will also be increased. The load value changes with respect to the change in the
traffic.
● Reliability:Reliability is a metric factor may becomposed of a fixed value. It
depends on the network links, and its value is measured dynamically. Some
networks go down more often than others. After network failure, some network
links repaired more easily than other network links. Any reliability factor can be
considered for the assignment of reliability ratings, which are generally numeric
values assigned by the system administrator.
Types of Routing
Routing can be classified into three categories:
Static Routing
●
● Default Routing
● Dynamic Routing
Static Routing
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● tatic Routing is also known as Nonadaptive Routing.
● It is a technique in which the administrator manually adds the routes in a
routing table.
● A Router can send the packets for the destination along the route defined by
the administrator.
● In this technique, routing decisions are not made based on the condition or topology
of the networks
Advantages Of Static Routing
Following are the advantages of Static Routing:
● N o Overhead:It has ho overhead on the CPU usage ofthe router. Therefore, the
cheaper router can be used to obtain static routing.
● Bandwidth:It has not bandwidth usage between therouters.
● Security:It provides security as the system administratoris allowed only to
have control over the routing to a particular network.
Disadvantages of Static Routing:
Following are the disadvantages of Static Routing:
● F or a large network, it becomes a very difficult task to add each route manually to
the routing table.
● The system administrator should have a good knowledge of a topology as he has
to add each route manually.
Default Routing
● D efault Routing is a technique in which a router is configured to send all the
packets to the same hop device, and it doesn't matter whether it belongs to a
particular network or not. A Packet is transmitted to the device for which it is
configured in default routing.
● Default Routing is used when networks deal with the single exit point.
● It is also useful when the bulk of transmission networks have to transmit the data
to the same hp device.
● When a specific route is mentioned in the routing table, the router will choose the
specific route rather than the default route. The default route is chosen only when
a specific route is not mentioned in the routing table.
Dynamic Routing
I t is also known as Adaptive Routing.
●
● It is a technique in which a router adds a new route in the routing table for each
packet in response to the changes in the condition or topology of the network.
● Dynamic protocols are used to discover the new routes to reach the destination.
● In Dynamic Routing, RIP and OSPF are the protocols used to discover the new routes.
● If any route goes down, then the automatic adjustment will be made to reach
the destination.
The Dynamic protocol should have the following features:
● A ll the routers must have the same dynamic routing protocol in order to exchange
the routes.
● If the router discovers any change in the condition or topology, then router broadcast
this information to all other routers.
Advantages of Dynamic Routing:
I t is easier to configure.
●
● It is more effective in selecting the best route in response to the changes in the
condition or topology.
Disadvantages of Dynamic Routing:
I t is more expensive in terms of CPU and bandwidth usage.
●
● It is less secure as compared to default and static routing.
4.2Unicast routing
nicast –Unicast means the transmission from a singlesender to a single receiver. It is a
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point-to-point communication between sender and receiver. There are various unicast
protocols such as TCP, HTTP, etc.
● T CP is the most commonly used unicast protocol. It is a connection-oriented protocol
that relies on acknowledgement from the receiver side.
● HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol. It is an object-oriented protocol for
communication.
There are three major protocols for unicast routing:
1 . D istance Vector Routing
2. Link State Routing
3. Path-Vector Routing
4.2.1Distance Vector Routing
istance vector routing algorithm is also called asBellman-Ford algorithmorFord
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Fulkerson algorithmas this algorithm is used to findthe shortest route from one node
to another node in the network.
he routing protocol is used to calculate the best route from source to destination based on
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the distance or hops as its primary metric to define an optimal path. The distance vector
refers to the distance to the neighbor nodes, where routing defines the routes to the
established node.
heDistance Vector routing algorithm(DVR) sharesthe information of the routing table
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with the other routers in the network and keeps the information up-to-date to select an
optimal path from source to destination.
The Bellman-Ford algorithm is defined as :
here,dx(y)=dx(y)= The least distance from x to y
w
c(x,v)=c(x,v)= Node x's cost from each of its neighbour v
dv(y)=dv(y)= Distance to each node from initial node
minv=minv= selecting shortest distance
It works in the following steps-
Step-01:
Each router prepares its routing table. By their local knowledge. each router knows about-
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● ll the routers present in the network
● Distance to its neighboring routers
tep-02:
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Each router exchanges its distance vector with its neighboring routers.
● Each router prepares a new routing table using the distance vectors it has
obtained from its neighbors.
● This step is repeated for (n-2) times if there are n routers in the network.
● After this, routing tables converge / become stable.
Example − Distance Vector Router Protocol
I n the network shown below, there are three routers, A, B, and C, with the following weights
− AB =2, BC =3 and CA =5.
tep1−InthisDVRnetwork,eachroutersharesitsroutingtablewitheveryneighbor.For
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example,AwillshareitsroutingtablewithneighborsBandCandneighborsBandCwill
share their routing table with A.
orm A
F
A
B
C
A 0 2 3
B
C
orm B
F A B C
A
B 2 0 1
C
orm C
F A B C
A
B
C 3 1 0
tep2−Ifthepathviaaneighborhasalowercost,thentherouterupdatesitslocaltable
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toforwardpacketstotheneighbor.Inthistable,therouterupdatesthelowercostforAand
C by updating the new weight from 4 to 3 in router A and from 4 to 3 in router C.
orm A
F
A
B
C
A 0 2 3
B
C
orm B
F A B C
A
B 2 0 1
C
orm C
F A B C
A
B
C 3 1 0
tep 3− The final updated routing table with lowercost distance vector routing protocol for
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all routers A, B, and C is given below –
Router A
Form A A B C
A 0 2 3
B 2 0 1
C 3 1 0
Router B
Form B A B C
A 0 2 3
B 2 0 1
C 3 1 0
Router C
Form C A B C
A 0 2 3
B 2 0 1
C 3 1 0
RIP Protocol
IP stands for Routing Information Protocol. RIP is an intra-domain routing protocol used
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within an autonomous system. Here, intra-domain means routing the packets in a defined
domain, for example, web browsing within an institutional area. To understand the RIP
protocol, our main focus is to know the structure of the packet, how many fields it contains,
and how these fields determine the routing table.
Before understanding the structure of the packet, we first look at the following points:
● R IPisbasedonthedistancevector-basedstrategy,soweconsidertheentirestructure
as a graph where nodes are the routers, and the links are the networks.
