Properties of human language

Human language has several key properties that distinguish it from other forms of
communication. These properties enable humans to communicate complex ideas, emotions,
and abstract concepts. Some of the primary properties of human language include:

1. Arbitrariness:
o The relationship between a word (or sign) and its meaning is arbitrary,
meaning there is no inherent connection between the sound or form of a word
and what it represents. For example, the word "dog" has no natural connection
to the animal it represents.

 The link between words and their meanings is established by social

convention
 Language is arbitrary because the words that we use are just labels.
There is nothing about a 'table,' for example, what makes it a 'table. ' is
that those of us who speak English have agreed to call it a 'table' so that
we can talk about

2. Displacement:
o Language allows us to talk about things that are not present in the immediate
environment or even things that are not real. We can discuss past events, future
possibilities, and imaginary scenarios. This is called displacement. For
instance, we can discuss a place we've never been or something that happened
yesterday.
3. Productivity (or Generativity):
o Language is highly productive, meaning humans can create an infinite number
of sentences and express an infinite range of ideas using a finite set of rules
and words. This is made possible by syntax, which allows us to generate new
sentences, even ones we’ve never heard before.
4. Cultural Transmission:
o Language is learned through social interaction within a culture. Unlike
instinctive behaviors seen in some animals, language is not genetically
inherited but passed down through generations by teaching and learning.
5. Duality of Patterning:
o At the level of language, there are two levels of structure:
 First-level: Basic units of sound (phonemes1) that do not have meaning
on their own.
 Second-level: Combinations of these sounds (morphemes2, words, and
sentences) that convey meaning. This property allows for a limited set
of sounds to create a meanings.

1
any of the perceptually distinct units of sound in a specified language that distinguish one word from
another, for example p, b, d, and t in the English words pad, pat, bad, and bat.

2
a meaningful morphological unit of a language that cannot be further divided
(e.g. in, come, -ing, forming incoming ).a morphological element considered in respect of its
functional relations in a linguistic system
 6. Semanticity:
o Language is used to convey meaning. Each element of language (such as a
word or sentence) corresponds to a specific meaning or set of meanings. For
example, the word "tree" refers to a particular type of plant, and the word
"happiness" refers to an emotional state.
7. Syntax:
o Syntax refers to the rules that govern the structure of sentences. It allows
speakers to gather words into phrases and sentences that are grammatically
correct, conveying precise meanings. For instance, "The cat sat on the mat"
follows a specific word order that is syntactically correct in English.
8. Learnability:
o Humans have the ability to learn any language to which they are exposed,
regardless of their native language. This is true for both children and adults,
though the ease and speed of language learning often vary with age.
9. Reflexivity (or Self-Reference):
o Humans can use language to talk about language itself. This property allows us
to discuss grammar, vocabulary, and communication. For example, one can
say, "The word 'dog' has three letters," which reflects on the language itself.
10. Prevarication:
o Language can be used to convey false or hypothetical information. This means
humans can lie, deceive, or talk about things that aren't true, which is an
important aspect of communication.

 Together, these properties enable humans to use language in dynamic, creative, and
complex ways, facilitating advanced communication and thought.

Linguistics, the scientific study of language, has developed various schools of thought or
approaches over time. These schools differ in their focus, methodology, and assumptions
about the nature of language.

schools of linguistics

Linguistics has evolved significantly over time, with distinct schools emerging in both the
classic and modern eras. Here's a breakdown of the classic schools of linguistics and their
more modern counterparts, focusing on their key differences and developments

breakdown of the traditional and modern schools of linguistics:

Traditional Schools of Linguistics

These schools were the early approaches to studying language, mainly focusing on its
structure, history, and formal rules.

1. Historical Linguistics

 What it is: Studies how languages change over time.

 Focus: Language families and how languages evolve.
 Example: How English evolved from Old English.

2. Structuralism

 What it is: Analyzes the structure of language, like sounds, words, and sentence rules.
 Focus: Understanding how language works by looking at its parts (sounds, words, grammar).
 Example: Analyzing the structure of a sentence.

3. Generative Grammar (Chomskyan Linguistics)

 What it is: Focuses on the rules that help us create sentences in any language.
 Focus: The idea that we all have an innate ability to understand grammar.
 Example: How children naturally learn to speak correctly.

4. Comparative Philology

 What it is: Compares languages to find common ancestors and relationships.

 Focus: Tracing language family trees.
 Example: Comparing English, German, and Dutch as part of the Germanic family.

Modern Schools of Linguistics

These newer schools go beyond the formal rules and look at how language is used in real life,
how we think, and how society affects language.

1. Cognitive Linguistics

 What it is: Studies how language is related to our thoughts and experiences.
 Focus: Language reflects how we think and experience the world.
 Example: How we talk about time as though it were a physical space ("I’m running out of
time").

2. Sociolinguistics

 What it is: Studies how language varies in different social groups (based on class, region, age,
etc.).
 Focus: How social factors like race, gender, or class affect how people speak.
 Example: How people from different regions or social groups speak differently.
3. Pragmatics

 What it is: Focuses on how we use language in real-life situations.

 Focus: How context affects the meaning of words or phrases.
 Example: If someone says "Can you pass the salt?" they’re not just asking a question—
they’re making a request.

4. Discourse Analysis

 What it is: Studies larger chunks of language like conversations or stories.

 Focus: How people use language in communication, like turn-taking in conversations.
 Example: Analyzing how a conversation flows between two people.

5. Functionalism

 What it is: Studies how language helps us communicate.

 Focus: Understanding language as a tool to communicate and perform actions.
 Example: How different sentence structures (questions, commands) help us achieve different
purposes.

6. Language Acquisition

 What it is: Studies how children (or adults) learn a language.

 Focus: How we learn to speak, understand, and use language from a young age.
 Example: How babies learn to speak their first language.

Quick Comparison:

Traditional Schools Modern Schools

Focus on how language works in real life, society, and the

Focus on language structure and history.
mind.

Examines language use, context, and how we learn and

Looks at language rules and origins.
think.

Examples: Historical Linguistics, Examples: Sociolinguistics, Cognitive Linguistics,

Structuralism. Pragmatics.

In summary:

 Traditional linguistics looks at language's rules and history.

 Modern linguistics looks at how language is used, how we learn it, and how it relates to our
thoughts and society.