Acknowledgement

The authors gratefully acknowledge the feedback of Dr. Ahmed M. Aref, Doha International
Family Institute and Dr. Sultan Barakat, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, during the write-up of
this report

i
 Abstract
This report reviews and analyses sources published from 2019-2024 in order to investigate the
complex dynamics of the intersecting trends of urbanisation, migration, and family. To address
their complexities, this report synthesizes empirical findings, policy reports, working papers,
white papers, government documents, evaluations, and other related literature by highlighting
important trends, emerging issues, policy implications, and policy exemplars.

Drawing on the UNDESA 2022 report as a baseline, this report examines how urbanization and
migration processes affect families and are shaped by familial structures, roles, and relationships
in and across global contexts through a thorough examination of scholarly sources, using a rapid
review methodology.

Six critical areas in need of policy recommendations have been identified. These include
family-friendly policies, gender-responsive and child-sensitive legislation, affordable housing
and inclusive infrastructure, comprehensive urban planning, sustainable urban growth through
effective family planning, and comprehensive healthcare services for immigrants. By addressing
the complex issues brought about by migration and urbanization, these recommendations seek to
promote inclusive, sustainable development that centres the needs of individuals and families.

Given the dynamic nature of the processes surrounding urbanization and migration, ongoing
research is required to fully address particular facets of global migration and urbanisation as they
pertain to families. There remains a need for targeted research and analysis that more deeply
explores regional nuances.

Rapid urbanisation and modifications to migration policies and patterns necessitate timely and
innovative policy responses. Monitoring and adjusting policies that promote family cohesion and
well-being is increasingly important as urbanisation and migration continue to change.
Policymakers, researchers, and community stakeholders should engage in ongoing dialogue in
order to recognise new possibilities and difficulties as they arise. Since migration is a worldwide
issue, nations must prioritise research and policy initiatives and assume collective responsibility
in order to collaborate in tackling these intricate and constantly shifting challenges.

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 Executive Summary
Population shifts known as “urbanisation” occur when a greater percentage of people live in
urban areas (Trask, 2022). This causes a concentration of people, economic activity, and the
infrastructure required to support them (UNDESA, 2022), detracting from rural areas and the
production of food. The process of urbanisation entails changes to the social, economic, and
environmental spheres. Urbanisation should be viewed as a continuous process that affects not
only the topography of a region or the structure of a society, but also the nature of work and the
role of the family. As such, it has the power to alter people’s perceptions of both individual and
group responsibility (Marriage and Family Encyclopaedia, 2023). It affects the relationships
within the family as well as the structure of the family, especially in nations with traditional
extended families. Catalysts include industrialisation, technical advancement, rural-to-urban
movement, forced displacement, and a rise in globalisation and migration across the world
(Trask, 2022; UNDESA, 2022). Urbanisation has a significant impact on societal structures that
directly affect families as it deals with a number of complex dynamics, including changing
demographics, changing land use, environmental effects, and increased health, educational, and
social needs (UNDESA, 2014; UNDESA, 2018; UNDESA, 2022).

Migration is the term used to describe the movement of people, families, or groups across
national and international borders, frequently as a result of intricate political, social, and
environmental variables (UNDESA, 2022). This topic includes migration that occurs within a
nation, migration that occurs internationally, and forced displacement brought on by conflict,
persecution, or environmental factors (UNDESA, 2022). Migration exposes complex patterns of
mobility, processes of integration, and connections between communities of individuals and
families both in the countries they are leaving and the ones they are entering. Policy responses
that attempt to regulate migrant flows in an effort to foster greater social cohesiveness are
influenced by migratory patterns. Understanding migration in its whole necessitates considering
its short- and long-term effects on labour markets, cultural dynamics, and the demographic
makeup of the regions of origin and destination. Scholarly and policy research on the topic
emphasises the need for comprehensive strategies to manage the complexity of migration and
realise its promise for sustainable and humanising development.

The complex interactions between push and pull variables that define the dynamic relation
between urbanisation and migration impact both processes. Urbanisation has historically lured
individuals seeking employment, opportunities for healthcare and education, and other
necessities, which has resulted in a migration from rural areas and smaller towns to cities. Urban
population growth and diversity raise demand for housing, family health services, education, and
infrastructure (UNDESA, 2022). Furthermore, by contributing skills, labour, and cultural
diversity that strengthens metropolitan regions' social cohesion and economic vigour, migration
itself contributes to urbanisation. Further structural elements that impact the relation between
migration and urbanisation are globalisation, economic inequality, political unpredictability,

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environmental change, and technology improvements (UNDESA, 2022). Due to these variables,
which also affect the dynamics of migrant flows and the location and density of urban
individuals and families, there has been a global trend of varying degrees of urbanisation
experienced by different areas and nations (UNDESA, 2022).
Six critical areas for policy recommendations have been identified. These areas encompass
comprehensive urban planning, sustainable urban growth through effective family planning,
affordable housing and inclusive infrastructure, focus on family-friendly policies,
gender-responsive and child-sensitive legislation, and comprehensive healthcare services for
immigrants. These recommendations aim to address the multifaceted challenges associated with
urbanisation and migration, ensuring sustainable and inclusive development that prioritises the
well-being of individuals and families.

1. Implementing Comprehensive Urban Planning Frameworks to Create Sustainable

Urbanisation
Comprehensive urban planning frameworks that support the ideas of sustainable development
should be created and implemented by governments, accounting for their specific contexts.

2. Promoting Sustainable Urban Growth Through Effective Family Planning

The global population is shifting from rural to urban areas at an increasing rate, creating larger
cities with denser populations. Concerns about social adjustment and environmental stress arise
when people move from rural to urban settings because urban growth is linked to air pollution,
industrial development, and land usage.

The 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) depend heavily on urban family planning
because of its profound effects on gender equality, employment, reducing poverty, and health
outcomes. Smaller family sizes are made possible by improved family planning services, which
are especially beneficial for urban low-income households. Urban family planning aims to build
a more sustainable and fair future for urban populations, not simply for the here and now.

3. Promoting Affordable Housing and Inclusive Infrastructure to Reduce Socio-Economic

Disparities
Governments should encourage mixed-income housing projects, which include both market-rate
and inexpensive flat buildings, in order to reduce socioeconomic disparities and foster social
cohesion. By offering tax breaks, subsidies, and low-interest loans to private developers who
incorporate affordable housing units into their projects, housing shortages can be addressed.
Financing public housing developments and updating the infrastructure to include stable energy,
safe drinking water, sanitary facilities, and public transportation are necessary to improve living
conditions and situations.

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4. Promoting a Focus on Family-Friendly Policies
Encouraging family-friendly policies that incorporate the traditional notion of gender equality is
essential to improving a society that is supportive, equitable, and inclusive. Encouraging women,
getting more people into the workforce and improving family well-being may all be achieved by
implementing flexible work schedules, maternity leave, and affordable childcare. Families may
enhance their well-being and effectively manage childcare if employers provide options
including part-time schedules, remote employment, and flexible hours. Governments and
organisations can promote gender equality and enforce family-friendly laws to help families feel
more included and supported.

5. Developing Gender-Responsive and Child-Sensitive Legislation and Social Protection

Measures to Protect Women and Children
Sanctuary laws should be implemented and upheld by nations that welcome immigrants in order
to reduce violence against women and children. Sanctuary laws can help immigrants feel
comfortable and empowered to interact with law enforcement without worrying about being
deported. Governments should enact legislation that expressly support these measures designed
to reduce violence before implementing sanctuary policies. Campaigns for education and
awareness are also essential in educating immigrants—particularly women and children who are
at risk of violence—about their legal rights and other resources, as well as the laws and policies
that protect them.

6. Providing Complementary Healthcare Services and Mental Health Support for

Immigrants
Children and families that migrate frequently experience depression as a result of the adjustment
to a new location with a different climate and culture. This change may cause social networks,
educational opportunities, and general stability to be disrupted, which may increase feelings of
worry and loneliness. Immigrants may have worsening mental health problems as a result of
financial difficulties and the strain to adjust to a new society. The availability of insurance
programs at the state level helps to lower rates of mental illness and depression. In order to meet
the requirements of children and families, the insurance coverage should include mental health
services, counselling, and psychological assistance. These services should be offered in multiple
languages. Encouraging mental health services within the educational system can give children
and adolescents a convenient way to seek the help they need. In order to assist students,
understand and control their emotions throughout the period of transition, schools can provide
counselling and mental health education. In the meanwhile, teaching educators to recognise
mental health difficulties will help students get the assistance they need quickly.

In conclusion, addressing the multifaceted impacts of urbanisation and migration on families

requires a sustained commitment to global research and collaboration. By focusing on regional

v
disparities and the unique challenges faced by vulnerable families, targeted interventions that
promote family well-being and resilience can be developed and implemented effectively.

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Table of Contents
Acknowledgement.......................................................................................................................... i
Abstract..........................................................................................................................................ii
Executive Summary...................................................................................................................... iii
1. Introduction................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1. Understanding Urbanization and Migration.............................................................................. 1
2. Methodology................................................................................................................................3
3. Setting the Scene– Urbanization.................................................................................................... 7
3.1. Urbanization and Families...................................................................................................... 8
3.2. Urbanization and Familial and Societal Gender Equality............................................................9
3.3. Urbanization and Homelessness............................................................................................ 10
3.4. Urbanization as an Opportunity............................................................................................. 10
4. Predictors, Moderators/Mediators, and Outcomes of Urbanization...................................................11
4.1. Urbanization Trends in the Middle East and North Africa........................................................ 13
4.2. Urbanization Trends in Sub-Saharan Africa............................................................................ 15
4.3. Urbanization Trends in North America...................................................................................16
4.4. Urbanization Trends in Latin America................................................................................... 18
4.5. Urbanization Trends in Europe.............................................................................................. 19
4.6. Urbanization Trends in Asia and Oceania............................................................................... 20
5. Setting the Scene– Migration.......................................................................................................22
5.1. Migration and Families.........................................................................................................24
5.2. Migration and Employment...................................................................................................26
5.3. Migration as an Opportunity................................................................................................. 26
5.4. Forced Migration and Conflict.............................................................................................. 27
6. Predictors, Moderators/Mediators and Outcomes of Migration........................................................29
6.1. Migration Trends in the Middle East and North Africa............................................................ 32
6.2. Migration Trends in Sub-Saharan Africa with a particular focus on women............................... 34
6.3. Migration Trends in North America....................................................................................... 37
6.4. Migration Trends in Latin America and the Caribbean with a particular focus on women............39
6.5. Migration Trends in Europe.................................................................................................. 40
6.6. Migration Trends in Asia and the Pacific................................................................................ 41
7. The Intersection of Urbanization, Migration, and Family................................................................44
8. Policy and Programs Addressing Families and Urbanization - Best Practice.....................................46
9. Policy and Programs Addressing Families and Migration - Best Practice......................................... 52
10. Policy Recommendations to Address Migration and Urbanization.................................................55
11. Conclusion...............................................................................................................................58
References.....................................................................................................................................60

Table of Figures
Figure 1: Eviction cases in Los Angeles between January 2019 and January 2023 (Source: Scott,
A., 2023) 18
Figure 2: Eviction filing in New York State between 2020 and 2022 (Source: Local Housing
Solutions,2024) 18
Figure 3: Global Migration Trends in 2020 (Source: Geopolitical Futures, 2022) 23
Figure 4: Global inter and intraregional migration patterns since 2020 (Source: The Institute of
Internal Auditors Madras Chapter) 24
Figure 5: Global refugee data-2024 (Source: UNHCR,2024 c) 27
Figure 6: African Migration Drivers (Source: World Bank, 2023) 35
Figure 7: Percentage distribution of migrants departing from selected Asia-Pacific countries by
skill level (latest available year; Source: UNESCAP, 2020) 43
1. Introduction
This report explores the intersecting trends of urbanization, migration, and family, and their
complex dynamics, by reviewing and analysing literature published since 2019. Drawing on the
UNDESA 2022 report and through a comprehensive examination of scholarly sources, using a
rapid review methodology, this report analyses how urbanization and migration processes impact
families and are shaped by familial structures, roles, and relationships in and across global
contexts. Through synthesizing empirical findings, policy reports, working papers, white papers,
government documents, evaluations, and other similar literature, this report highlights key
trends, emerging issues, policy implications, and policy exemplars, which are essential to
understanding and addressing the complex intersection of urbanization, migration, and family
dynamics. With an emphasis on family, including nuclear, extended, and transnational families,
this report sheds light on the diverse ways familial structures adapt to urban settings and the role
of social policies and community initiatives in both supporting and hindering the resilience of
families amidst rapid urbanization and migration trends. By exploring the interplay among
economic opportunities, social networks and policies, and familial ties, this analysis aims to
provide a nuanced understanding of how urbanization and migration influence the well-being
and cohesion of families worldwide. The ultimate aim of this report is to inform policymakers
and advocates who are seeking solutions to complex issues related to urbanization and migration
in their specific global contexts. The implications of cultural norms and practices on familial
dynamics within specific contexts emphasize the need for culturally sensitive approaches in
policy development and implementation. Finally, this report identifies gaps in current research
and suggests directions for future studies aimed at addressing the evolving challenges and
opportunities arising from the intersection of urbanization, migration, and family dynamics.

1.1. Understanding Urbanization and Migration

Urbanization is a shift in the population that increases the proportion of those residing in urban
areas (Trask, 2022), thereby leading to the concentration of people, economic activities, and the
infrastructure needed to support them (UNDESA, 2022) while drawing attention away from rural
areas and food production. Urbanization is a process that involves transformation in social,
economic, and environmental domains. Urbanization should be understood as an ongoing
process that impacts not just the geography of an area or the organization of a society, but as a
phenomenon that influences the role of the family and the nature of work, thus possessing the
capacity to change people’s ideas regarding individual and collective responsibility (Marriage
and Family Encyclopaedia, 2023). It influences the very structure of the family and its
intra-relationships, particularly in traditional extended family societies. Factors like
industrialization, technological development, migration from rural to urban areas, forced
displacement as well as an increase in worldwide migration and globalization, all serve as

1
catalysts (Trask, 2022; UNDESA, 2022). As urbanization unfolds, it contends with complex
dynamics of demographic shifts; changes in land use; environmental impacts; increased health,
educational, and social needs; and socio-cultural adaptations, thereby exerting profound
implications on societal structures that directly impact families (UNDESA, 2014; UNDESA,
2018; UNDESA, 2022).