● In a routing table, the first column is the destination, or we can say that it is a
network address.
● The cost metric is the number of hops to reach the destination. The number of
hops available in a network would be the cost. The hop count is the number of
networks required to reach the destination.
● In RIP, infinity is defined as 16, which means that the RIP is useful for smaller
networks or small autonomous systems. The maximum number of hops that RIP
can contain is 15 hops, i.e., it should not have more than 15 hops as 16 is infinity.
● The next column contains the address of the router to which the packet is to be sent
to reach the destination.
How is hop count determined?
When the router sends the packet to the network segment, then it is counted as a single hop.
I n the above figure, when the router 1 forwards the packet to the router 2 then it will count as
1 hop count. Similarly, when the router 2 forwards the packet to the router 3 then it will count
a s 2 hop count, and when the router 3 forwards the packet to router 4, it will count as 3 hop
count. In the same way,RIPcan support maximum upto15 hops, which means that the 16
routers can be configured in a RIP.
RIP Message Format
ow, we look at the structure of the RIP message format. The message format is used to
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share information among different routers. The RIP contains the following fields in a
message:
● C ommand: It is an 8-bit field that is used for request or reply. The value of the request
is 1, and the value of the reply is 2.
● Version: Here, version means that which version of the protocol we are using.
Suppose we are using the protocol of version1, then we put the 1 in this field.
● Reserved: This is a reserved field, so it is filled with zeroes.
● Family: It is a 16-bit field. As we are using the TCP/IP family, so we put 2 value in
this field.
● Network Address: It is defined as 14 bytes field. If we use the IPv4 version, then
we use 4 bytes, and the other 10 bytes are all zeroes.
● Distance: The distance field specifies the hop count, i.e., the number of hops used
to reach the destination.
4.2.2Link State Routing
inkstateroutinghasadifferentphilosophyfromthatofdistancevectorrouting.Inlinkstate
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routing, if each node in the domain has the entiretopologyofthedomainthelistofnodes
andlinks,howtheyareconnectedincludingthetype,cost(metric),andconditionofthelinks
(up or down)-the node can use Dijkstra's algorithm to build a routing table.
he figure shows a simple domain with five nodes. Each node uses the same topology to
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create a routing table, but the routing table for each node is unique because the calculations
are based on different interpretations of the topology. This is analogous to a city map. While
each person may have the same map, each needs to take a different route to reach her specific
destination
Building Routing Tables:
I n link state routing,four sets of actions are requiredto ensure that each node has the
routing table showing the least-cost node to every other node.
a)Creation of the states of the links by each node, called the link state packet (LSP).
b ) Dissemination of LSPs to every other router, calledflooding,in an efficient and
reliable way.
c) Formation of a shortest path tree for each node.
d)Calculation of a routing table based on the shortest path
tree.Types of Links
I n OSPF terminology, a connection is called alink.Four types of links have been defined:
point-to-point, transient, stub, and virtual.
I n OSPF terminology, a connection is called alink.Four types of links have been defined:
point-to-point, transient, stub, and virtual.
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
●OSPF is a link state routing protocol.
Following is the features of the OSPF.
●
1.OSPF supports multiple circuit load balancing..
2.OSPF can converge very quickly to network topology change.
3.OSPF support multiple metrics.
4.OSPF support for variable length sub netting.
OSPF uses four types of routers.
●
1. An internal router is a router with allits links connected to the networks within the
same area.
2.An area border router is a router that has its links connected to more than one area.
3.A backbone router is a router that has its links connected to the backbone.
4. An Autonomous System Boundary Router (ASBR) is a router that has its links
connected to another autonomous system.
As shown in the Fig. routers R1, R2 andR7 are internal routers. Routers R3, R6,
●
R8are area border routers. Routers R3, R4, R5, R6, R8are backbone routers. Router R4 is
an ASBR
●The header format for OSPF is shown in the Fig.
OSPF header analysis is given below :
●
1.Version: This field specifies the protocol version.
2.Type: This field indicates messages as one of the following type.
a . Hello b. Database description
c. Link status d. Link status update e. Link status acknowledgement.
3 .Packet length: This field specifies the length of OSPF packet in bytes,
4.Router ID: It identifies the sending router.
5 .Area ID: Network ID of destination networks.
6.Checksum: The checksum field is used to detect errors in the packet.
7.Authentication type: It identifies the authentication type that is used.
8.Authentication: This field includes a value from the authentication type.
OSPF Advantages
1.Low traffic overhead.
2.Fast convergence.
3.Larger network metrics.
4.Area based topology.
5.Route summaries.
6.Support for complex address structures.
7.Authentication.
SPF Disadvantages
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1.Memory overhead.
2.Processor overhead.
3.Configuration OSPF can be complex to configure.
4.Path Vector Routing
istance vector and link state routing are both intradomain routing protocols. Theycanbe
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used inside an autonomous system, but not between autonomous systems. These two
protocolsarenotsuitableforinterdomainroutingmostlybecauseofscalability.Bothofthese
routingprotocolsbecomeintractablewhenthedomainofoperationbecomeslarge.Distance
vector routing is subject to instability if there are more than a few hops in the domain of
operation.
inkstateroutingneedsahugeamountofresourcestocalculateroutingtables.Italsocreates
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heavytrafficbecauseofflooding.Thereisaneedforathirdroutingprotocolwhichwecall
path vector routing.
athVectorRoutingisaroutingalgorithminunicastroutingprotocolofnetworklayer,andit
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is useful for interdomain routing. The principle of path vector routing is similar to that of
distancevectorrouting.Itassumesthatthereisonenodeineachautonomoussystemthatacts
on behalf of the entire autonomous system is called Speaker node . Itisdifferentfromthe
distance vector routing and link state routing. Each entry in the routing table contains the
destination network, the next router and the path to reach the destination.
unctions
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Prevention Of Loop
Policy Routing
Optimum Path
BGP
order Gateway Protocol (BGP) is used to Exchange routing information for the internet,
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used to route traffic from one autonomous system (AS) to another.
ifferent Types of Autonomous Systems?
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Since the BGP helps in routing between different autonomous systems, it is important to
learn about different types of autonomous systems:
1.Stub AS:
● here is only one connection to another AS in the Stub AS.
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● Data traffic cannot pass through a stub autonomous system.
● The traffic can move within an autonomous system.
● A stub is either a source or a sink
2.Multi-Homed AS:
I t has more than one connection to other Autonomous Systems.
●
● Still, it is still one source or sink for data traffic.
● There is no transient traffic.
3.Transit AS:
I t is a multi-homed autonomous system that allows transit traffic.
●
● For example, ISP (Internet Backbone) is a transit AS.
BGP performs three functional procedures
1 . Neighbour acquisition 2. Neighbour reachability 3. Network reachability.
Neighbour acquisition procedures used for exchanging the routing information between two
routers in different Autonomous System (AS).
GPconnectionsinsideanautonomoussystemarecalledinternalBGP(iBGP)andBGP
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connectionsbetweendifferentautonomoussystemsarecalledexternalBGP(eBGP).Fig.
shows the internal and external BGP
GP messages : Header of the all BGP messages is fixed size that identifies the
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message type. Fig. shows the BGP message header format
1 .Marker: Marker field is used for authentication.
2.Length: This field indicates the total length of the message.
3.Type: Type field indicates type of message. BGP defines four message type.
a) OPEN b) UPDATE c) NOTIFICATION d) KEEPALIVE
Following Fig. 3.11.3 shows the four types of BGP message formats.
dvantages of BGP
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1.BGP is a very robust and scalable routing protocol.
2.BGP easily solves the count-to-infinity problem.
isadvantages of BGP
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1.BGP is complex.
2.BGP routes to destination networks, rather than to specific hosts or routers.
Multicast Routing: DVMRP – PIM
ulticastis a method of group communication wherethe sender sends data to multiple
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receivers or nodes present in the network simultaneously. Multicasting is a type of one-to-
many and many-to-many communication as it allows sender or senders to send data
packets to multiple receivers at once across LANs or WANs. This process helps in
minimizing the data frame of the network
There are differentMulticast Routing Protocolsusedfor multicst routing
● istance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol (DVMRP)
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● Multicast Source Discovery Protocol (MSDP)
● MOSPF (Multicast OSPF)
● Multicast BGP
● Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM)
Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol (DVMRP):
Adistance-vector routing (DVR)protocol requiresthat a router inform its neighbors of
topology changes periodically.
1 . A router transmits its distance vector to each of its neighbors in a routing packet.
2. Each router receives and saves the most recently received distance vector from
each of its neighbors.
3. A router recalculates its distance vector when:
o It receives a distance vector from a neighbor containing different
information than before.
o It discovers that a link to a neighbor has gone down.
he DV calculation is based on minimizing the cost to each destination
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Dx(y) = Estimate of least cost from x to y
C(x,v) = Node x knows cost to each neighbor v
Dx = [Dx(y): y∈N ] = Node x maintains distance vector
Node x also maintains its neighbors' distance vectors
– For each neighbor v, x maintains Dv = [Dv(y): y∈N ]
Example –Consider 3-routers X, Y and Z as shown infigure. Each router have their routing table.
Every routing table will contain distance to the destination nodes.
onsiderrouterX,Xwillshareitroutingtabletoneighborsandneighborswillshare
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it routing table to it to X and distance from node X todestinationwillbecalculated
using bellmen- ford equation.
Dx(y) = min { C(x,v) + Dv(y)} for each node y∈N
s we can see that distance will be less going from X to Z when Y is intermediate node(hop)
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so it will be update in routing table X.
Similarly for Z also –
Finally the routing table for all –
Advantages of Distance Vector routing –
● It is simpler to configure and maintain than link state routing.
Disadvantages of Distance Vector routing –
I t is slower to converge than link state.
o
o It is at risk from the count-to-infinity problem.
PIM
IM (Protocol Independent Multicast)is a multicastrouting protocol, that is used to send
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traffic from a single source to multiple destinations across a network.
IM is a collection of three protocols - PIM Sparse Mode, PIM Dense Mode and PIM Bi-
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directional . PIM is termed protocol-independent because PIM does not include its own
topology discovery mechanism, but instead uses routing information supplied by other
routing protocols
PIM Sparse Mode
IMSparseMode(PIM-SM)isamulticastroutingprotocoldesignedontheassumptionthat
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recipients for any particular multicast group will be sparsely distributed throughout the
network. In other words, it is assumed that most subnets in the network will notwantany
given multicast packet. In order to receive multicast data, routers must explicitly tell their
upstream neighbors about their interest in particular groups and sources. Routers use PIM
Join and Prune messages to join and leave multicast distribution trees.
PIM Dense Mode
IM Dense Mode (PIM-DM) is a multicast routing protocol designed with the opposite
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assumption to PIM-SM, namely that the receivers for any multicast group are distributed
denselythroughoutthenetwork.Thatis,itisassumedthatmost(oratleastmany)subnetsin
thenetworkwillwantanygivenmulticastpacket.Multicastdataisinitiallysenttoallhosts
inthenetwork.RoutersthatdonothaveanyinterestedhoststhensendPIMPrunemessages
to remove themselves from the tree.
Bi-directional PIM
i-directional PIM(BIDIR-PIM)isathirdPIMprotocol,basedonPIM-SM.Themainway
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BIDIR-PIMdiffersfromPIM-SMisinthemethodusedtosenddatafromasourcetotheRP.
WhereasinPIM-SMdataissentusingeitherencapsulationorasource-basedtree,inBIDIR-
PIM the data flows to the RP along the shared tree, which is bi-directional -dataflowsin
both directions along any given branch.
NIT V DATA LINK AND PHYSICAL LAYERS
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Data Link Layer – Framing – Flow control – Error control – Data-Link Layer Protocols –
HDLC –PPP - Media Access Control – Ethernet Basics – CSMA/CD – Virtual LAN –
Wireless LAN (802.11)- Physical Layer: Data and Signals - Performance – Transmission
media- Switching – Circuit
5.1Data Link Layer
IntheOSImodel,thedatalinklayerisa4th layerfromthetopand2n d layerfromthe
bottom.
The communication channel thatconnectstheadjacentnodesisknownaslinks,and
in order to move the datagram fromsourcetothedestination,thedatagrammustbe
oved across an individual link.
m
Data link layer is responsible for converting data stream tosignalsbitbybitandto
s endthatovertheunderlyinghardware.Atthereceivingend,Datalinklayerpicksup
data from hardware which are in the form ofelectricalsignals,assemblesthemina
recognizable frame format, and hands over to upper layer.