Urban centres are significant in their capacity to “bolster the well-being of families” (Aref et al.,
2024, p.285). They hold a central position in global development policy, with the New Urban
Agenda closely linked to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which aims to make
cities more inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable (United Nations Human Settlements
Programme, 2020). The trend of urbanization persists and accelerates across the globe, with
cities expanding at a faster rate than their population growth. Migration serves as a significant
driving force behind urbanization, while inequalities continue to remain a persistent challenge in
urban areas (United Nations Human Settlements Programme, 2020). The economic vitality of
urban centres (i.e., the process to improve the economic well-being) is crucial in determining the
direction of the local, national, and eventually international economy as they are large drivers of
it. Urban regions possess the capacity to promote social integration and mitigate poverty through
inclusive policies, effective resource allocation, and sufficient investment. In order to create
inclusive development and sustainable urban growth plans that enhance the lives of urban
residents, activists, legislators, and others must have a thorough understanding of the complex
dynamics of urbanization. The advancement in technology, both in terms of transport and
communications, should be considered when talking about urbanisation today. The COVID
experience with the work from home policy has been an important area of progress in this regard
(e.g., Battisti et al., 2022).

Migration refers to the movement of individuals, families, or groups across geographical and
political boundaries, often driven by complex socio-economic, political, and environmental
factors (UNDESA, 2022). This phenomenon encompasses internal migration within a country,
international migration between nations, and forced displacement due to conflict, persecution,
and environment (UNDESA, 2022). Migration reveals intricate patterns of movement,
integration processes, and interactions between incoming and receiving communities of
individuals and families. Migratory patterns have an impact on policy responses that try to
control migratory flows in an effort to promote greater social cohesion. A thorough
understanding of migration requires taking into account the immediate and long-term impacts on
labour markets, cultural dynamics, and demographic composition in the regions of origin and of
destination. The necessity for comprehensive measures to manage migration’s complexity and
realize its promise for sustainable and humanizing development is highlighted by scholarly and
policy research on the subject and will be detailed in this report.

Urbanization and migration are shaped by a complex interplay of push and pull factors, which
characterize the dynamic interaction between urbanization and migration. In the past, migration

2
from rural and smaller towns to cities has been caused by urbanization, which has drawn people
looking for work, possibilities for education and healthcare, and other necessities. The increase
and diversity of urban populations brings an increased demand for housing, health services,
education, and infrastructure (UNDESA, 2022). Furthermore, migration itself contributes to
urbanization by bringing skills, labour, and cultural diversity that enhance the social cohesion
and economic vibrancy of metropolitan areas. The interaction between urbanization and
migration is further influenced by broader structural factors that include globalization, economic
disparities, political instability, environmental change, and technological advancements
(UNDESA, 2022). The global trend has been that different regions and nations experience
differing degrees of urbanization as a result of these factors, which also influence the dynamics
of migrant flows and the location and density of urban individuals and families (UNDESA,
2022).

The respective urbanization and migration sections will be followed by a culminating section
that addresses the connection between urbanization and migration as they relate to family.
Additionally, this report will include cogent and actionable suggestions for policymakers based
upon examples of successful policy implementation. These suggestions will encapsulate a
holistic approach that considers the interrelated dynamics of urbanization and migration.
Through an intentional approach to urban planning and migration policy, societies can harness
the potential of cities as engines of economic development and hubs of diversity and innovation,
well-positioned and prepared to welcome and actively support families.

2. Methodology
After extensive collaboration with the commissioning body to delineate the report's scope and
given the task of producing a comprehensive report within a constrained time frame, the research
team utilized a rapid review approach. Rapid reviews offer a pragmatic solution, diverging from
the exhaustive nature of systematic reviews. Instead, rapid reviews employ a staged search
strategy to swiftly identify high-quality systematic reviews, followed by the inclusion of relevant
primary studies and grey literature. By leveraging the rapid review methodology, the research
team aimed to find a balance between comprehensiveness and expediency, ensuring that the
report would be rigorously evidence-based and delivered within the stipulated time frame. This
methodological choice underscores the commitment to producing a robust and actionable
document while navigating the constraints inherent in projects of a time-sensitive nature (King et
al., 2022).

We opted for a concise five-year timeframe to center our exploration on the intersection of
urbanization and migration. This period was chosen strategically, considering the significant
upheavals that have transpired since 2019. Events such as the global COVID-19 pandemic and
major geopolitical shifts, including the United States' withdrawal from Syria and sudden

3
withdrawal from Afghanistan, the Russian war against Ukraine, Britain's exit from the European
Union (Brexit), the breakout of civil war in Sudan, the Israel-Hamas war in Palestine as well as
the substantial alterations in U.S. and European immigration policies, have collectively reshaped
the landscape of urbanization and migration dynamics.

Additionally, the authors utilized the UNDESA 2022 report as a foundational source prior to
engaging in the subsequent three phases of rapid review.

Phase 1

After conducting an initial search to assess the volume of available literature, the following
electronic databases were systematically searched on April 7th, 2024, specifically targeting
international systematic reviews published in English:

Academic Search Complete and Web of Science.

Title, Abstract, and Keyword Fields were searched with the following search terms:

Search terms urbanization:

‘Urban settlements’ OR ‘urban discrimination’ OR ‘urban segregation’ OR ‘urban

fragmentation’ OR ‘rural to urban migration’ OR ‘urban to rural migration’ OR ‘intra-region
mobility’ OR homeless AND family AND policy AND ‘systematic review’

Search terms migration:

transnational OR ‘internal migration’ OR reunification OR remittance OR ‘push factors’ OR

‘pull factors’ OR ‘asylum seekers’ OR ‘unaccompanied minors’ OR ‘internally displaced
persons’ OR immigration OR ‘forced displacement’ OR refugees OR mobility OR ‘mixed
migration’ OR ‘economic migrant’ OR ‘climate migrant’ OR ‘labour migrant’ AND family
AND policy AND ‘systematic review’

Manuscripts were included if they were:

● Peer-reviewed systematic reviews

● Published in English between 2019-2024

● Addressed the concept of migration, urbanization, or both in relation to family (core or

extended family)

Manuscripts were excluded if they were:

● Not a peer-reviewed systematic review

4
 ● Published in a language other than English
● Published before 2019
● Did not address the concept of migration, urbanization, or both in the context of family

The report lead author reviewed the title and abstracts of all retrieved systematic reviews as well
as conducted the full text screening. The report lead and co-authors agreed on the data extraction
template which included reference, country/region, focus of review, issues/ debates identified,
key findings, related policies/initiatives, and recommendations. The data charting was
subsequently conducted by the report lead author.

After identification of duplicates, 217 records were identified from the databases. After the initial
screening, 137 records were excluded for not meeting the inclusion criteria. After full text
assessment of the remaining 80, a further 33 reviews were excluded. The final number of
reviews included to gain foundational insights was 47.

Phase 2

To supplement the initial identification of relevant yet limited literature, the research team
endeavoured to broaden the scope by incorporating primary research and grey literature. This
comprehensive approach aimed to capture diverse perspectives and insights beyond the confines
of systematic reviews.

Specifically, searches were conducted on the Academic Search Complete and Web of Science
databases. This additional step was helpful in ensuring a thorough examination of available
research, encompassing a wide range of regions and thematic areas. By integrating primary
research findings and grey literature, the team aimed to provide a holistic perspective on the
subject matter, enriching the depth and breadth of the analysis.

Title, Abstract, and Keyword Fields were searched with the following search terms:

Search terms urbanization:

‘Urban settlements’ OR ‘urban discrimination’ OR ‘urban segregation’ OR ‘urban

fragmentation’ OR ‘rural to urban migration’ OR ‘urban to rural migration’ OR ‘intra-region
mobility’ OR homeless AND family AND policy

Search terms migration:

transnational OR ‘internal migration’ OR reunification OR remittance OR ‘push factors’ OR

‘pull factors’ OR ‘asylum seekers’ OR ‘unaccompanied minors’ OR ‘internally displaced
persons’ OR immigration OR ‘forced displacement’ OR refugees OR mobility OR ‘mixed
migration’ OR ‘economic migrant’ OR ‘climate migrant’ OR ‘labour migrant’ AND family
AND policy

5
Literature was included if they were:

● Peer reviewed journal articles or grey literature

● Published in English between 2019-2024

● Addressed the concept of migration, urbanization or both in relation to family (core or

extended family)

● Referred to policy

Literature was excluded if they were:

● Published in a language other than English

● Published before 2019
● Did not address the concept of migration, urbanization, or both in the context of family
● Did not refer to policy

The report lead author again reviewed the title and abstracts of all retrieved literature as well as
conducted the full text screening. A data extraction template including reference, theme, type of
paper, country/region, and name of policy was agreed on with the co-authors before the report
lead conducted the data charting.

After identification of duplicates, 3203 records were identified from the databases. After the
initial screening, 2202 records were excluded for not meeting the inclusion criteria. After full
text assessment of the remaining 1001, a further 776 papers were excluded. The final number of
papers included to gain diverse perspectives and insights was 225.

Phase 3

In addition to database searches, the research team also included literature recommended by the
commissioning body and the reviewer, as well as consulted bibliographies of articles found to be
specifically relevant (-this also includes literature prior to 2019).

Ethical considerations

Ethical approval

Ethical approval was not required for this rapid review report.

Conflicts of interest

6
The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the review, selection, or
interpretation of literature or in the writing of this report.

Risk of bias

As this rapid review is intended to provide an overview of the existing literature and not to
critically appraise the included articles, the risk of bias was not assessed. However, the authors
included a discussion of any limitations found in the included body of evidence.

Voice and representation

As a result of the team’s decision to search only English language publications, this has resulted
in some literature being excluded. Low- and middle-income countries are notably
underrepresented.

3. Setting the Scene– Urbanization

As of 2024, nearly 58 percent of the global population lives in urban areas (UNDESA, 2024). As
urban populations continue to increase, rural populations are expected to continue to decrease,
reaching an expectedly low percentage of only 32 percent of the global population by 2050
(UNDESA, 2024). The UNDP (2018) predicts a 1.5 billion person increase in urban populations
over the next 20 years, with the number of “megacities” (urban areas with more than 10 million
residents) set to double. This growth will lead to 358 “million cities” and 27 “mega-cities.”
These urban expansions are expected to exponentially occur in developing countries in Africa
and Asia (UNDESA, 2024). Current and future rapid urbanization is straining resources like
water, sewage systems, public health, and education. Despite cities covering only 3% of the
earth’s landmass, they consume 60-80% of energy and produce 75% of carbon emissions
(UNDP, 2018). According to the International Energy Agency (2024), global electricity demand
rose moderately in 2023 but is set to grow faster through 2026. Urbanization presents challenges
but also opportunities for resource consolidation and efficiency.

In both high- and low-income countries, geographical location significantly impacts access to
resources, particularly affecting disadvantaged groups including low-income families, children,
and the elderly when they reside far from resource centres (DESA, 2009; IOM, 2020a). This
issue is often overlooked by policymakers due to the complexity of assessing access to services.
Migrants from rural areas, who face climate change, lower socioeconomic classifications, altered
family roles, and a related decline in extended family support, along with other challenges, often
settle on the outskirts of urban areas, which exacerbates social exclusion. It is essential to
recognize that the lives and access to opportunities of newly arrived migrants greatly differ from
those of people who have been living in urban areas for longer periods of time. These
marginalized settlements must be considered in urban planning to address the diverse
experiences and needs of both new arrivals and established urban residents. Furthermore, the
7
intersection of culture, heritage, geography, and place occupy a significant role in the
development of communities. Each locale requires a robust understanding of its past and present
in order to properly plan for its future (Al-Daffaie & Abdelmonem, 2023).

Urbanization has a globally transformative impact on societies and families in particular,

touching an array of experiences and cultures. Key aspects of this trend to be discussed include:

1. Urbanization and Families

2. Urbanization and Familial and Societal Gender Equality

3. Urbanization and Homelessness

4. Urbanization as an Opportunity

3.1. Urbanization and Families

Urbanization is a prominent global trend characterized by population migration from rural to
urban areas, with significant implications for societal, economic, and environmental dynamics.
Currently, over half of the world's population resides in urban areas, a figure expected to rise to
68% by 2050 (TrendBible, 2024), placing substantial demands on infrastructure and housing.
This trend is particularly pronounced in regions like Africa and Asia, where rapid urbanization is
occurring from lower initial levels, while in regions like Europe and North America,
urbanization continues from already high levels, albeit at a slower pace (Query, 2022). Important
to note is that in Europe, Canada, and the United States, the gap between urban and rural is
closing. Lines are blurring as telecommunications and transportation advance, and many choose
to live in rural areas and work in virtual capacities. The same, however, cannot be said
concerning much of the developing world, where connectivity is a major challenge (e.g.,
International Telecommunication Union, 2022).

Urbanization profoundly impacts family life, as evidenced by the fragmentation of family

structures and the shrinking size of extended families. However, in countries like Canada,
Singapore, and Qatar, multigenerational housing is on the rise, with incentives offered to
encourage family members to live in close proximity. Multigenerational living arrangements,
where grandparents play a pivotal role in transmitting values to children, are increasingly
recognized for promoting better quality of life and empowerment, contrasting the shrinking trend
of extended families attributed to globalization and modernization (UNDESA, 2022).
Conversely, urban areas also pose challenges for families, including housing insecurity, disrupted
communities due to infrastructure development, and urban environments that may be unsafe for
women and children (UNDESA, 2022). Despite these challenges, understanding the complex
interplay between urbanization and family dynamics is crucial for informing policies and
interventions that promote family well-being and social cohesion in urban settings.

8
In Western urban areas, the rise of childless singles and couples raises questions about the
desirability and benefits of cities without children (Kotkin & Modarres, 2013). This trend has led
to economic and social consequences, where more affluent, childless singles and couples are
pricing out families. The phenomenon of childless cities is more prevalent in the West, requiring
increased scholarly and policy focus from urban planners and governments (Kotkin & Modarres,
2013).

3.2. Urbanization and Familial and Societal Gender Equality

In order for urban areas to be safe and equitable, especially for women, it is important for
citizens to be involved in the development of such spaces. Without access to transportation and
essential services, which impact women’s health and safety, they remain at risk for domestic and
sexual violence (UN Women, 2019). Addressing sexual violence and harassment in public spaces
is crucial for women’s freedom and participation in society. Active engagement of women in
urban governance is essential and can result in the integration of gender equality measures
throughout urban planning processes, thus increasing measures which result in increased safety
for women and children (Trask, 2020).