Data link layer has two sub-layers:
Logical Link Control:It deals with protocols, flow-control, and error control
Media Access Control:It deals with actual control of media
Following services are provided by the Data Link Layer:
Framing
Addressing
Error Control
Flow Control
5.2Framing
raming is a point-to-point connection between two computers or devices consisting of a
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wireinwhichdataistransmittedasastreamofbits.However,thesebitsmustbeframedinto
discernible blocks of information.
Framingisafunctionofthedatalinklayer.Itprovidesawayforasendertotransmitasetof
b itsthataremeaningfultothereceiver.Frameshaveheadersthatcontaininformationsuchas
error-checking codes.
tthedatalinklayer,itextractsthemessagefromthesenderandprovidesittothereceiver
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by providing the sender’s and receiver’s addresses.
heprocessofdividingthedataintoframesandreassemblingitistransparenttotheuserand
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is handled by the data link layer.
raming is an important aspect of data link layer protocol design because it allows the
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transmission of data to be organized and controlled.
A frame has the following parts −
● rame Header − It contains the source and the destination addresses of the frame.
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● Payload field − It contains the message to be delivered.
● Trailer − It contains the error detection and error correction bits.
● Flag − It marks the beginning and end of the frame.
Types of framing
There are two types of framing:
1 . Fixed-size:The frame is of fixed size and there isno need to provide boundaries
to the frame, the length of the frame itself acts as a delimiter.
rawback:It suffers from internal fragmentation ifthe data size is less than the
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frame size
Solution:Padding
2 . Variable size: The size of the frame is variable during this form of framing. In
variable-size framing, we are in need of a way to outline the tip of the frameandalsothe
startingofthesucceedingframe.Thiscanbeutilizedinlocalareanetworks(LAN).Thereare
2 different methods to define the frame boundaries, such as length field and finish decimeters.
2 .1 Length field–To confirm the length of the field, alength field is used. It is
utilized in Ethernet (1EEE 802.3).
2 .2 End Delimeter–To confirm the size of the frame, a pattern is worn as a delimiter.
This methodology is worn in the token ring. Inshort,itisreferredtoasED.Twodifferent
methods are used to avoid this condition if the pattern happens within the message.
2.2.1Bit-Oriented Framing
ostprotocolsuseaspecial8-bitpatternflag01111110asaresultofthedelimiterto
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stipulate the beginning and so the end of theframe.Bitstuffingiscompletedatthe
sender end and bit removal at the receiver end.
I f we have a tendency to get a zero(0) after 5 1s. we have a tendency to tend to still
stuff a zero(0). The receiver will remove the zero. Bit stuffing is in addition said as bit
stuffing.
2.2.2Byte-Oriented Framing
ytestuffingisoneofthemethodsofaddinganadditionalbyteoncethereisaflagor
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escape character within the text. Take an illustration of bytestuffingasappearedin
the given diagram.
he sender sends the frame by adding three additional ESC bits and therefore the
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destination machine receives the frame and it removes the extra bits to convert the
frame into an identical message.
5.3Flow Control
low controlis a set of procedures that restrictthe amount of data a sender should send
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before it waits for some acknowledgment from the receiver.
Flow Control is an essential function of the data link layer.
It determines the amount of data that a sender can send.
It makes the sender wait until an acknowledgment is received from the receiver’s end.
Methods of Flow Control areStop-and-wait, andSlidingwindow.
Stop-and-wait Protocol
top-and-wait protocolworks under the assumptionthat the communication channel is
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noiselessand transmissions areerror-free.
Working :
The sender sends data to the receiver.
The sender stops and waits for the acknowledgment.
The receiver receives the data and processes it.
The receiver sends an acknowledgment for the above data to the sender.
he sender sends data to the receiver after receiving the acknowledgment of
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previously sent data.
The process is unidirectional and continues until the sender sends theEnd
of Transmission (EoT)frame.
Sliding Window Protocol
heslidingwindowprotocolistheflowcontrolprotocolfornoisychannelsthatallowsthe
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sender to send multiple frames even before acknowledgments are received. It is called a
Sliding window because the senderslidesitswindowuponreceivingtheacknowledgments
for the sent frames.
Working:
he sender and receiver have a “window” of frames. A window is a space that
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consists of multiple bytes. The size of the window on the receiver side is always 1.
Each frame is sequentially numbered from 0 to n - 1, where n is the window size
at the sender side.
The sender sends as many frames as would fit in a window.
fter receiving the desired number of frames, the receiver sends an
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acknowledgment. The acknowledgment (ACK) includes the number of the next
expected frame.
5.4Error Control
rror control in data link layer is the process of detecting and correcting data frames that have
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been corrupted or lost during transmission.
I n case of lostorcorruptedframes,thereceiverdoesnotreceivethecorrectdata-frameand
sender is ignorant abouttheloss.Datalinklayerfollowsatechniquetodetecttransiterrors
and take necessary actions, whichisretransmissionofframeswhenevererrorisdetectedor
frame is lost. The process is called Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ).
The error control mechanism in data link layer involves the following phases −
etection of Error− Transmission error, if any, isdetected by either the sender or
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the receiver.
Acknowledgment− acknowledgment may be positive ornegative.
o Positive ACK− On receiving a correct frame, the receiversends a positive
acknowledge.
o Negative ACK− On receiving a damaged frame or a duplicateframe, the
receiver sends a negative acknowledgment back to the sender.
etransmission− The sender maintains a clock andsets a timeout period. If an
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acknowledgment of a data-frame previously transmitted does not arrive before the
timeout, or a negative acknowledgment is received, the sender retransmits the frame.
Error control technique
There are three main techniques for error control –
Stop and Wait ARQ
This protocol involves the following transitions −
A timeout counter is maintained by the sender, which is started when a frame is sent.
I f the sender receives acknowledgment of the sent frame within time, the sender is
confirmed about successful delivery of the frame. It then transmits the next frame
in queue.
Ifthesenderdoesnotreceivetheacknowledgmentwithintime,thesenderassumes
thateithertheframeoritsacknowledgmentislostintransit.Itthenretransmitsthe
frame.
If the sender receives a negative acknowledgment, the sender retransmits the frame.
Go-Back-N ARQ
The working principle of this protocol is −
The sender has buffers called sending window.
he sender sends multiple frames based upon the sending-window size, without
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receiving the acknowledgment of the previous ones.