Urbanization has led to changes in family structures, shifting to smaller family units and altered
family roles (TutorChase, 2024). Women in urban areas face increased job opportunities,
reshaping traditional gender roles towards dual-income households, and raising the demand for
childcare services (Anthroholic, 2023). This emphasis on women’s economic participation has
also led to a revaluation of societal norms and expectations regarding caregiving responsibilities
within families. Moreover, the urban environment presents both challenges and opportunities for
families. While urban areas offer better access to healthcare, education, and recreational
facilities, they also introduce unique health challenges such as air pollution and limited physical
activity due to reduced open spaces. The high cost of living, job insecurity, and social inequality
in cities can result in economic strain for families, impacting their overall well-being. However,
cities can at least offer job opportunities even for those without formal education. At the same
time, in rural areas, income is lower and the cost of living increasingly higher, as many goods
need to be transported via the city (e.g., Ananian & Dellaferrera, 2024).

Additionally, the fast-paced, individualistic nature of city life can lead to social isolation and
weakened community bonds, affecting the support systems available to families (Anthroholic,
2023). The strain from extended work hours and commute times in urban settings can reduce the
quality time family members spend together, potentially impacting family stability and
relationships. Understanding the complexities of urban living and its impact on family dynamics
is crucial for developing effective policies and strategies that support healthy and resilient family
units in urban environments.

9
3.3. Urbanization and Homelessness
Urbanization exacerbates the issue of homelessness, which is a visible manifestation of
inequality, encompassing various forms such as street homelessness and precarious housing
conditions, particularly prevalent in low- and middle-income countries (UNDESA, 2022).
Globally, according to UNDESA’s 2022 report, an estimated 150 million people experience
homelessness, with over 20% of the population living in inadequate housing. Family
homelessness, often invisible yet widespread, is influenced by sociocultural, economic, and
political factors, including family breakdown and migration from rural to urban areas, where
housing options are limited. Homelessness occurring in children’s lives is a major risk factor that
directly impacts their development, mental health, and future prospects (Murran & Brady, 2023).
Neoliberal policies promoting privatization and financialization of housing have further
compounded the issue, overshadowing efforts to address homelessness through alternative
approaches. Additionally, solutions are more difficult to find when decision makers fail to
acknowledge the cost of homelessness (Carnemolla & Skinner, 2021). According to UNDESA’s
2022 report, governments should reconsider these policies around urbanization and housing and
prioritize the enactment of social protection measures to mitigate the growing challenges of
homelessness, especially among vulnerable groups such as women and children, while
recognizing family homelessness as a human rights issue requiring comprehensive understanding
and intervention. Housing and related policy are key factors for urbanisation. Housing is a right,
and housing ought to be considered as social, economic, and physical capital (Moreno-Monroy et
al., 2020). In the 1980s, a shift away from the state provision of housing to the private sector
greatly affected the degree of homelessness and increased the gap between those who can afford
housing and those who cannot (Fée, 2009). Around the world, very few countries are still willing
to acknowledge their responsibility in providing housing, while the majority only speaks about
housing provision in the aftermath of war and disasters (Hearne, 2023).

3.4. Urbanization as an Opportunity

Megacities are projected to expand, yet the majority of urban dwellers will reside in smaller
cities globally. By 2036, India’s towns and cities will be home to 600 million people, or 40
percent of the population, up from 31 percent in 2011, with urban areas contributing almost 70
percent to GDP (Kouamé, 2024). This urban growth poses challenges but also offers
opportunities to enhance sustainability and efficiency. Due to their density, urban areas serve as
hubs for integrating economics, energy, environment, and social aspects, playing a crucial role in
socio-economic activities and social development when managed effectively. If planned and
constructed with care and intention, cities can bring about greater equity, inclusion, and overall
quality of life (UN Habitat, 2016; 2020).

10
Urban governance

Emphasized in numerous studies is the exclusion of the impoverished from decision-making

processes globally, leading to their marginalization and neglect (DESA, 2009). The needs of the
most vulnerable individuals are frequently overlooked, their challenges unrecognized, and their
voices excluded from decision-making processes. To effectively address poverty, it is imperative
to establish inclusive participatory mechanisms, thereby making urban centres places of
possibility and increased equity.

4. Predictors, Moderators/Mediators, and Outcomes of

Urbanization
In order to fully understand the complex network of urban family life, it is necessary to examine
the predictors, moderators/mediators, and outcomes of this diverse process of urbanization.
Urban socioeconomic conditions, environmental stewardship laws, and government planning and
policies interact in ways that are explained by moderators and mediators, while predictors
illuminate the economic, infrastructural, demographic, and governmental factors driving
urbanization. Lastly, research demonstrates the various impacts of urbanization and outcomes on
the environment, family dynamics, health, and development, emphasizing both the advantages
and disadvantages of this process (UNDESA, 2022; UN75, 2020).

Predictors of Urbanization

Through garnering an understanding of the complex dynamics of urbanization, several predictors

emerge as significant drivers shaping the landscape of urban areas across the globe. Four key
predictors of urbanization include 1.) economic opportunities; 2.) development of infrastructure;
3.) growth in population; and 4.) policies of the government. These predictors shed light on the
economic, infrastructural, demographic, and governmental dimensions of urbanization.

● Economic Opportunities: Urban areas often offer better job opportunities, higher wages,
and improved living standards when compared with rural areas (UNDESA, 2022).
Additionally, industrialization and a shift away from agricultural economies and towards
service-oriented sectors drives families towards cities (UN75, 2020).

● Development of Infrastructure: Lack of development in rural areas is a driving force

towards urban areas, with universal education provision in rural areas encouraging pupils
to seek higher education in urban areas (e.g., Guo et al., 2019). Urban areas attract people
due to their robust development of infrastructure, including housing, healthcare,
education, and transportation networks, thereby increasing opportunities for individuals
and families (UNDESA, 2022).

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 ● Growth in Population: Population growth contributes to urbanization through both
rural-to-urban migration and the natural increase of people within cities (UNDESA,
2022).

● Policies of the Government: Urbanization is incentivized by laws that support and

encourage urban growth. This includes financial incentives and increased infrastructure
spending in urban centres (UN75, 2020).

Moderators of Urbanization

With significant ramifications for governance, social structures, and environmental sustainability,
the urbanization phenomenon marks a turning point in the development of modern society. The
moderators of urbanization involve complex interactions that exist between urban socioeconomic
conditions, environmental stewardship regulations, and government planning and policies. Three
key moderators include: 1.) planning and policies of the government; 2.) socioeconomic status;
and 3.) environmental regulations.

1. Planning and Policies of the Government: Intentional and purposeful urban planning
and policy can control the pace and effects of urbanization, affecting social services,
affordable housing, and transportation (UN75, 2020).

2. Socioeconomic Status: The advantages individuals and families gain from urbanization
rely significantly on their socioeconomic status. Lower-income families often grapple
with challenges such as inhabiting informal settlements, juxtaposed against
higher-income families who typically enjoy superior housing options and enhanced
access to services (UNDESA, 2022).

3. Environmental Regulations: Urban growth sustainability is impacted by environmental

policies and regulations that address problems such as waste management, pollution, and
green areas (UNDESA, 2022).

Mediators of Urbanization

Examining the complex terrain of urbanization reveals dynamic pathways between several
mediators that mold the urban experience. The critical roles that various factors play in
mediating the consequences and effects of urbanization include: 1.) access to services; 2.) social
networks; and 3.) digital connectivity and technology.

1. Access to Services: Urbanization's harmful effects on people's quality of life are

mitigated by the accessibility and availability of essential services, including healthcare,
education, and public transportation (UN75, 2020).

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 2. Social Networks: Social networks and community support systems facilitate integration
and resource access while assisting people and families in navigating the difficulties of
urban living (UNDESA, 2022).

3. Digital Connectivity and Technology: Urbanization is mediated by integrating digital

technology and connectivity, which improves access to economic opportunities, services,
and information (UNDESA, 2022).

Outcomes of Urbanization

The process of urbanization has numerous effects that ripple through various facets of societal
life. The various effects of urbanization, include 1.) development and economic growth; 2.)
family and social dynamics; and 3.) health and well-being

1. Development and Economic Growth: Urbanization typically leads to economic growth

due to increased productivity, innovation, and the concentration of businesses and
services (UN75, 2020).

2. Family and Social Dynamics: Urbanization impacts family structures, frequently

resulting in smaller households and altered family roles. Additionally, it may lead to a
decline in the support of extended families, resulting in social fragmentation (UNDESA,
2022).

3. Health and Well-being: Urban environments can enhance health outcomes by offering
improved living circumstances and access to healthcare; yet, overcrowding, pollution,
and changing lifestyles also pose risks (UNDESA, 2022).

Urbanization plays an integral part in shaping societies and families across the world. The
regional trends to be discussed include:

1. Urbanization Trends in Middle East and North Africa

2. Urbanization Trends in Africa
3. Urbanization Trends in North America
4. Urbanization Trends in Latin America
5. Urbanization Trends in Europe
6. Urbanization Trends in Asia and the Pacific

4.1. Urbanization Trends in the Middle East and North Africa

While small and with a rather blurred division of rural and urban areas, the GCC (Gulf
Cooperation Council) in the Middle East and North African (MENA) region, represents the most
urbanized global region, including Kuwait and Qatar in which nearly the entire population lives
in urban areas (Statista, 2022). The MENA region covers the enormous area extending from the

13
Atlantic coast of Africa to the borders of Pakistan and Afghanistan in Central Asia and from the
Mediterranean littoral to the southern boundaries of the Sahara Desert (International Monetary
Fund, n.d.). Countries such as Egypt, Turkey and Syria demonstrated critical cases of fast
urbanisation. It is important to acknowledge rapid urbanisation in the region as a result of
conflict displacement. Refugee camps that were initially temporary settlements in 1948 are now
urban settlements. Similarly, the majority of the more recent Syrian refugee camps in Jordan or
Turkey have now turned into semi urban centres that require special attention. They are not
solely governed by the host government due to the UN’s involvement in their management and
support (UNHCR, 2024).

Immense urbanization of the MENA region has resulted in some particular familial
vulnerabilities for its population (Lansford et al., 2020). A lack of social organization in these
sprawling metropolis areas have weakened family ties and resulted in an increased divorce rate
(Alzuhrany, 2010). Financial vulnerabilities have also been hallmarks of these highly urbanized
areas (Sarabdeen et. al., 2020). As urbanization and modernization, spurred by globalization,
have continued to increase in the MENA region, there has been a steady decrease of extended
families and an increase in nuclear families (Aref & Khodr, 2022). Although urbanization has
spurred the segmentation of the extended family, its structure persists in some facets in the
MENA region at large, often taking the form of grandparents or other family members living
nearby and engaging on a regular basis (Aref & Khodr, 2022). These interactions between
nuclear and extended families are most often characterized positively, with grandparents helping
and contributing to the nuclear family (DIFI, 2022).

In the Middle East, cultural values and economic forces interact in a complicated way that
affects urban planning and development. Through studying urban living in Iraq, Al-Thahab and
Abdelmonem (2019) found that privacy, good neighbourliness, brotherhood, family, and the
status of women are core principles of the Islamic social system that explicitly shape urban
development towards greater community cohesion. These values, regulated by often unwritten
building guidelines (passed from one generation to the next based on Islamic recommendations
and guidelines), foster solidarity and peaceful coexistence, forming a dynamic community where
various socio-cultural groups interact harmoniously. Additionally, the urbanization trend in many
North African countries is contributing to declining marriage rates and increasing divorce rates,
altering the traditional landscape of nuptiality patterns and impacting cultural systems of values
(Aref et al., 2024). By integrating cultural values and traditions into urban planning, including
both privacy and social solidarity, while adapting to contemporary needs, communities can
achieve sustainable and inclusive urban environments that prioritize human needs.

Over the last 30 years, Middle Eastern cities have shifted from traditional hierarchies to
competing for regional influence due to neoliberal policies and increased wealth (Abdelmonem,
2016). New cities like Dubai, Abu Dhabi, and Doha as well as Neom in Saudi Arabia and the
new Administrative Capital in Egypt, are challenging older ones such as Baghdad, Beirut, and
Cairo in terms of attractiveness, wealth, and global presence. This competition has disrupted
14
traditional city structures, leading to increased social segregation and unemployment, fuelled by
urban elites’ financial power and middle-class neglect (Abdelmonem, 2016). Middle-class
neglect speaks to the Arab middle-class’s persistent struggle with the region’s political
instability, rising conflict, and struggle to secure economic opportunities in the midst of scarce
social protections and increasing poverty (UNESCWA, 2023). A proposal to deal with these
issues has included a push for new privately owned capital cities that have emerged from
neoliberal economic alliances. The aim is to shift economic and political hubs to newly
developed areas. Existing cities have been established as fresh urban zones away from more
well-established and overcrowded areas, which does little to address many of the central issues
within middle-class neglect (Abdelmonem, 2016). Finally, urban infill and rehabilitation
projects, such as Musharib in Doha or Al-Abdali in Amman are worth mentioning. Here,
reservation and renewal are the urban strategy as opposed to building new cities on virgin land
(e.g., Al Rabady, 2024).

4.2. Urbanization Trends in Sub-Saharan Africa

Africa has the world’s most rapidly growing urban area, with a young demographic set to double
by 2050 (Aref et al., 2024; Gizelis et al., 2021). Africa is a continent often identified as
particularly susceptible to the social and economic repercussions of environmental and
demographic shifts, which has urbanized areas that encompass less than one percent of the total
landmass. Nonetheless, the population residing in African cities is projected to skyrocket by
more than 150% between 2020 and 2050, dwarfing the anticipated 35% growth in rural
populations (Gizelis et al., 2021). The profound societal shifts accompanying this rapid
urbanization underscore the imperative of grasping the intricacies and ramifications of urban
population expansion (Gizelis et al., 2021). Population growth is linked to elevated risks of civil
unrest in the urban outskirts, whereas there is no such increased risk in urban centres. This
underscores the critical need to understand the complex nuance of urban environments (Gizelis
et al., 2021).

Urbanization trends in Africa reveal complex causes of rural-urban migration, emergence of

increased informal settlements, direct impacts on rural livelihoods, and shifts in gender
dynamics. Rural-urban migration in Ethiopia, like many other African nations, is driven by food
shortages due to landlessness and drought, as well as debt, information flow, and cultural norms
(Abeje, 2021). This urban expansion leads to informal settlements in areas without legal titles,
thus resulting in increasing formal land value (Bikis & Pandey, 2023). In Ghana, proximity to
cities shifts rural livelihoods from agriculture to non-agriculture, with implications for poverty
and class mobility (Diao et al., 2019). Female-headed households in the capital city of Uganda
face housing challenges influenced by women’s social capital and networks, suggesting the need
for regulation and tailored policies that account for gender (Mubiru et al., 2022).