The receiver receives frames one by one. It keeps track of incoming frame’s sequence
number and sends the corresponding acknowledgment frames.
After the sender has sent all the frames in window, it checks up to what sequence
number it has received positive acknowledgment.
If the sender has received positive acknowledgment for all the frames, it sends next
set of frames.
If sender receives NACK or has not receive any ACK for a particular frame, it
retransmits all the frames after which it does not receive any positive ACK
Selective Repeat ARQ
oth the sender and the receiver have buffers called sending window and receiving
B
window respectively.
The sender sends multiple frames based upon the sending-window size, without
receiving the acknowledgment of the previous ones.
The receiver also receives multiple frames within the receiving window size.
he receiver keeps track of incoming frame’s sequence numbers, buffers the frames in
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memory.
It sends ACK for all successfully received frames and sends NACK for only frames
which are missing or damaged.
The sender in this case, sends only packet for which NACK is received.
5.5Data Link Layer Protocols
Datalinklayerprotocolisgenerallyresponsibletosimplyensureandconfirmthatthebits
a nd bytes that are received are identical to bits and bytes being transferred. SDLC,
HDLC, SLIP, PPP, LCP, LAP, and NCP are some of the data link layer protocols.
SDLC:
DLC stands for synchronous data link control protocol, is a communication protocol of a
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computer.
I t is usually used to carry system network architecture traffic. Synchronous data link protocol
connects all the remote devices to the mainframe computer at the Central location.
Thisconnectionisdoneintwoformats,pointtopointformati.e.onetooneconnection,and
p oint to multipoint format, i.e. one to many connections.
SDLC support one to many connections even in case of error detection or error recovery.
SDLCensuresthatallthereceiveddataunitsarecorrectandflowisrightfromonenetwork
p oint to the next network point.
HDLC:
DLC stands for High-level data link control protocol, is a bit-orientatedcodetransparent
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synchronous protocol developed by ISO (International organization for standardization)
in1979.
I tprovidesbothconnection-orientatedandconnectionlessservices.HDLCprotocolcontains
various wide-area protocols.
It is based on the SDLC protocol that supports both point-to-point and multipoint
c ommunication.
DLCframesaretransferredoversynchronousorasynchronousserialcommunicationlinks.
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HDLC uses various modes such as normal response mode, asynchronous response mode,
asynchronous balanced mode.
ormal response mode is used to share the secondary to primary link without contention.
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asynchronous response mode is used for full-duplex links. asynchronous balanced mode,
support combined terminal which can act as both primary and secondary.
SLIP:
LIPstandsforSeriallineinterfaceprotocolwhichisusedtoaddframingbyteattheendof
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the IP Packet. SLIP is a datalinklayerprotocolThattransformstheIPpacketsamongISP
(Internet Service Providers) and home user over dial-up links.
LIP is designed to work with ports and router connections. SLIP does not provide error
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detection, being reliant on upper-layer protocols for this.Therefore,SLIPonitsownisnot
satisfactory over an error-prone dial-up connection.
PPP:
PP stands for Point to point protocol. PPP is a data link layer protocol that provides the
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same services as the Serial line interface protocol.
I t is a robust protocol that transfers the other types of pockets also with theIPpackets.It
providestwoprotocolsLCPandNCP,thatwewilldiscussinthenextsection.Pointtopoint
protocol uses framing methods that describe the frames.
oint to point protocol is also called character oriented protocol which is used to detect
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errors. PPC provides Connection authentication, data compression, encryption, and
transmission.Itisusedovervariousnetworkssuchasphonelines,cellulartelephones,serial
cables, trunk lines, ISDNs, Specialized radio links, etc.
LCP:
CP stands for Link control protocol, is a part of point-to-point control protocol. LCP packets
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determine the standards of data transmission.
LCP protocol is used to determine the identity of the linked devices, if the device is correct it
accepts it otherwise it rejects the device.
I t also determines whether the size of the packet is accepted or not. If requirements exceed
the parameters, then the link control protocol terminates that link.
LAP:
AP stands for Link access procedure is a data link layer protocol that is used for framing
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and transfer the data across point-to-point links.
here are three types of Link access procedure – LAPB ( Link Access procedure balanced),
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LAPF ( Link Access Procedure Frame-Mode Bearer Services), and LAPD (Link Access
Procedure D-Channel.
AP was originally derived from HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control), but was later
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updated and renamed LAPB (LAP Balanced).
NCP:
CP stands for Network control protocol, is a part of the point-to-point protocol. The
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network control protocol is used to negotiate the parameter and facilities for the network
layer.
oreveryhigher-layerprotocolsupportedbyPPP,oneNCPisthere.IPCP(InternetProtocol
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control protocol), DNCP (DECnet Phase IV Control Protocol), OSINLCP (OSI Network
Layer Control Protocol), IPXCP (InternetworkPacketExchangeControlProtocol),NBFCP
(NetBIOS Frames Control Protocol), IPV6CP (IPv6 Control Protocol) are some of the NCPs.
5.6HDLC
igh-level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a group of communication protocols of the data link
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layer for transmitting data between network points or nodes. Since it is a data link protocol,
data is organized into frames. A frame is transmitted via the network to the destination that
verifies its successful arrival. It is a bit - oriented protocol that is applicable for both point - to
-point and multipoint communications.
Transfer Modes
DLC supports two types of transfer modes, normal response mode and asynchronous
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balanced mode.
Normal Response Mode (NRM)− Here, two types of stationsare there, a primary
station that send commands and secondary station that can respond to received
commands. It is used for both point - to - point and multipoint communications.
synchronous Balanced Mode (ABM)− Here, the configurationis balanced, i.e. each
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station can both send commands and respond to commands. It is used for only point - to -
point communications.
HDLC Frame
DLC is a bit - oriented protocol where each frame contains up to six fields. The structure
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varies according to the type of frame. The fields of a HDLC frame are −
● F lag − It is an 8-bit sequence that marks the beginning and theendoftheframe.
The bit pattern of the flag is 01111110.
● Address−Itcontainstheaddressofthereceiver.Iftheframeissentbytheprimary
station, it contains the address(es) of the secondary station(s). If it is sent by the
secondary station, it contains the address of the primary station. The address field
may be from 1 byte to several bytes.
● Control− It is 1 or 2 bytes containing flow and errorcontrol information.
● Payload− This carries the data from the network layer.Its length may vary from one
network to another.