15
In urban settings, families’ ability to provide traditional reciprocal and intergenerational care is
greatly hindered by factors like overcrowded housing (Aref et al., 2024). Urbanization in certain
regions has led to the construction of small, inadequate houses that do not accommodate the
African traditional system of co-residence, further complicating family dynamics. The housing
situation in Africa's urban areas carries significant implications for health, social care, and
intergenerational support, particularly for older individuals. As rural populations migrate to
urban centres, extended family care becomes scarce, leading to a breakdown in the conventional
support system for the elderly.

Rapid urbanization has contributed to the rise of slums and informal housing arrangements
marked by the abovementioned overcrowding (Aref et al., 2024; Bikas & Pandey, 2023).
Sub-Saharan Africa is recognized as the world's fastest urbanizing region due in part to internally
displaced people seeking aid (UNDESA, 2022). However, many end up living in poor urban
slums, facing increased health risks, vulnerabilities, and the threat of forced evictions. The act of
fleeing persecution and conflict negatively impacts the well-being of family members,
highlighting the urgent need for comprehensive support and solutions to address the challenges
faced by displaced populations in Africa (UNDESA, 2022). Africa is also home to some of the
largest and most protracted refugee camps, constructed often on the edge of urban areas. These
challenging situations exacerbate issues such as homelessness and restricted access to essential
services like clean water, electricity, sanitation, education, healthcare, and employment
opportunities (Aref et al., 2024). Informal settlements often lack proper housing and
infrastructure, which increases the risk of disease and poor health (Weimann & Oni, 2019).
Although the impact of upgrading these settlements on health over time is not fully understood,
efforts to address issues like crowding, water and sanitation, and housing improvements have
shown positive effects on health and wellbeing (Weimann & Oni, 2019). It is crucial to consider
not just individual houses but also the broader neighbourhood and community dynamics during
upgrading efforts.

4.3. Urbanization Trends in North America

83.4 percent of Canadian households were located in urban regions in 2021, demonstrating the
country’s growing urbanization. Nine out of ten new immigrants chose to settle in metropolitan
areas between 2016 and 2019, demonstrating how closely this trend is linked to immigration
patterns. Certain cities, like Toronto, have modified their ordinances to allow multigenerational
families to live together, which is frequently a more financially sensible choice. There is much
evidence linking inexpensive housing to higher quality of life, including lower stress levels,
better mental and physical health and well-being, a stronger sense of community, and easier
access to educational and employment opportunities (UNDESA, 2022). Migration to Canada
impacts urbanization, as immigrants and refugees continue to disproportionately settle in urban
areas, prompting the government to provide more support for the resettlement and integration of
refugees into more rural communities via policies including Private Sponsorship of Refugees and
16
the Rural and Northern Immigration Pilot Program. Further policy should continue to support
rural communities in the integration of immigrant families in all aspects of community life
(Haugen et al., 2023).

Housing can be considered as financial capital, with dwellings either owned or rented. Housing
conditions in the United States, like in all global regions, significantly impact children’s health,
and any decline in housing stability or quality exacerbates this effect (Ramphal et al., 2023).
Evictions disrupt every aspect of a family’s existence and have multiple detrimental effects on
children’s health and development (Ramphal et al., 2023). Eviction leads to immediate financial
instability, jeopardizing parental well-being and their ability to provide nutritious food,
medication, and healthcare, all of which contribute to poor child outcomes (Ramphal et al.,
2023). Furthermore, evictions harm communities by increasing rates of violence and disease
(Ramphal et al., 2023).

Research indicates that the significant impact of rental evictions on health begins before birth
and continues throughout a child's development (Ramphal et al., 2023). Because prenatal and
early childhood experiences play a crucial role in determining adult health risks, preventing
evictions could not only benefit child health but also contribute to better future adult health
outcomes (Ramphal et al., 2023). This preventive measure could potentially reduce the risk of
various conditions including but not limited to diabetes, cardiovascular disease,
neurodegenerative disorders, cancer, substance abuse, depression, cognitive impairment, and
immune system dysfunction (Ramphal et al., 2023).

Addressing the underlying causes of housing insecurity through structural interventions is likely
to yield health benefits (Ramphal et al., 2023). A shortage of affordable housing in urban areas
exacerbates the problem of evictions, highlighting the need to dismantle barriers to the
construction of affordable multifamily housing, such as exclusionary zoning (i.e., use of zoning
ordinances to exclude certain types of land uses from a given community, especially to regulate
racial and economic diversity). Additionally, systemic issues including disparities in education
quality, income inequality, limited access to healthcare, insufficient worker protections and
wages, unemployment, and inadequate paid sick and parental leave all contribute to the
instability of housing. The intersection of racism, sexism, and classism, and the historical and
systemic nature of discrimination in the United States compounds these challenges, resulting in a
housing market that disproportionately exposes Black women and their children to the highest
risk of eviction (Ramphal et al., 2023). Policy changes during the COVID pandemic that
prevented evictions (as shown in Figure 1 and 2 below) indicate that when there is political will,
policies that contribute to housing security are possible.

17
 Figure 1: Eviction cases in Los Angeles between January 2019 and January 2023 (Source: Scott, A., 20231)

Figure 2: Eviction filing in New York State between 2020 and 2022 (Source: Local Housing Solutions,20242)

4.4. Urbanization Trends in Latin America

Urban areas in Latin America face significant challenges in achieving the social objectives of the
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, including poverty alleviation, healthcare access,
education, and social protections (UNDESA, 2022). Despite a slight increase in public
investment in urban infrastructure from 2019 to 2021, urban living conditions remain hindered

1
Scott, A. (2023). The predicted ‘eviction tsunami’ hits LA. Available from
https://www.kcrw.com/news/shows/greater-la/renters-strikes-angels-baseball/evictions [accessed 19 May 2024].
2
Local Housing Solutions (2024). New York State Eviction Tracker. Available from
https://localhousingsolutions.org/lab/notes/state-eviction-tracker/ [accessed 18 May 2024].

18
due to modest government investments (UNDESA, 2022). Latin American nations exhibit low
levels of income, capital, labour, and productivity, despite high urbanization rates, presenting
formidable economic and environmental obstacles (UNDESA, 2022). Urban migration in Latin
America is primarily driven by territorial displacement, negative environmental impacts,
conflict, exploitation, and socioeconomic factors (UNDESA, 2022).

Efforts to achieve sustainable urbanization require innovative approaches to preserve urban value
and foster inclusive prosperity for families. The region experiences concurrent urban and
demographic transitions, characterized by reduced rural-urban migration and shifting population
dynamics, though economic activities remain concentrated in major metropolitan centres
(UNDESA, 2022).

Urban expansion poses challenges from escalating service costs to differences in socioeconomic
status, exemplified by marginalized Indigenous communities and social unrest (UNDESA,
2022). Although the service sector significantly contributes to GDP, impediments such as
deficient planning and informal labour practices hinder its potential. Efforts to address
inequalities have reduced housing deficits, but socioeconomic residential segregation persists,
perpetuating discrimination and spatial fragmentation (UNDESA, 2022).

For example, an evaluation of the impact of informal urban settlements in Colombia indicated
that the majority of children under 5 years of age suffer from malnutrition and are susceptible to
morbidities due to low family income, low parental education, overcrowding and inadequate
ventilation in the homes, lack of housing, and unmet basic needs (Torres Parra et al., 2024).
Further compounding these situations are additional problems stemming from foundational
infrastructure issues. Overcrowding and poor housing conditions can lead to a greater
susceptibility to sexual abuse and domestic violence, putting women and children at additional
risk (Torres Parra et al., 2024). The elderly population are also vulnerable and at risk of
abandonment and poor health outcomes due to accidents, respiratory diseases,
gastroenterological diseases, skin infections, mental illnesses, and psychoactive substance use
(Torres Parra et al., 2024).

In addition to urban housing and settlement complications, Latin America is also particularly
vulnerable to climate change, which underscores the need for robust adaptation measures and a
fortification of urban resilience (UNDESA, 2022). Integrating local governance initiatives,
transparent information systems, and forward-thinking climate measures can enhance urban
governance and foster equitable and sustainable urban development for the families within their
region (UNDESA, 2022).

4.5. Urbanization Trends in Europe

Europe has transitioned into a predominantly urban and metropolitan society from its industrial
and rural roots (UNDESA, 2022). Key contemporary urban issues in Europe include

19
immigration, longer life expectancy, population aging, and widespread adoption of new
technologies (UNDESA, 2022). Internal migration intensified with the Eastern European
countries joining the European Union, though east-west migration eased with democratization
and economic growth in the region (UNDESA, 2022). However, nearly all major metropolitan
areas in Europe experienced population decline in the years since the pandemic, flowing against
the multi-decade trend of increased urban populations. In the years since 2020, this change in
trend has reversed with more people migrating to urban areas again (Wolff & Mykhnenko,
2023).

Additionally, digital connectivity is rising, with a growing number of urban residents utilizing
online services for work and daily activities (UNDESA, 2022). Big data and global monitoring
are now everyday elements of life, offering cities the potential to improve planning and address
local needs through real-time information from sensor networks and data collection systems
(UNDESA, 2022). Yet the impact of urbanization in Europe is not only a positive one, but also
brings about complicating factors including homelessness, which increases risks for children and
can often trigger the involvement of child welfare services (Murran & Brady, 2023). Addressing
these trends requires a holistic approach, considering family needs, sustainable practices, and
community engagement, supported by local and international frameworks.

4.6. Urbanization Trends in Asia and Oceania

Urbanization in Asia is rapidly occurring, particularly within India and China, where both
countries now host over a billion urban dwellers (UNDESA, 2022). This surge strains housing,
land, and the environment. Further complicating the issues is that their approaches to defining
urban areas vary, which affects census data and government support. In India, strict criteria lead
to underrepresentation of urban areas, whereas China's broad definition expands urban numbers
(UNDESA, 2022). Such distinctions impact resource allocation and social benefits. Chinese
residents are able to access better benefits if they change their status (hukou) from rural to urban,
thus exacerbating issues. In both countries, migrants face challenges accessing services and
rights, with China's hukou system perpetuating inequalities (UNDESA, 2022). Meanwhile, India
experiences migration for family reasons and seasonal work, leading to a significant informal
sector workforce (UNDESA, 2022). Both nations grapple with integrating migrants into cities,
with informal settlements like slums and urban villages emerging as focal points for policy
experimentation (UNDESA, 2022).

A surge of rural migrants has left China’s urban areas facing a number of issues, such as rising
housing costs, environmental pollution, and traffic congestion (Chen & Fu, 2023). In response,
cities have implemented population control measures (Chen & Fu, 2023). Small businesses,
unregulated markets, and low-skilled industries must all be relocated outside of the city as part of
these initiatives (Chen & Fu, 2023). Furthermore, efforts have been made to improve the
requirements for migrant children to be enrolled in public education. This highlights the trade-off

20
that migrant parents must make between access to education for their children and employment
opportunities in cities, which frequently leads to families being separated (Chen & Fu, 2023).

This massive scale of urbanization has unleashed enormous pressures on housing, land use, and
the environment. From 2014 to 2020, China sought to lessen the burdens of urbanization on its
cities, implementing New-Type Urbanization Planning which stated cities with more than five
million people in the central urban district should take action to curb their rapid population
growth, pushing small shops and low-skill industries out of the city and incentivizing families to
move to urban centres by providing public education initiatives. This created a challenging
trade-off for families, as job opportunities persisted in cities, yet opportunities for more
affordable housing, education, and family life lay outside, leading to the fracturing of families as
children were left behind (Chen et al., 2023).

Urbanization as a result of rural-urban migration has led to an increase in rural children being left
behind in their villages to be cared for by grandparents or other relatives while parents migrated
to cities to work. “Left-behind children” are one of the most vulnerable populations in China due
to their persistent poverty and psychological and behavioural problems stemming from parental
migration to urban regions (Hung et al., 2023). Specifically, left-behind children contend with a
lack of supervision and depression. The Chinese government has been piloting boarding schools
in rural China to provide a sense of stability, supervision, and support for the rural children left
behind when their parents pursue financial prospects in urban areas (Hung et al., 2023). The
lessons from China and India present tremendous implications for other Asian countries as well
(UNDESA, 2022).

Due to the geographical location of Oceania, they face unique coastal, urbanization issues. Most
nations throughout Oceania, and their urban centres, face acute vulnerability to natural disasters
including cyclones, storms, earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanic activity (Kiddle, 2021).
Micronesia is 69% urban, with some of the Micronesian countries boasting more than 80% urban
areas, and Polynesia is 44% urbanized (Kiddle, 2021). Informal settlements, which are notably
prevalent in Melanesian nations, characterize urban landscapes across Oceania (Kiddle, 2021).
These settlements, comprising 20–45% of urban populations in Melanesian capitals, lack legal
tenure and are often situated in hazardous environments such as riverbanks and floodplains
(Kiddle, 2021). They frequently expand into peri-urban areas on customary land, compromising
ecosystem resilience and food production (Kiddle, 2021). The rapid urban population growth
exacerbates stress on already fragile local ecosystems in Oceania. Urbanization and climate
change are straining their ecosystems, prompting urgent adaptation efforts focused on
nature-based solutions. Within Oceania, there is a history and an opportunity to develop urban
design strategies rooted in ecosystem services and traditional knowledge to enhance human
wellbeing and tackle climate challenges effectively (Kiddle, 2021). Urban ecosystem services
encompass the benefits humans gain from city and peri-urban ecosystems. Various urban
ecosystems, such as street trees and wetlands, are assessed based on their contributions to
functions including air filtering and recreational value. City planners and policymakers have an
21
opportunity to understand and prioritize ecologically responsible urbanization, particularly in
regions with a history of urbanization that accounts for nature-based solutions which are used to
foster well-being for communities and families (Kiddle, 2021).

5. Setting the Scene– Migration

International migration has increased threefold since the 1970s (IOM, 2024). As of 2020, around
281 million people were living outside of the countries in which they were born (IOM, 2024),
with two-thirds living in high-income countries like the United States, which currently boasts the
highest number of immigrants (IOM, 2024). In 2020, the United States had the largest immigrant
population worldwide Germany and Saudi Arabia hosted the second and third largest populations
of immigrants (Statista, 2020). Additionally, Saudi Arabia, France, Canada, Australia, India, and
Pakistan have large concentrations of migrants (IOM, 2020a). Proportionally, Middle Eastern
countries have the highest foreign-born populations; for instance, in the United Arab Emirates,
approximately 90 percent are foreign workers (World Economic Forum, 2017). While Turkey,
Egypt, and Jordan export migrant labour, Gulf Oil states are major recipients of migrant
labourers. As of 2020, India had 17.5 million Indian nationals living abroad as immigrants,
followed by Mexico with 11.8 million, and China with 10.7 million (IOM, 2020a).