● FCS− It is a 2 byte or 4 bytes frame check sequencefor error detection. The standard
code used is CRC (cyclic redundancy code)
5.7PPP
oint - to - Point Protocol (PPP) is a communication protocol of the datalinklayerthatis
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used to transmit multiprotocol data between two directly connected (point-to-point)
computers. Itisabyte-orientedprotocolthatiswidelyusedinbroadbandcommunications
having heavy loads and high speeds.
Components of PPP
Point - to - Point Protocol is a layered protocol having three components −
ncapsulation Component− It encapsulates the datagramso that it can be transmitted
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over the specified physical layer.
Link Control Protocol (LCP) − It is responsible for establishing, configuring,
testing,maintainingandterminatinglinksfortransmission.Italsoimpartsnegotiation
for set up of options and use of features by the two endpoints of the links.
Authentication Protocols (AP)− These protocols authenticateendpoints for use of
services. The two authentication protocols of PPP are −
o Password Authentication Protocol (PAP)
o Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP)
etwork Control Protocols (NCPs) − These protocols areusedfornegotiatingthe
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parameters and facilities for the network layer. For every higher-layer protocol
supported by PPP, one NCP is there. Some of the NCPs of PPP are −
o Internet Protocol Control Protocol (IPCP)
o OSI Network Layer Control Protocol (OSINLCP)
o Internetwork Packet Exchange Control Protocol (IPXCP)
o DECnet Phase IV Control Protocol (DNCP)
o NetBIOS Frames Control Protocol (NBFCP)
o IPv6 Control Protocol (IPV6CP)
PPP Frame
PP is a byte - oriented protocol where each field of the frame is composed of one or more
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bytes. The fields of a PPP frame are −
lag− 1 byte that marks the beginning and the endof the frame. The bit pattern of
F
the flag is 01111110.
Address− 1 byte which is set to 11111111 in caseof broadcast.
Control− 1 byte set to a constant value of 11000000.
Protocol− 1 or 2 bytes that define the type of data contained in the payload field.
ayload− This carries the data from the network layer.The maximum length of the payload
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field is 1500 bytes. However, this may be negotiated between the endpoints of
communication.
FCS− It is a 2 byte or 4 bytes frame check sequencefor error detection. The standard
code used is CRC (cyclic redundancy code)
5.8Media Access Control
The medium access control (MAC) is a sublayer of the data link layer.
I t is responsible for flow control and multiplexing for transmission medium. It controls the
transmission of data packets via remotely shared channels. It sends data over the network
interface card.
5 .8.1MAC Layer in the OSI Model
The Open System Interconnections (OSI) model is a layered networking framework that
conceptualizes how communications should be done between heterogeneous systems. The
data link layer is the second lowest layer. It is divided into two sublayers −
•The logical link control (LLC) sublayer
•The medium access control (MAC) sublayer
5.8.2MAC Addresses
AC address or media access control address is a unique identifier allotted to a network
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interface controller (NIC) of a device. It is used as a network address for data transmission
within a network segment like Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth. MAC address is assigned to a
network adapter at the time of manufacturing. It is hardwired or hard-coded in the network
interface card (NIC). A MAC address comprises of six groups of two hexadecimal digits,
separated by hyphens, colons, or no separators. An example of a MAC address is
00:0A:89:5B:F0:11.
5.8.3ALOHA:
LOHA is a system for coordinating and arbitrating access to a shared communication
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Networks channel. A shared communication system like ALOHA requires a method of
handling collisionsthatoccurwhentwoormoresystemsattempttotransmitonthechannel
at the same time. Aloha means "Hello". Aloha is a multiple accessprotocolatthedatalink
layer and proposes how multiple terminals access the medium without interference or
collision.
There are two different versions of ALOHA
ure ALOHA
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•In pure ALOHA, the stations transmit frames whenever they have data to send.
• When two or more stations transmit simultaneously, there is collision and the
frames are destroyed.
•In pure ALOHA, whenever any station transmits a frame, it expects the acknowledgement
from the receiver.
•If acknowledgement is not received within specified time, the station assumes that the frame
(or acknowledgement) has been destroyed.
I f theframeisdestroyedbecauseofcollisionthestationwaitsforarandomamountoftime
and sends it again. This waiting time must be random otherwise same frames will collide
again and again.
• ThereforepureALOHAdictatesthatwhentime-outperiodpasses,eachstationmust
wait for a random amount of time before resending its frame. This randomness will help
avoid more collisions.
•Figure shows an example of frame collisions in pure ALOHA.
• In fig there are four stations that .contended with one another for access to shared
channel. All these stations are transmitting frames. Some of these frames collide because
multiple frames are in contention for the shared channel. Only two frames, frame 1.1 and
frame 2.2 survive. All other frames are destroyed.
• Whenever two frames try to occupy the channel at the same time, there will be a
collisionandbothwillbedamaged.Iffirstbitofanewframeoverlapswithjustthelastbitof
a frame almost finished, both frames will be totally destroyed and both will have to be
retransmitted.
Slotted ALOHA
• Slotted ALOHA was invented to improve the efficiency of pure ALOHA as chances of
collision in pure ALOHA are very high.
• InslottedALOHA,thetimeofthesharedchannelisdividedintodiscreteintervals
calledslots.Thestationscansendaframeonlyatthebeginningoftheslotandonlyone
frame is sent in each slot.
• InslottedALOHA,ifanystationisnotabletoplacetheframeontothechannelatthe
beginningofthesloti.e.itmissesthetimeslotthenthestationhastowaituntilthebeginning
of the next time slot.
• In slotted ALOHA, there is still a possibility of collision if two stations try to send at the
beginning of the same time slot as shown in fig.
• Slotted ALOHA still has an edge over pure ALOHA as chances of collision are
reduced to one-half.
5.9Ethernet Basics
thernet is a set of technologies and protocols that are used primarily in LANs. However,
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EthernetcanalsobeusedinMANsandevenWANs.Itwasfirststandardizedinthe1980sas
IEEE 802.3 standard. Since then, it has gone through four generations, as shown in the
following chart
tandard Ethernet has many physical layer implementations. The four main physical
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layer implementations are shown in the following diagram
10Base5: Thick Ethernet
The first implementation is called 10Base5, thick Ethernet, or Thicknet.
10Base5 was the first Ethernet specification to use a bus topology with an external
transceiver(transmitter/receiver) connected via a tap to a thick coaxial cable.