International migration flows are projected to rise through 2050, reflecting just one aspect of
migration (UNDESA, 2022). According to the UN, international migrants live in countries other
than their birth or citizenship country primarily for economic or educational reasons (see Figure
3 and 4 below).

22
 Figure 3: Global Migration Trends in 2020 (Source: Geopolitical Futures, 20223)

3
Geopolitical Futures (2022). Global Migration Trends. Available from
https://geopoliticalfutures.com//pdfs/global-migration-trends-geopoliticalfutures-com.pdf [accessed 10 May 2024].

23
 Figure 4: Global inter and intraregional migration patterns since 2020 (Source: The Institute of Internal Auditors
Madras Chapter4)

In an increasingly transitive world where migration, for a wide array of reasons, is commonplace
globally, this mass movement of populations comes with both opportunities and complications.
The key aspects of this trend to be discussed include:

1. Migration and Families

2. Migration and Employment
3. Migration as an Opportunity
4. Forced Migration and Conflict

5.1. Migration and Families

Migration is unevenly distributed globally, with Europe being the most migratory region relative
to its population, followed by Latin America, Africa, Oceania, Asia, and North America
(UNDESA 2017a). Relative to population, countries such as Qatar have more than 85-90% work
migrants. Asia has the highest number of migrants, followed by Europe, Latin America, Africa,
North America, and Oceania (ICMPD, 2020). The majority of migrants move to or within
high-income countries, and this trend is expected to continue in the future, with migration to
4
The Institute of Internal Auditors Madras Chapter (2023) Trend Compendium 2050 Six megatrends that will shape
the world. Available from https://iiamadras.org/trend-compendium-2050-six-megatrends-that-will-shape-the-world/
[accessed 2 April 2024].

24
low- and middle-income countries also growing due to socio-economic development (ICMPD,
2020). International migration is likely to increase, driven by patterns observed in the past, with
sudden and large-scale refugee and asylum seeker flows primarily caused by violent events like
war and civil conflicts (UNHCR 2019). Although interstate armed conflicts have decreased,
internal conflicts within states are prevalent, leading to displacement (Council of Foreign
Relations, 2024; PRIO, 2018). Without significant improvements in global peace, forced
migration is expected to remain a major component of international migration flows.

Migration impacts both sending and receiving societies, with attitudes towards migrants varying
based on historical context and local conditions. Globalization has altered the relationship
between migrants and their home communities, allowing for greater digital connectivity and
continued cultural ties through the use of technology (IOM, 2020a). Technology has affected
migrants’ ability to send remittances back home and also facilitates political mobilisation based
on news coming from social media (e.g., Alencar, 2023; Gelb & Krishnan, 2022).

Migration has also reshaped gender roles within families, leading to positive effects like changes
in marital dynamics and negative effects like domestic violence rates (UN Women, 2019). Over
time, marital rates, age at marriage, and fertility rates for migrants typically realign themselves to
match those of the receiving country (Budiman, 2019; IOM, 2020a). Persistent factors such as
low birth rates, aging populations, global inequality, and ethnic tensions ensure ongoing
migration from low-income regions to other parts of the world. This trend is expected to escalate
(IOM, 2020a). International migration can temporarily slow the aging process in countries
experiencing large immigration flows, as migrants are typically of working age. However, as
migrants age themselves, questions arise regarding nationality, citizenship, benefits, and
integration policies (Trask, 2020).

Migration profoundly impacts families worldwide, altering their structure, unity, and
relationships. Both those in receiving societies and those left behind face challenges, including
conflicting values and roles. Migration can foster collective welfare and aspirations for a better
future, but it also brings societal and familial tensions. Transnational families, divided by
migration, face significant social, educational, and psychological costs (SACRU, n.d.). It is
crucial to prioritize family well-being and to develop migration policies rooted in human dignity
and family protection. Migrant households challenge traditional family dynamics, introducing
diverse practices and models. Families in the new society often find themselves grappling with
conflicting values and demands, particularly within parent-child relationships, as they strive to
navigate these differences (SACRU, n.d.). Migration reshapes not just family characteristics, but
societal characteristics, particularly in urban areas, affecting demographics, economies, and
public spaces. Migrant families often confront poverty, educational obstacles, and discrimination,
highlighting the need for inclusive policies and societal integration efforts (SACRU, n.d.). It is
important to explore issues of identity, integration, and assimilation policies (e.g., Hu & Cheung,
2024).

25
5.2. Migration and Employment
Migration occurs as the result of various factors but is often driven by factors related to
employment. In high-income nations like the United States, economic opportunities attract
educated migrants from India and China, while the Middle East's demand for labour draws
low-wage workers from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, and the Philippines (IOM, 2020a;
IOM, 2020b). Many Mexican immigrants to the United States lack a high school diploma and
migrate to fill low-wage positions (Budiman, 2019). Due to migrants often serving in informal
jobs, with pay below the respective labour laws, migrant families’ economic position and
integration is often precarious and strained (UNDESA, 2022). Educational and professional
backgrounds vary among migrants globally, even those migrating for employment purposes. For
example, 60% of immigrants to the UK are professionals (Migration Observatory, 2019), and
25% of doctors in the United States are foreign-born (AIC, 2018). Roughly one in ten
professionals from developing countries now reside in Europe, Australia, or the United States.
This phenomenon, termed “brain drain,” occurs when skilled workers move from less developed
to more developed nations (Lowell, Findlay, & Stewart, 2004).

5.3. Migration as an Opportunity

People who migrate have their lives changed by both the society they leave behind and the
society they join, providing positive potential outcomes for their new host country (Bossavie et
al., 2022; Ismali, 2024).There are many advantages to migration, especially when it comes to
improving productivity and human capital in regions where migrants are received (Bossavie et
al., 2022). Immigrants bring a variety of skills and expertise that help local people and
economies grow (Smart et al., 2020). Accepting the idea of “productive migration,” efforts might
be focused on maximizing the socioeconomic potential of migration for the good of everyone
concerned (Smart et al., 2020). Policy changes should be based on an awareness of the distinct
political and economic dynamics of each context in order to optimize these benefits. Considering
a number of factors, including policy frameworks, political contexts, economic conditions,
stakeholder participation, and migrant characteristics, it is necessary for effective interventions to
optimize opportunities and socioeconomic results (Smart et al., 2020). Furthermore, for
successful policy interventions, which are meant to maximize the advantages of migration, it is
important for governments, the corporate sector, and civil society to cultivate trust and
cooperation among key stakeholders. It is also crucial to acknowledge and address the
vulnerabilities and requirements of migrants, including their expertise and access to human,
social, and financial capital in order to ensure inclusive and sustainable outcomes (Smart et al.,
2020). Coordination between the receiving and sending countries of migrants is necessary in
order to develop a more coherent approach for net positive outcomes of migration.

26
5.4. Forced Migration and Conflict
In 2021, there were 31.7 million international refugees and asylum seekers, with 69% originating
from Syria, Venezuela, Afghanistan, South Sudan, and Myanmar. The majority of the remaining
5.9 million internally displaced people (IDPs) fled conflicts, with a minority fleeing disasters
(The Institute of Internal Auditors Madras, Chapter, 2023). The world is presently witnessing a
staggering surge in displacement and migration driven by both ongoing and new conflicts in
Syria, Venezuela, Ukraine, Sudan, Myanmar, and most recently, Palestine (IOM, 2020a; IOM,
2020b; UNHCR, 2024; 2024a; 2024b; see Figure 5 below).

Figure 5: Global refugee data-2024 (Source: UNHCR,2024 c5)

The increase in displacement is a reflection of the direct effects of conflict and encompasses
broader issues including a strain on humanitarian resources and the disruption of international
supply lines. The precarious situation displaced individuals and families face goes beyond
matters of geographical location and physical protection; women, children, the elderly, and
people with disabilities are among the most vulnerable groups that are more likely to face
exploitation and violence and have restricted access to basic services. Around 14 million Syrians
have fled their homes in search of safety as a result of the Syrian refugee crisis, which was
brought on by a violent government crackdown in 2011 (UNHCR, 2024). The situation in Syria
still remains severe, with 90% of the population living in poverty and 70% in need of

5
UNHCR (2024 c). Global Appeal 2024. Available from https://reporting.unhcr.org/global-appeal-2024 [accessed
10 May 2024].

27
humanitarian aid (UNHCR, 2024). Although millions of refugees are hosted by nearby nations
like Turkey, these nations also deal with difficulties made worse by recent catastrophic
earthquakes and economic hardships (UNHCR, 2024). Within Syria, millions continue to be
impacted, facing displacement, poverty, and limited access to basic services (UNHCR, 2024).
The economic challenges that push refugees into poverty and expose them to various protection
risks have made the situation worse for them in host nations. This is especially true for
vulnerable children who endure hardship including child labour and limited access to education
(UNHCR, 2024).

Due to political turmoil, economic instability, and humanitarian crises, over 6.1 million refugees
and migrants have fled Venezuela, with over 80% of them being hosted by 17 Latin American
and Caribbean countries (IOM, 2022). Many risk their lives traveling in dangerous ways by land,
sea, air, or foot—often without proper documentation—and run the risk of being trafficked or
smuggled. Despite challenges, the other nations in the region have generously provided access to
jobs, healthcare, and education.

As Ukraine is in its third year of full-scale war against Russia’s invasion, over 6.4 million
refugees have been recorded globally, with nearly 6 million residing in other European nations
(UNHCR Data Tracker, 2024). 80 percent of Ukrainians express a desire to return to their
country and as such, have remained in nearby nations (UNHCR, 2023). Widespread missile and
rocket attacks have resulted in death, destruction, and an energy crisis, disrupting basic services
like water, electricity, and healthcare (UNHCR, 2024a). Vulnerable groups, including older
people and those with disabilities, face heightened risks, while women and children, comprising
90% of those fleeing, are susceptible to gender-based violence (UNHCR, 2024a). The war in
Ukraine has global repercussions, disrupting supply chains and driving up prices of essential
goods. Notable was arguably the double standard in which refugees from Ukraine were received
in Europe compared to refugees from Syria, Iraq, or Africa (Venturi & Vallianatou, 2022). The
UN Refugee Agency experienced a financial shortfall in the war’s first year, straining support in
multiple vulnerable countries, including the Sudan, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda,
Iraq, and Ethiopia (UNHCR, 2024a). Unresolved conflicts in Africa have forced millions into
international migration and displacement, including conflict in Sudan in 2023 resulting in six
million cross-border displacements, adding to the growing populations of forced migrants from
conflicts in South Sudan, the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, and
Somalia (Williams, 2024).

Myanmar, which has over 130 ethnic groups, faces ethnic tensions and armed conflicts, which
have resulted in tremendous violence and displacement (UNHCR, 2024b). The Rohingya, the
second-largest ethnic group in the Rakhine state, have been subjected to violence and
persecution, with military and political leaders disputing their ancestral ties to the region
(UNHCR, 2024 b; USCRI, 2021). The military takeover in 2021 worsened existing tensions,
resulting in widespread displacement and complicating humanitarian efforts. The Myanmar junta
has similarly subjected the Karenni ethnic minority to tremendous violence and persecution, with
28
over a quarter of Karenni having been displaced due to ongoing conflict between the military and
resistance groups, with many seeking refuge in neighbouring communities or forests (USCRI,
2021). Thousands of others have attempted to cross the Myanmar-Thai border, despite the danger
from the Myanmar military and concerns about Thai authorities pushing refugees back. Before
the coup in 2021, Thailand was already hosting tens of thousands of ethnic minorities from
Myanmar, and that number has continued to climb, with 1.35 million refugees recently fleeing
(UNHCR, 2024b).

The Palestinian Displacement is at the heart of all troubles in the Middle East since 1948,
particularly in relation to refugee urbanisation in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and the West Bank.
Currently, Palestinians are facing forced internal migration as Israel and Hamas wage war in a
State where upwards of six million Palestinians have already been living as refugees (UNRWA,
n.d.). Since 2023, 1.7 million Palestinians have been displaced in Gaza, over 36,000 people have
been killed, and 70,000 housing units have been destroyed (OCHA, 2024). Ground incursions,
intensified hostilities, disease, and malnutrition are straining humanitarian resources and
applying pressure on nations to act as Palestinians are suffering, dying, and being perpetually
displaced (OCHA, 2023).

There is an urgent need for finding solutions, developmental responses, long-term international
collaboration, and all-encompassing plans to address the underlying causes of displacement and
advance long-term solutions for impacted communities as the global struggle with conflict and
forced migration persists.

6. Predictors, Moderators/Mediators and Outcomes of

Migration
A complex interaction of predictors, moderators, mediators, and outcomes that determine the
trajectory of individuals, families, and communities globally is seen in the navigation of the
intricate landscape of migration. Predictors shed light on the nuanced interplay of economic,
educational, family, environmental, and sociopolitical factors that influence migration. While
factors like transnational family structures, economic remittances, and cultural standards mediate
the impact of migration on familial relationships, financial stability, and cultural integration,
moderators like gender dynamics and technological access further influence migration patterns.
Migration has a wide range of repercussions, including changes in social and familial dynamics,
economic effects, risks to health and safety, educational outcomes, and the challenges of cultural
assimilation. We explore the subtle complexity of migration dynamics through this broad lens,
providing insight into its far-reaching implications for individuals, families, and societies
(UNDESA, 2022).

Predictors of Migration

29
The phenomenon of migration is complex and influenced by a wide range of factors. It is a
reflection of the complex relationship that exists between individual goals, social dynamics, and
environmental demands. Key predictors of migration include: 1.) economic opportunities; 2.)
educational opportunities; 3.) familial dimensions; 4.) environmental and climate change; and 5.)
sociopolitical factors.

1. Economic Opportunities: One of the main factors driving migration is the need for
better job opportunities and financial stability, which motivates people and families to
look for better living conditions and work possibilities (UNDESA, 2022).

2. Educational Opportunities: Better educational possibilities are a major driver of

migration, particularly for young people, as better education offers potential for long-term
job advancement, cultural enrichment, and personal advancement, in addition to
improving academic prospects (UNDESA, 2022).

3. Familial Dimensions: Family reunification, marriage, and divorce are significant

migration determinants because they impact people's social networks and geographic
mobility in addition to shaping their personal lives. This illustrates the complex relation
between migration decisions and familial ties (UNDESA, 2022).

4. Environmental and Climate Change: Migration is influenced by environmental

conditions, particularly in regions most susceptible to the impacts of climate change, such
as droughts, floods, and other climate-induced disasters, which compel families and
communities to seek safer and more sustainable living environments (UNDESA, 2022).

5. Sociopolitical Factors: Individuals and families are forced to migrate in order to escape
violence and persecution and to start over in areas with increased peace, opportunities,
and stability because of war, genocide, political upheaval, and corruption in their native
countries (UNDESA, 2022).

Moderators of Migration

Three critical moderators shape migration dynamics: gender, technological access, and legality.

1. Gender: Migration patterns are significantly influenced by gender. Due to divorce or a

lack of employment possibilities in the area, women frequently relocate independently,
taking on the role of primary breadwinners and sending money home via remittances
(UNDESA, 2022).

2. Technological Access: The availability of the internet and digital technology can aid
migration by easing communication with family members and offering access to pertinent
information (UNDESA, 2022).

30
 3. Legality: This dictates the extent to which policy can bring in coherence and create
opportunities or not.

Mediators of Migration

The dynamics of migration are shaped by various mediators, including transnational family
structures, economic remittances, and social remittances and cultural standards, each playing a
distinct role in mitigating the effects of migration on familial relationships, financial stability,
and cultural integration (UNDESA, 2022).

1. Transnational Family Structures: Establishing and maintaining transnational family

structures mitigates migration's effects on family dynamics. These arrangements entail
the transnational redefining of family roles and duties (UNDESA, 2022).

2. Economic Remittances: The financial resources that migrants send home, known as
remittances, provide a crucial safety net for families fleeing the negative financial effects
of migration and support their overall stability and well-being (UNDESA, 2022).

3. Social Remittances and Cultural Standards: The maintenance of cultural identities

within transnational families and the absorption of migrants into new cultures are
mediated by the social remittances that carry cultural norms, values, and beliefs
(UNDESA, 2022).

Outcomes of Migration:

Examining the various implications of migration reveals a complicated environment influenced

by many variables. Migration creates a range of effects that have a significant impact on and
outcomes for individuals, families, and communities. These effects include: 1.) economic
impacts; 2.) social and familial dynamics; 3.) health and safety hazards; 4.) educational
outcomes; and 5.) cultural integration.

1. Economic Impacts: Although migration can lead to increased employment opportunities

and remittances for immigrant families, it can also result in unstable economic situations
due to unstable jobs and low wages (UNDESA, 2022).

2. Social and Familial Dynamics: Migration impacts family structures and frequently
results in new family configurations, such as transnational multigenerational parenting
and modifications to conventional family roles, which can have both favourable and
unfavourable effects on family cohesiveness and support (UNDESA, 2022).

3. Health and Safety Hazards: Migrants often grapple with multiple health and safety
hazards, including inadequate living conditions, exploitation, and the threat of violence.
31
 Particularly vulnerable are children and women, who face heightened susceptibility to
these risks (UNDESA, 2022).

4. Educational Outcomes: Children of migrants may find it challenging to obtain an

education, which may impact their long-term prospects, academic achievement, and
career advancements (UNDESA, 2022).

5. Cultural Integration: Immigrants may encounter challenges in assimilating into their

new communities while also preserving their cultural identity. Despite the potential for
social unrest and discrimination, this dynamic also offers opportunities for cultural
enrichment and cross-cultural interaction (UNDESA, 2022).

Mirroring urbanization, migration also plays an integral part in shaping societies and families
across the world. The regional trends to be discussed include:

1. Migration Trends in Middle East and North Africa

2. Migration Trends in Sub-Saharan Africa with a particular focus on women
3. Migration Trends in North America
4. Migration Trends in Latin America and the Caribbean with a particular focus on women
5. Migration Trends in Europe
6. Migration Trends in Asia and Oceania

6.1. Migration Trends in the Middle East and North Africa

The migration context in the Middle East and North Africa is largely characterized by forced
migration and internal displacement due to multiple crises, complex irregular migration flows
driven by economic and other factors, and the movement of labour migrants within and beyond
the region (IOM, 2024 a). Factors including armed conflicts, deteriorating economic situations,
and climate change are expected to have a continued influence on migration processes. The
majority of migrants are expected to move within their countries of origin, but international
migration is also projected to rise (IOM, 2024 a). Illegal migration, particularly to Europe, is
expected to increase due to factors such as unemployment, violence, and environmental
degradation in the region (Plotnikov, 2024). These migration dynamics have implications for
various aspects of the region's social and economic landscape.

Since the late 2000s, the oil industry has brought 35 million foreign migrants to the region. As of
2023, all member states of the Gulf Cooperation Council had majority foreign populations.
Increased wage for the same labour is the main driver of movement; in Qatar specifically, foreign
migrants make up 99.8% of the private sector labour force (Aarthi & Sahu, 2021).

Pre-migration narratives among refugee Arab families depict significant losses including family
members, resources, and support networks (Aref & Khodr, 2022). Beyond these, families grapple

32
with structural barriers in host countries that lack cultural, economic, and social recognition of
being different. Aref (2021) highlights the paradox of wealth disparity amidst fragile social
systems in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), which were exacerbated by COVID-19.
This fosters a “Transnational Family Network” where migrants support relatives in their home
countries through remittances.

Most countries in the region employ labour migration policies based on the Kafala system
(started in 1950). A method to regulate and monitor all incoming workers, the system pushes all
liability onto the employer. The Kafala system is widely criticized for minimizing migrant
integration through suppression of foreign workers’ rights; these workers are not permitted to
switch employers, are restricted from public places, and are excluded from protective labour
laws, thus exposing them to greater risk of exploitation and death (Cholewinski, 2023; Robinson,
2022). Mirroring the global trends, recent policy directions in the MENA region are veering
towards a push down on immigrant socioeconomic rights, practice of selective deportation,
restrictive pathways to citizenship, and enforcement of ‘nationalization’ policies to boost
presence of locals in the workforce (Aarthi & Sahu, 2021). The pandemic started a discussion of
revaluation of the Kafala system with the region facing pressures to increase migrant protections
(Cholewinski, 2023; Migration Policy Institute, 2024a). In Qatar, recent reforms to the Kafala
system have made significant strides, including approving job change requests for approximately
350,000 workers since September 2020 (Cholewinski, 2023). However, challenges remain, such
as workers' lack of awareness about their rights to change jobs and employers obstructing this
process through threats of retaliation (Cholewinski, 2023). The Kafala sponsorship system,
central to exploitative labour practices, persists alongside issues like exorbitant recruitment fees
and limited freedom of association (Cholewinski, 2023). Access to justice mechanisms, critical
during crises like the COVID-19 pandemic, faces barriers such as language requirements and
procedural delays in court cases (Cholewinski, 2023). The Kafala system has resulted in
substantial demographic shifts in the Gulf region; over the past fifty years, the population has
grown tenfold, and foreigners now exceed locals in all Gulf states except Saudi Arabia
(Robinson, 2022).

Rather than drawing refugees, like many other regions, migration within the Gulf region attracts
economic migrants, including a large number of wealthy foreign migrants, who comprise the
majority of the region’s population (Shayah & Sun, 2019). As of 2019, they accounted for 86%
of Qatar’s population, 89% of UAE’s population, and 70% of Kuwait’s (Shayah & Sun, 2019).
The foreign migrants from wealthy countries work in professional capacities, while Western and
Arab nationals take on middle-class jobs, and south Asian and sub-Saharan African migrants
occupy low wage positions (Gardner, 2009). High-skilled, high-income migrants are granted
special visas for longer stays—dubbed the ‘golden card’ (Aarthi & Sahu, 2021). There have been
notable positive social impacts as a result of low-wage, foreign migrant women who do domestic
work for Gulf families; whereby, the female members of Gulf region families experience greater
social freedom through the influence of the migrant women in their homes (Ivanova, 2020).

33
The Syrian conflict began in 2011 and remains ongoing. The humanitarian crisis has resulted in
more than six million refugees resettling in Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, Egypt, and other
countries as well as resulting in seven million internally displaced people (IDPs), thereby putting
significant strain on Middle Eastern and North African countries and systems (Alodat et al.,
2021). Data from 2014 revealed that 22% of Syrian refugees residing in Jordan and Lebanon
were reported to have disabilities (Rohwerder, 2018). However, alternate figures suggest that this
percentage could be substantially higher, particularly considering that 65% of elderly Syrian
refugees experience either physical or psychological disabilities (HelpAge International, 2014).
Further breakdown of these statistics shows that 13.4% of registered refugees with disabilities
have intellectual disabilities, 44.2% have physical disabilities, 42.5% have sensory disabilities,
and 20% have multiple disabilities (Rohwerder, 2018). Refugees with disabilities are the most
vulnerable migrants, who need humanitarian services including psychosocial support services
(Alodat et al., 2021). Reforming the public mental health system requires a significant overhaul
of policies, especially in addressing the needs of refugees with disabilities and their families,
despite the potential costs involved in providing services. Equally important is the collaboration
between governments and NGOs to deliver psychosocial support services, which can play a vital
role in fostering the social and economic development of both refugees and local communities
(Alodat et al., 2021). Intersectoral collaboration and the implementation of Healthy Public
Policy, following the WHO Health in All Policies framework, are essential for tackling social
and health inequities and thereby reducing mental health challenges among Arabic-speaking
immigrants and refugees (Elshahat & Moffat, 2022).

6.2. Migration Trends in Sub-Saharan Africa with a particular focus on

women
In Sub-Saharan Africa, many push factors are impacting migration, with an estimated 35% of
people living in poverty, placing a great deal of pressure on household members who earn a
living to find work in order to meet their basic necessities (Williams, 2024). Most migration that
is not motivated by conflict follows seasonal economic opportunities (Williams, 2024). Africa
has a significant internal migration rate, mostly from rural to urban areas. Urban migration often
precedes international migration as migrants seek better income, opportunities, and safety
(Williams, 2024). Through remittances, economic stabilization, improved food security, and
support for education, migration helps both origin and destination nations by bridging labour
shortages and boosting education. Remittances to Sub-Saharan Africa are expected to grow by
3.7% in 2024, following a steady increase (Williams, 2024). Additional drivers of migration in
African nations include rising joblessness, insufficient healthcare, climate change, conflict,
genocide, and corruption (UNDESA, 2022; see Figure 6 below).

34
 Figure 6: African Migration Drivers (Source: World Bank, 20236)

Sub-Saharan Africa is home to over 18 million refugees, which accounts for more than 26
percent of the global refugee population (UN, 2016). This increase is largely driven by ongoing
crises in countries including the Sudan (now one of the largest displacements in Africa and the
world), Central African Republic, Nigeria, South Sudan, and Burundi (UN, 2016). The African
nations with the greatest refugee populations include Ethiopia with 659,000 refugees, Kenya
with 551,000, Chad with 453,000, Uganda with 386,000, Cameroon with 264,000, and South
Sudan with 248,000, where Africans from neighbouring nations seek refuge (UN, 2016). A large
population of Sub-Saharan African refugees relocate to the United States. The Sub-Saharan
African immigrant population in the United States has grown sixteen-fold since the 1980s,
totalling 2.1 million in 2019, or 5% of the foreign-born population (Lorenzi & Batalova, 2022).
This diverse group of immigrants, from 51 countries, is well-educated, highly active in the
workforce, and often speak English at home. However, they face lower incomes and higher
poverty rates compared to the overall immigrant population in the United States (Lorenzi &
Batalova, 2022).

6
World Bank (2023). World Bank Development Report 2023: Migrants, Refugees, and Societies, Washington, D.C.

35
In an effort to escape conflict, poverty, and climate issues, African immigrants often utilize a
variety of migration routes, including travel via the Mediterranean, the Atlantic to Canary
Islands, the Sahara Desert, the Horn towards Gulf States, and the Southern Route. These
migration transit routes through and out of Africa are dangerous, evidenced by the almost 40,000
documented deaths and disappearances since 2014– a number that is undoubtedly incomplete
(Williams, 2024). The number of migrant deaths per year is expected to continue increasing and
was estimated to be around 4,300 in 2023.

Africa faces significant challenges due to high levels of forced displacement and internally
displaced persons (IDPs) caused by corrupt governments, political conflicts, civil wars, and
extremist groups. In 2021, Africa witnessed a peak in forced displacement, with an estimated 32
million Africans being either internally displaced, refugees, or asylum seekers (UNDESA, 2022).
Globally, in 2019, there were 41.3 million internally displaced people, with 41% of them located
in various African countries due to violence and conflict. Additionally, environmental disasters
like droughts, floods, and cyclones displaced another 2.6 million individuals. It is important to
note that IDPs arguably receive international protection but because they have not crossed
international borders during crises, protection is provided under a very different legal system
(UNDESA, 2022).

The revision of the Migration Policy Framework for Africa (MPFA) in 2017 and 2018 offered
member states the opportunity to prioritize the implementation of strong policy and institutional
frameworks to manage migration processes and to recognize migration as a key development
strategy that could potentially enhance economic factors for communities. With strong policies,
migration governance on the continent can be transformed. The lack of reliable official data
impedes African migration research. However, more recent available migration databases have
significantly expanded the scope to conduct analyses on migration from and within African
countries. Still missing is the macro-data that would allow the overall tracking of migration
patterns from, to, and within Africa over the past centuries, as Africa has always been a
migrating continent. Although migration research and policies have gained importance in
African states, their implementations have historically fallen short (UNDESA, 2022).

Women play a crucial role in migration. They migrate independently for various reasons such as
family, marriage, divorce, and work opportunities. African women are particularly vulnerable
due to a lack of protections codified in policy and often resort to migration in order to seek
safety. Migration can enhance women's autonomy and livelihoods, but it also exposes them to
increased vulnerabilities, including social exclusion, health risks, and xenophobia. Women who
are left behind because of migration may experience adverse effects on their well-being,
especially in cases of reverse remittances and marital instability. In some African host countries,
African women face intersecting forms of discrimination based on xenophobia, racism, and
patriarchy, increasing their risks and vulnerabilities (UNDESA, 2022). Women from Zimbabwe
who migrate to South Africa are able to use migration as a coping and adaptation strategy in

36
order to survive (Ncube & Bahta, 2022). Because the South African government has made
gender relations and equality central in their policies, migrant women from other African
countries have been able to benefit and capitalize on these policies in order to survive. It has not
been without issue, though, because migrants are excluded from social welfare benefits and face
a xenophobic environment in South Africa (Ncube & Bahta, 2022). African women in the
agricultural sector are particularly susceptible to climate change and environmental disasters and
often choose migration in order to cope with these issues. Additionally, less highlighted
migration drivers for women include demographic changes, urbanization, land grabbing,
religious freedom, and LGBTQI tolerance (UNDESA, 2022). Addressing these multifaceted
challenges is essential to creating more inclusive and supportive migration policies and practices
for women in Africa.