10Base2: Thin Ethernet
The second implementation is called 10Base2, thin Ethernet, or Cheapernet.
10Base2 also uses a bus topology, but the cable is much thinner and more flexible.
In this case, the transceiver is normally part of the network interface card (NIC),
which is installed inside the station.
10Base-T: Twisted-Pair Ethernet
The third implementation is called 10Base-T or twisted-pair Ethernet.
10Base-T uses a physical star topology. The stations are connected to a hub via two
pairs of twisted cable.
10Base-F: Fiber Ethernet
Although there are several types of optical fiber 10-Mbps Ethernet, the most
common is called 10Base-F.
10Base-F uses a star topology to connect stations to a hub.
The stations are connected to the hub using two fiber-optic cables.
ast Ethernet (100 Mbps)
F
Fast Ethernet or 100BASE-T provides transmission speeds up to 100 megabits per second
and is typically used for LAN backbone systems.
The 100BASE-T standard consists of three different component specifications –
1.100 BASE-TX
2.100BASE-T4
3.100BASE-FX
igabit Ethernet (1 Gbps)
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●The Gigabit Ethernet upgrades the data rate to 1 Gbps(1000 Mbps).
●Gigabit Ethernet can be categorized as either a two-wire or a four-wire implementation.
● The two-wire implementations use fiber-optic cable (1000Base-SX, short-
wave, or 1000Base-LX, long-wave), or STP (1000Base-CX).
●The four-wire version uses category 5 twisted-pair cable (1000Base-T).
5.10CSMA/CD
¬Carrier Sense in CSMA/CD means that all the nodessense the medium to check whether it
is idle or busy.
●If the carrier sensed is idle, then the node transmits the entire frame.
●If the carrier sensed is busy, the transmission is postponed.
¬Collision Detect means that a node listens as ittransmits and can therefore detect when a
frame it is transmitting has collided with a frame transmitted by another node.
Transmitter Algorithm in CSMA/CD
¬Transmitter Algorithm defines the procedures fora node that senses a busy medium.
¬Three types of Transmitter Algorithm exist.
¬They are
1 .Non-Persistent Strategy
2.Persistent Strategy : 1-Persistent & P-Persistent
Non-Persistent Strategy
●In the non-persistent method, a station that has a frame to send senses the line.
●If the line is idle, it sends immediately.
●If the line is not idle, it waits a random amount of time and then senses the line again.
● The non-persistent approach reduces the chance of collision because it is unlikely
that two or more stations will wait the same amount of time and retry to send
simultaneously.
● However, this method reduces the efficiency of the network because the medium
remains idle when there may be stations with frames to send.
ersistent Strategy
P
1-Persistent :
The 1-persistent method is simple and straightforward.
●
● In this method, after the station finds the line idle, it sends its frame immediately
(with probability 1).
● This method has the highest chance of collision because two or more stations may
find the line idle and send their frames immediately.
-Persistent :
P
●In this method, after the station finds the line idle it follows these steps:
●With probability p, the station sends its frame.
●With probability q = 1 − p, the station waits for the beginning of the next time slot and
checks the line again.
● The p-persistent method is used if the channel has time slots with a slot duration
equal to or greater than the maximum propagation time.
● The p-persistent approach combines the advantages of the other two strategies. It
reduces the chance of collision and improves efficiency
XPONENTIAL BACK-OFF
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● Once an adaptor has detected a collision and stopped its transmission, it waits a
certain amount of time and tries again.
●Each time it tries to transmit but fails, the adaptor doubles the amount of time
it waits before trying again.
● This strategy of doubling the delay interval between each retransmission
attempt is a general technique known asexponentialback-off.
5.11Virtual LAN
irtual Local Area Networks or Virtual LANs (VLANs) are a logical group of computers that
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appear to be on the same LAN irrespective of the configuration of the underlying physical
network. Network administrators partition the networks to match the functional requirements
of the VLANs so that each VLAN comprise of a subset of ports on a single or multiple
switches or bridges. This allows computers and devices in a VLAN to communicate in the
simulated environment as if it is a separate LAN.
Types of VLANs
rotocol VLAN− Here, the traffic is handled basedon the protocol used. A switch or
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bridge segregates, forwards or discards frames the come to it based upon the traffics
protocol.
Port-based VLAN− This is also called static VLAN.Here, the network
administrator assigns the ports on the switch / bridge to form a virtual network.
Dynamic VLAN− Here, the network administrator simplydefines network
membership according to device characteristics.
5.12Wireless LAN (802.11)
Wireless communication is one of the fastest-growing technologies.
●
●The demand for connecting devices without the use of cables is increasing everywhere.
● Wireless LANs can be found on college campuses, in office buildings, and in many
public areas.
ADVANTAGES OF WLAN / 802.11
1. Flexibility: Within radio coverage, nodes can access each other as radio
waves can penetrate even partition walls.
2. Planning : No prior planning is required for connectivity as long as devices follow
standard convention
3.Design : Allows to design and develop mobile devices.
4. Robustness : Wireless network can survive disaster. If the devices
survive,communication can still be established.
ISADVANTAGES OF WLAN / 802.11
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1. Quality of Service : Low bandwidth (1 – 10 Mbps), higher error rates due to
interference, delay due to error correction and detection.
2.Cost : Wireless LAN adapters are costly compared to wired adapters.
3. Proprietary Solution : Due to slow standardization process, many solution are
proprietary that limit the homogeneity of operation.
4. Restriction : Individual countries have their own radio spectral policies. This
restricts the development of the technology
5. Safety and Security : Wireless Radio waves may interfere with other devices.
Eg; In a hospital, radio waves may interfere with high-tech equipment.
TECHNOLOGY USED IN WLAN / 802.11
¬WLAN’s uses Spread Spectrum (SS) technology.
¬The idea behind Spread spectrum technique is tospread the signal over a wider frequency
band than normal, so as to minimize the impact of interference from other devices.
¬There are two types of Spread Spectrum:
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
●
●Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
¬Frequency hopping is a spread spectrum techniquethat involves transmitting the signal
over a random sequence of frequencies.
¬That is, first transmitting at one frequency, thena second, then a third, and so on.
¬The random sequence of frequencies is computed bya pseudorandom number generator.
¬The receiver uses the same algorithm as the senderand initializes it with the same seed and
hence is able to hop frequencies in sync with the transmitter to correctly receive the frame.