6.3. Migration Trends in North America

Canada and the United States share similarities in high income and education levels but differ in
family migration due to unique political, economic, socio-cultural, and historical circumstances
(UNDESA, 2022). In Canada, migration is categorized as either interprovincial (within Canada)
or transnational (immigration). Immigration policies implemented under the Canadian
Immigration and Refugee Protection Act prioritize groups such as refugees and economic
migrants, influencing family migration patterns (Milaney et al., 2020). For example,
multigenerational families may face challenges migrating together due to sponsorship
requirements, affecting care dynamics across generations. These policies can both fragment and
unite families, highlighting inequalities among diverse family groups and impacting overall
family wellbeing. Priority may be given to certain family types or those filling employment
needs. In 2020, economic immigrants constituted 57.6% of admissions, followed by
family-sponsored immigrants at 26.7%, refugees at 13.9%, and others at 1.8% (UNDESA, 2022).

The United States has its own migration dynamics shaped by historical and socio-political
factors. While family reunification is a key aspect of U.S. immigration policy, it also
encompasses economic needs and humanitarian considerations. The U.S. immigration system is
complex, with various visa categories catering to different types of migrants, including
family-based immigrants, skilled workers, refugees, and diversity visa lottery winners. Despite
similarities in income and education levels, these differing migration policies result in distinct
family migration experiences and urbanization patterns between Canada and the United States
(UNDESA, 2022).

Over the past 30 years as the United States and Canada have experienced economic and political
stability, there has been an increase in migratory patterns in North America, which has been
primarily caused by immigration from Latin America, the Caribbean, and Asia (IOM, 2024 b).
The number of migrants has doubled in both the United States and Canada, with the United
States currently receiving the greatest number of refugees and asylum seekers, more than

37
363,000 in 2022 (IOM, 2024 b). Both of these countries face a labour shortage, but they have put
plans in place to draw in migrant labour to cover essential sectors. Leaders from 21 nations in
North America, Latin America, and the Caribbean signed the Los Angeles Declaration on
Migration and Protection in 2022, demonstrating their commitment to working together on
migration management (IOM, 2024b).

In the United States, restrictive immigration policies and stricter policy enforcement, combined
with a rise in anti-immigrant rhetoric, has resulted in children from immigrant families
experiencing psychological harm (Barajas-Gonzalez et al., 2021; Lieberman et al. 2023; Rabin et
al., 2022; Smith et al. 2020). Events resulting from U.S. immigration policies experienced by
Latino families, including family separations, deportations, and Deferred Action for Childhood
Arrivals (DACA) uncertainty have increased depression, anxiety, and behavioural issues (Rabin
et al., 2022). Policies aimed at limiting the influx of immigrants into the United States, such as
metering, in which limits are placed on the number of individuals who may claim asylum at
various points of entry, exacerbates danger and subsequent stress for families before they even
cross the border, leading to an increased likelihood of unauthorized crossing for desperate
families (Amuedo-Dorantes & Bucheli, 2023). For those who do make it into the country, fear of
deportation raises stress levels and exposes families to potential family separation, emotional
distress, and economic instability (Mohammed et al., 2019). Those harassed or impacted
negatively by Trump administration policies reported higher psychological distress (Rabin et al.,
2022). Youth who were detained in shelters at the border had notably higher PTSD rates (Rabin
et al., 2022). The U.S. political climate harmed Latino mental health.

Barajas-Gonzalez and colleagues (2021) suggest broadening the Adverse Childhood Experiences
(ACEs) framework to encompass the threat and deprivation stemming from racialized
immigration policies and enforcement, indicating that a broadened ACES framework will yield
several benefits. First, it will enable practitioners to better gauge health disparities and address
health issues arising from these policies and practices with greater precision. Second, it will
inspire researchers to delve into the unique impacts of ACEs related to the immigrant experience
on children's development. Lastly, it will empower practitioners to advocate for more nurturing
immigration policies that foster the well-being and development of children within immigrant
families. Acknowledging and addressing these additional dimensions of adversity, will likely
result in better understanding and responses to the challenges faced by immigrant children and
families in the context of immigration policies and enforcement (Barajas-Gonzalez et al., 2021).

Similarly, the mental health of immigrants and refugees is of rising concern in Canada.
Arabic-speaking immigrants and refugees in Canada face elevated risks of mental health
problems due to stress related to intercultural adjustment, racism, and discrimination (Elshahat &
Moffat, 2022). Lack of English literacy also significantly contributed to distress and depression
(Elshahat & Moffat, 2022). Following migration to Canada, or their respective country of
relocation, sociocultural factors such as positive ethnic identity, spirituality, family support, and

38
social cohesion served as protective factors for mental health (Elshahat & Moffat, 2022).
Resilience, demonstrated through hope, notably shielded Arabic-speaking immigrants and
refugees from depression and distress (Elshahat & Moffat, 2022). Mental health stressors include
social disparities including domestic violence, discrimination, stigmatization, and poverty.

6.4. Migration Trends in Latin America and the Caribbean with a

particular focus on women
The dynamics of migration in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) have changed
significantly in recent years due to push factors including violence as well as economic
opportunities and employment opportunities (UNDP, 2023). In contrast to a slowing in migration
to North America and a rebound in migration to Europe, there has been a noticeable increase in
intraregional mobility from LAC, even as global migration increased. Increased migration from
Venezuela, tighter U.S. immigration laws, and economic growth in LAC nations have all had an
impact on these trends (UNDP, 2023). Since 2023, there has been an increase in migration, with
a significant influx in the migration of people from Venezuela, Haiti, Cuba, and Ecuador (IOM,
2023). More than 5.6 million Venezuelans have left their country, and as a result, migration
patterns and policy throughout South America have significantly changed. Beyond the current
humanitarian crisis and migration, the region has seen an increase in migration in recent years,
mostly due to labour shortages (Migration Policy Institute, n.d.). The economic crises in Latin
America and the pandemic’s consequences, policy changes, food insecurity, political unrest and
violence in some of the countries of origin, and vulnerabilities to natural disasters and
environmental degradation are some of the factors contributing to the increase in migration
(IOM, 2023).

A study on the migratory motivations and victimization experiences of migrants from Honduras,
El Salvador, and Guatemala found that the experiences and mental health consequences of
migrants were not greatly impacted by the source of violence, whether it was by gangs or
government officials. Violence was a common experience among migrants, as was a fear of
returning home as a result of that violence (Rosenfeld et al., 2024).

In recent Central American migrations driven by violence, political instability, and economic
insecurity, women were forced to make a decision between whether to bring their children with
them for safety or with navigating their roles as mothers from a distance. Cook Heffron et al.’s
(2022) qualitative study of nineteen Central American women migrating to the United States
explores transnational motherhood, revealing five key processes shaped by migration and
violence: risking everything, embodying separation, braving reunification, mothering others, and
experiencing motherhood due to sexual violence. The findings shed light on how violence
influences women’s decisions and experiences in migration, particularly regarding family
separation. Recognizing the voices and experiences of migrating mothers is crucial for informing
research, policy, and advocacy to address oppressive and dehumanizing immigration policies.

39
6.5. Migration Trends in Europe
Since 1990, there has been a noticeable increase in migration patterns in Europe, with over 82
million foreign residents living there as of 2019 (IOM, 2020a). This migration wave includes
around 40 million people who are migrating from outside of Europe as well as approximately 42
million migrants who were born within the continent (World Migration Report, 2020). The
European Union’s economic, social, and political differences affect how people migrate and are
received, which varies the net migration rate in the region (World Migration Report, 2020). The
greatest volume of immigration occurs in countries like Germany, Spain, and Italy, while
emigration occurs in other countries like Romania, Croatia, and Latvia, due to skilled workers
relocating within Europe (World Migration Report, 2020). The primary reasons for which
residence permits were granted in 2019 were employment, family reunification, and international
protection (World Migration Report, 2020). Notably, there is a relatively equal distribution of
male and female migrants throughout Europe, with Ukraine exhibiting a greater percentage of
female immigrants and emigrants (IOM, 2024 c). This is not surprising because males cannot
leave the country as they are expected to join the military. Significant internal displacement also
occurs throughout Europe, with Ukraine seeing a record number of displacements as a result of
the current conflict with Russia (IOM, 2024 c). Despite the challenges, migration is necessary to
keep Europe's population growing in order to prevent population decline, which would occur
were it not for migration, and to meet labour shortage needs (UNRIC, 2023).

The UK government’s response to the situation of those displaced by the Syrian civil conflict is
the Vulnerable Persons Resettlement Scheme (VPRS) (Haycox, 2023). The program's recipients
received a year-long integration support program in their local communities, as well as instant
access to public monies (Haycox, 2023). Eligible families received full support services in
several institutions for resettlement considerations, including healthcare, employment aid,
welfare support, and access to English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) programs
(Haycox, 2023).

However, other policies create additional barriers for families trying to settle in the UK, creating
a hostile environment for immigrants. Examples include increase in visa and application fees,
minimum income requirements for bringing a spouse from overseas, lack of recourse to public
funds, and overall exclusion from public services. An important trend is the UK’s attempt to
introduce a deference for illegal immigrants by agreeing with Rwanda to act as a transitional
base, whereby migrants are flown to Rwanda while their cases are being examined (International
Rescue Committee, 2024). These policies disproportionately impact immigrants from low- and
middle-income countries, and those from racially minoritized backgrounds (Benchekroun, 2023).

Migrants face unique safety risks in their destination countries. These dangers are particularly
risky for women and children. If a woman is in a country through a spousal visa, leaving a
dangerous home environment brings about intense logistical barriers. A number of OECD

40
countries have specific policy measures to address domestic violence against migrant women.
The European Union offers a specific migration status for individuals in this precarious scenario,
while in the United States victims can petition for independent permanent status. However, in
many regions, these protections only apply to legal spouses or in cases with criminal charges
(Dumont & Chaloff, 2024).

The Common Basic Principles for Immigrant Integration Policy in the EU speaks to the dynamic
and two-way nature of integration of immigrants into receiving member states. The practice of
placing responsibility on both immigrants and residents recognizes the importance of a reciprocal
duty to respect diversity and equal access to education, employment, and participation in
democracy for all (Bottero, 2022).

Most recently, the EU adopted the Pact on Migration and Asylum, which is a comprehensive
framework to manage migration and asylum with a focus on European values (European
Commission, 2024). It integrates key policies on migration, asylum, border management, and
integration, aiming to balance firm rules with fairness (European Commission, 2024). The Pact
enhances border security, ensures rights protection, and supports EU countries facing migration
pressures (European Commission, 2024). Key features include robust screening at borders, a
strengthened Eurodac database, streamlined asylum procedures, efficient returns for ineligible
applicants, and crisis protocols for emergency situations (European Commission, 2024). The
Pact is being lauded for its establishment of a unified European system that introduces this new
framework for managing migration during regular periods, while also addressing crisis scenarios
and preventing misuse (European Commission, 2024).

6.6. Migration Trends in Asia and the Pacific

The Asian and Pacific region, comprising over 4.6 billion people, represents about 60% of the
global population (UNESCAP, 2020). It encompasses countries with diverse demographics,
including some with rapidly aging populations, high vulnerability to climate change and natural
disasters, and significant wealth inequality (UNESCAP, 2020). Moreover, the region hosts both
emerging economic and political powers and countries classified among the least developed
(UNESCAP, 2020). Asia accounted for more than 40% of the approximately 115 million
international migrants worldwide in 2020 (IOM, n.d.; e.g. Figure 7). 69 million of these migrants
lived in Asia, which is a substantial rise from the estimate of 61 million in 2015 (IOM, n.d).
Migration to Europe from Asia increased to 23 million in 2020 from almost 20 million in 2015,
whereas migration from Asia to North America reached 17.5 million in 2020, up slightly from
17.3 million in 2015 (IOM, n.d). The number of Asian migrants living outside the region
increased dramatically as a result of this migration pattern, reaching over 46 million (IOM, n.d.).

As of 2020, there were over 8 million international migrants from outside of Oceania living in
Oceania, with more than 156,000 refugees and asylum seekers (IOM, 2024 d). Nearly 91,000

41
asylum seekers and over 54,000 refugees reside in Australia, and the majority of refugees in
Australia are from Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and the Islamic Republic of Iran (IOM, 2024 d).
The second-highest concentration of refugees and asylum seekers in Oceania is found in Papua
New Guinea (IOM, 2024 d). Following a comprehensive evaluation of Australia’s immigration
system, a government advisory council declared the present system to be insufficient and
suggested major improvements in early 2023 (IOM, 2024 d). The most significant revision to
Australia’s immigration laws in many years was brought about by the review and implemented
soon thereafter (IOM, 2024 d). Some of the criticisms centred on the inadequacies in drawing in
highly trained migrants and streamlining employers’ access to labour (IOM, 2024 d). There have
been concerns expressed over the frequency of permanently temporary migration, which resulted
in the exploitation of migrants and eroded trust in the program (IOM, 2024 d).

The COVID-19 pandemic had a lasting impact on migration in Asia and the Pacific as the region
with the fastest and most complete halt of mobility. All cross-border mobility was shut down,
taking until 2022 for the first signs of recovery of labour migration across all skill levels.
Lower-skilled labourers saw the largest impact. In Thailand, migrant workers decreased by 14%
in just the first three months of 2020. Student migration and tourism plummeted in 2020 and
have only begun to rebound in the last year (Migration Policy Institute, 2024b).

The majority of migrants in the region work temporarily in basic-skilled occupations, where they
have typically moved from lower to higher-income countries in pursuit of employment
(UNESCAP, 2020). While some regions provide regular labour migration channels for
individuals of different skill levels, those for workers in vital occupations are sometimes costly
and complex (UNESCAP, 2020). Particularly when it comes to domestic labour, female migrants
are more vulnerable to abuse, exploitation, assault, and prejudice (UNESCAP, 2020).
Malpractices in the recruitment process, such as exorbitant fees, undermine the benefits of
migration for both migrant workers and their families (UNESCAP, 2020).