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
¬Each bit of data is represented by multiple bitsin the transmitted signal.
¬DSSS takes a user data stream and performs an XORoperation with a pseudo –random
number.
¬This pseudo random number is called as chippingsequence.
OPOLOGY IN WLAN / 802.11
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WLANs can be built with either of the following two topologies /architecture:
●Infra-Structure Network Topology
●Ad Hoc Network Topology
Infra-Structure Topology(AP based Topology)
● An infrastructure network is the network architecture for providing communication
between wireless clients and wired network resources.
● The transition of data from the wireless to wired medium occurs via a Base Station
called AP(Access Point).
●An AP and its associated wireless clients define the coverage area.
d-Hoc Topology(Peer-to-Peer Topology)
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●An adhoc network is the architecture that is used to support mutual communication between
wireless clients.
● Typically, an ad- hoc network is created spontaneously and does not support
access to wired networks.
●An adhoc network does not require an AP.
5.13Physical Layer
hysical layer in the OSI model plays the role of interacting with actual hardware and
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signaling mechanism. Physical layer is the only layer of OSI network model which actually
deals with the physical connectivity of two different stations.
hysical layer provides its services to Data-link layer. Data-link layer hands over frames to
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physical layer. Physical layer converts them to electrical pulses, which represent binary
data.The binary data is then sent over the wired or wireless media.
5.13.1Data and signals
Data or the signal whichever is used in a network, it can be either digital or analog.
Analog and Digital Data
nalog data refers to data that is of continuous format whereas digital data is one which has
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discrete states. So the analog data takes continuous values and digital data takes discrete
values. Analog data can be directly converted into an analog signal or sampled and converted
to digital signal. In quite a similar fashion digital data can also be converted to digital signal
or into analog signal after modulation. These are converted so that efficient transmission can
take place.
Analog and Digital Signal
imilar to data, the signals which represent these can also be digital or analog. Analog signals
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are known to have many levels of intensity over a given period of time. As the wave moves
from one value to another, along the path it traverses via infinite number of values. Digital
signals rather have only definite set of values. These are represented using a pair of
perpendicular axes. The vertical axis represents the strength of the signal and the horizontal
axis gives the time period.
5.13.2Transmission Media
I n data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path between the
transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the channel through which data is sent from one place
to another. Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:
1 . Guided Media: It is also referred to asWiredorBoundedtransmissionmedia.
Signals being transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using
physical links. Features:
High Speed
●
● Secure
● Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are 3 major types of Guided Media:
( i)Twisted Pair Cable –
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other. Generally,
several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the most widely used
Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:
● nshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
U
UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one another. This type of
cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a physical shield for
this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.
Advantages:
⇢
● Least expensive
● ⇢Easy to install
● ⇢High-speed capacity
Disadvantages:
⇢
● Susceptible to external interference
● ⇢Lower capacity and performance in comparison toSTP
● ⇢Short distance transmission due to attenuation
Applications:
● Used in telephone connections and LAN networks
● hielded Twisted Pair (STP):
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This type of cable consists of a special jacket (a copper braid covering or a foil shield)
to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and
data channels of telephone lines.
Advantages:
⇢Better performance at a higher data rate in comparisonto UTP
⇢Eliminates crosstalk
⇢Comparatively faster
Disadvantages:
⇢Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
⇢More expensive
⇢Bulky
( ii)Coaxial Cable –
It has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or Teflon and 2
parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover. The coaxial cable
transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and
Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog
television networks widely use Coaxial cables.
Advantages:
● igh Bandwidth
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● Better noise Immunity
● Easy to install and expand
● Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
● Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network
iii)Optical Fiber Cable –
It uses the concept of refraction of light through a core made up of glass or plastic. The core
is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding. It is used for the
transmission of large volumes of data.
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he cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division
Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional mode.
Advantages:
● I ncreased capacity and bandwidth
● Lightweight
● Less signal attenuation
● Immunity to electromagnetic interference
● Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages:
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● ifficult to install and maintain
● High cost
● Fragile
(iv)Stripline
tripline is a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission line medium invented by Robert
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M. Barrett of the Air Force Cambridge Research Centre in the 1950s. Stripline is the earliest
form of the planar transmission line. It uses a conducting material to transmit high-frequency
waves it is also called a waveguide. This conducting material is sandwiched between two
layers of the ground plane which are usually shorted to provide EMI immunity.
(v)Microstripline
In this, the conducting material is separated from the ground plane by a layer of dielectric.
2 .Unguided Media:
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No physical medium is
required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features:
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● he signal is broadcasted through air
● Less Secure
● Used for larger distances
There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:
( i)Radio waves –
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and receiving
antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and
cordless phones use Radio waves for transmission.
( ii)Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly
aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the
height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile
phone communication and television distribution.
( iii)Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate
through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz –
400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.
5.13.3Switching
I n large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver. The switching
technique will decide the best route for data transmission.
Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making one-to-one communication.
Classification Of Switching Techniques
Circuit Switching
● C
ircuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path
between sender and receiver.
● I n the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the
dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
● Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
● Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice
transmission.
● Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.
Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:
C
● ircuit establishment
● Data transfer
● Circuit Disconnect
Space Division Switches:
● S
pace Division Switching is a circuit switching technology in which a single
transmission path is accomplished in a switch by using a physically separate set
of crosspoints.
Time Division Switching
he incoming and outgoing signals when received and re-transmitted in a different time
T
slot, is calledTime Division Switching.
Message Switching
● M essage Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as
a complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and
forwarded.
● In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated
path between the sender and receiver.
● The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching provides a
dynamic routing as the message is routed through the intermediate nodes based on
the information available in the message.
● Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the
most efficient routes.
● Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the next node.
This type of network is known asstore and forwardnetwork.
● Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.
Packet Switching
● T he packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one
go, but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
● The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a
unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.
● Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source
address, destination address and sequence number.
● Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
A
● ll the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
● If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend
the message.
● If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message
will be sent.
Approaches Of Packet Switching:
There are two approaches to Packet Switching:
Datagram Packet switching:
● I t is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is
considered as an independent entity. Each packet contains the information about the
destination and switch uses this information to forward the packet to the correct
destination.
● The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
● In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
● Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
● Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.
Virtual Circuit Switching
V
● irtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.
● In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established before the
messages are sent.
● Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection
between sender and receiver.
● In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.
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