42
 Figure 7: Percentage distribution of migrants departing from selected Asia-Pacific countries by skill level (latest
available year; Source: UNESCAP, 20207)

In the Asia-Pacific area, human trafficking plays a large role in migration and poses serious
criminal and human rights challenges that are entwined with problems like violence against
women and a lack of adequate work (UNESCAP, 2020). 56 percent of global human trafficking
occurs in this region (USAID, n.d). Sexual exploitation is the most prevalent form of human
trafficking (79%), primarily affecting women and girls (UNODC, 2009). Forced labour ranks
second (18%), though it is often underreported compared to sexual exploitation (UNODC, 2009).
Children account for nearly 20% of trafficking victims globally, but in some regions, like the
Mekong region, located on the border of East Asia and Southeast Asia, children are the majority
of victims (UNODC, 2009). Nearly half of all child trafficking is initiated by a family member
who uses psychological, sexual, and/or physical abuse to control the victim (IOM, 2017).
Traffickers use migration in order to exploit the vulnerability and precarity of weakened
protections and immigration status in foreign countries (IOM, 2017). Effectively combating

7
UNESCAP (2020). Asia-Pacific Migration Report: Assessing Implementation of the Global Compact for
Migration (ST/ESCAP/2801). Available from
https://www.unescap.org/sites/default/files/APMR2020_FullReport.pdf [accessed 8 June 2024].

43
trafficking requires a comprehensive approach focusing on human rights, safe migration, and
decent work, even though some jurisdictions have passed legislation to protect victims of
trafficking and ratified pertinent conventions. Strong border control is essential, backed by
multi-agency coordination and international partnership, given the complex cross-border flows in
the region (UNESCAP, 2020). Nonetheless, there is an urgent need to increase capacity-building,
particularly in law enforcement initiatives that are child-sensitive, disability-inclusive, and
gender-responsive.

Migrants often face exclusion from social protection systems in both their home and host
countries. Benefits are frequently not transportable between nations, even if they are able to
access such systems. There is little social security transferability between origin and destination
nations in the Asia-Pacific area (UNESCAP, 2020). Although there are various creative
subregional ways, both inside and outside the area have signed bilateral social security
agreements. Furthermore, several nations of origin unilaterally grant their nationals residing
overseas restricted access to social security benefits (UNESCAP, 2020). However, overall, social
protection for migrants is generally uneven and lacks a consistent, rights-based approach.

7. The Intersection of Urbanization, Migration, and

Family
Urban areas draw immigrant and refugee families, attracting a disproportionate share of these
populations due to factors such as job opportunities, access to services, and social networks
(Dennler, 2022). Urbanization and migration have a dynamic relationship that is shaped by a
variety of push and pull factors. Urban growth has historically been fuelled by migration to cities
in search of work, healthcare, and education. Urban areas benefit from the skills, labour, and
cultural diversity that migrants bring, which in turn shapes the social and economic landscape of
these locations. Global migration dynamics and urbanization patterns are further influenced by
structural factors including globalization, economic inequality, and environmental change
(UNDESA, 2022). The intertwining of rapid urbanization and migration is significantly
reshaping family structures worldwide. As individuals migrate from rural areas to urban centres
in search of opportunities, cities are experiencing exponential growth. These trends have a
profound impact on family life, relationships, and practices, bringing about the following (IFFD,
2023):

1. Changes in Family Structures: Migration to urban areas or other countries often leads
to smaller households and fewer multigenerational families. This shift results in
individuals relying more on nuclear families or chosen families for support, leaving
behind extended family members.

44
 2. Economic Opportunities and Challenges: Urban areas offer new economic prospects
for families, including higher-paying jobs and improved access to education and
healthcare. However, the urban areas also present economic challenges such as higher
living costs, job scarcity, overcrowding, slums, and strain on infrastructure.

3. Disruption of Social Support Networks: Families may face the disruption of existing
social support systems as they are separated from extended family members and friends.
They may establish new networks in their new location through work or community
organizations, but this transition can be challenging.

4. Adaptation to New Cultural Norms: Adjusting to new cultural norms and practices,
such as learning a new language, adapting to different food and customs, and navigating
unfamiliar social hierarchies, can pose significant challenges for migrating families.

5. Impact on Vulnerable Groups: Vulnerable populations, including children, older

individuals, and persons with disabilities, face unique challenges during migration.
Forced displacement due to conflict can result in trauma, disrupted education, limited
mobility, and other obstacles that impact well-being and development.

6. Effects on Young People: Young individuals are particularly affected in terms of

employment opportunities, housing availability, and family formation. Recognizing the
importance of integration as an investment is crucial, especially in supporting the
well-being and future prospects of young migrants and their families.

Women and children who migrate to urban areas face unique safety risks in their destination
countries. If a woman is in a country through a spousal visa, leaving a dangerous home
environment brings about intense logistical barriers. A number of OECD countries have specific
policy measures to address domestic violence against migrant women. The European Union
offers a specific migration status for individuals in similar precarious situations, while in the
United States victims can petition for independent permanent status. However, in many regions,
these protections only apply to legal spouses or in cases with criminal charges (Dumont &
Chaloff, 2024). Migrants are inherently more vulnerable when residing in countries where they
are unfamiliar with laws and in which they are often afforded fewer legal protections.
Compounding their vulnerabilities are issues of shifting family structure, economic hardship, and
shortage of and access to safe and affordable housing in the urban centres in which they often
reside. Considerate and inclusive policy, which specifically seeks to protect migrant women and
children, has the potential to provide the most vulnerable families with a sense of community and
measures in place to promote peace and safety, which benefits everyone.

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8. Policy and Programs Addressing Families and
Urbanization - Best Practice
This section explores examples of the successful implementation of urbanization policies in
shaping the well-being of families across the globe. As urban areas expand rapidly, these policies
play a critical role in ensuring access to adequate housing, employment opportunities, and social
services for residents. By addressing the challenges of urbanization, such as housing shortages
and infrastructure development, these policies aim to create inclusive, resilient, and sustainable
urban environments where families can thrive.

Middle East and North Africa

Most urban areas in the MENA region have experienced unprecedented growth over the past few
decades to absorb population increase and migration from rural and politically unstable regions
(Jaad & Abdelghany, 2021). Such expedited urbanization leads to stresses to the urban areas’
ecological and financial resources, as well as to the overall well-being of their residents (Jaad &
Abdelghany, 2021). Policymakers developed policies including adequate housing, employment
opportunities, and social services to integrate migrants into urban economics (Awumbila, 2014).
However, these policies have also resulted in some challenges; the rapid development often
overlooks the ecological impact, leading to potential environmental degradation, pollution, and
loss of green spaces. Additionally, the financial burden on local governments can be substantial,
creating budget deficits and reduced public spending on other critical areas (Awumbila, 2014).

Cairo in Egypt is considered the most significant urban centre in Africa due to its long history
and large population (Jaad & Abdelghany, 2021). One of the government’s policies to
accommodate the population has been the development of new cities and satellite towns (Jaad &
Abdelghany, 2021; Mikhaeil et al., 2024). These new cities aim to reduce congestion in Cairo by
relocating government offices and providing infrastructure and housing (Mikhaeil et al., 2024).
Furthermore, several satellite cities have been developed around major urban centres like Cairo
and Alexandria (Mikhaeil et al., 2024). The focus was improving housing conditions,
infrastructure, and access to essential services such as water, sanitation, and electricity (Mikhaeil
et al., 2024). Nevertheless, these developments have led to the displacement of some local
communities, disruption of social networks, and the creation of a socio-economic divide between
new and old urban areas. The relocation of government offices and essential service to new cities
can also result in reduced accessibility for residents who remain (Mikhael et al., 2024). Housing
policies have also been an area of focus for the Egyptian government. To address the housing
shortage, the government constructed new residential units and provided financial assistance to
low-income families (Mikhaeil et al., 2024). Establishing industrial zones in and around cities
and satellite towns has been part of the approach to create job opportunities and attract
investments (Mikhaeil et al., 2024). However, the rapid construction of residential units has

46
sometimes led to poor building quality and inadequate urban planning, resulting in potentially
unsafe living conditions (Mikhaeil et al., 2024).

Egypt has also developed a Family Development Program to enhance the quality of life for
families through various initiatives such as family counselling, health services, and educational
support (Ministry of Social Solidarity, Egypt, 2021). Despite these positive intentions, such
programs can be underfunded and poorly implemented, leading to unequal access to benefits and
limited impact on the most vulnerable populations.

To address housing issues caused by rapid urbanization, Saudi Arabia has developed a National
Housing Strategy to increase homeownership rates among citizens by providing affordable
housing options and financial support. This strategy includes subsidized loans and housing
allowances to ensure that urbanization benefits are accessible to all families, thereby reducing the
development of informal settlements (Ministry of Housing, Saudi Arabia, 2020). These strategies
face the challenges of bureaucratic delays, rising land prices, and often the exclusion of
non-citizen residents from these benefits, limiting overall effectiveness.

Simultaneously, the UAE has implemented various family policies aimed at enhancing family
stability and promoting social welfare. These policies include generous maternity leave, child
benefits, and support for working parents (UAE Government, 2021). However, these benefits are
often primarily available to Emirati citizens, leaving expatriate families with less support and
leading to further disparities in social welfare (UAE Government, 2021). Jordan’s Social Welfare
and Family Protection Program and Iran’s Family Support and Social Protection Policy include
support to families such as cash assistance, health services, and educational subsidies (Ministry
of Social Development, Jordan, 2020; Ministry of Cooperatives, Labor, and Social Welfare, Iran,
2020). Similarly, Lebanon’s Family and Child Welfare Program includes various initiatives to
support vulnerable families, such as financial aid, healthcare, and educational support (Ministry
of Social Affairs, Lebanon, 2021). However, political instability and economic crises in these
countries often undermine the effectiveness of these programs, leading to inconsistent delivery of
services and limited impact on improving family welfare (e.g., Jordan attempted to keep some of
the Syrian refugees in Zataari Camp, while allowing others to integrate and thus affecting the
housing market (e.g., Alshoubaki & Zazzara, 2020). There was an attempt to build affordable
housing under the slogan “dignified living,” paid for by Saudi Arabia and named after late King
Abdullah, but this too ended up being occupied by middle-class residents (Nassar, 2020).

Africa

South Africa has led the region in their focus on addressing the challenges of urbanization. Their
Urban Development Policy addresses housing shortages, infrastructure development, and service
delivery. The policy aims to create inclusive, resilient, and sustainable urban environments

47
(Department of Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs, South Africa, 2018). However,
the implementation of this policy has faced significant challenges, including bureaucratic
inefficiencies, political corruption, and inadequate funding. These challenges have hindered
progress and led to uneven development across urban areas in the country (Department of
Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs, South Africa, 2018).

Kenya’s government has also used a broad approach to urbanization challenges, focusing on
housing deficits and improved living conditions. The Affordable Housing Program aims to
provide decent and affordable housing to urban residents (Ministry of Transport, Infrastructure,
Housing, Urban Development and Public Works, Kenya, 2020). Despite these efforts, the
program has faced obstacles such as land scarcity, high construction costs, and challenges in
providing adequate infrastructure to support new developments (Ministry of Transport,
Infrastructure, Housing, Urban Development and Public Works, Kenya, 2020). As urbanization
accelerates, ensuring families have access to affordable and adequate housing is crucial for
preventing the proliferation of informal settlements and enhancing overall urban liveability in the
region.

Nigeria’s family policy includes measures to support family stability and well-being, such as
maternal and child health programs, family planning services, and initiatives to reduce domestic
violence and promote gender equity (Federal Ministry of Women Affairs and Social
Development, Nigeria, 2019). As urban areas in Nigeria grow, these policies help address the
unique challenges urban families face, such as limited access to healthcare and increased
exposure to social issues. Nevertheless, the effectiveness of these policies is often compromised
by inadequate funding, insufficient healthcare infrastructure, and cultural barriers that can limit
the uptake of family planning and gender equity initiatives. Additionally, urbanization can
intensify social issues such as unemployment, housing shortages, and crime, placing further
strain on families and the policies designed to support them (Federal Ministry of Women Affairs
and Social Development, Nigeria, 2019).

North America

Canada has taken a holistic approach to urban planning. Their National Urban Policy aims to
support sustainable urban development by focusing on infrastructure, affordable housing, and
enhancing the quality of life in urban areas through better planning and investment. This policy
is particularly relevant as Canadian cities are expanding rapidly, necessitating comprehensive
strategies to ensure families have access to essential services, safe living conditions, and
economic opportunities (Infrastructure Canada, 2020). However, the rapid urban growth has also
led to challenges such as rising housing costs, which can make affordable housing targets
difficult to achieve. Additionally, the focus on urban expansion can sometimes overlook the
needs of marginalized communities, leading to increased social inequality and gentrification
(Infrastructure Canada, 2020).

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Throughout the report, it is evident that housing undergoes significant transformations in regions
experiencing heightened urbanization. In the United States, the Housing First Initiative program
aims to end chronic homelessness by providing permanent housing as a first step. This policy is
based on the principle that people need necessities like food and a place to live before attending
to other needs, including employment and substance use issues (USICH, 2018). Dense urban
areas experience a higher rate of homelessness due to the influx of people seeking economic
opportunities; by providing stable housing, the initiative helps integrate vulnerable populations
into urban settings more effectively. Nevertheless, the program faces challenges such as
insufficient funding, lack of affordable housing stock, and resistance from some communities to
housing developments from homeless populations (USICH, 2018).

Families in urban areas also face unique health and stress conditions. The Family and Medical
Leave Act in the United States provides employees with up to 12 weeks of unpaid leave per year
for family and medical reasons (U.S. Department of Labor, 2020). While its scope and impact
may be limited, the Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) aims to facilitate work-life balance
and assist families in caring for newborns or ill relatives without fearing job loss—a crucial
blend of support for urban families. With urban areas seeing a rise in dual-income households
and higher work pressures, such policies are critical for maintaining family stability and ensuring
that urban workers can manage personal responsibilities alongside professional obligations
(Garcia, 2019). However, the unpaid nature of the leave can place a financial burden on families,
particularly those with lower incomes, who may struggle to afford time off of work.
Furthermore, not all employees qualify for this benefit, leaving many without any legal
protection for family-related absences (U.S. Department of Labor, 2020).

Mexico’s urban transportation policy focuses on developing sustainable urban transport systems
to address congestion and the inequities of lack of transportation access. The government has
expanded public transportation networks, promoted non-motorized transport, and reduced city
traffic congestion and pollution (Secretaria de Communicaciones y Transportes, Mexico, 2020).
Their policies are particularly relevant for urban families who rely on public transportation for
daily commutes, enhancing access to education, healthcare, and employment. However, these
initiatives often face challenges such as inadequate funding, delays in project implementation,
and maintenance issues, which can undermine their effectiveness.

Latin America

This region has also emphasized family support programs for those in urban areas. In Brazil, the
Bolsa Familia Program provides financial aid to poor families. In return, these families must
ensure their children attend school and receive vaccinations (Ministry of Social Development
and Fight Against Hunger, Brazil, 2019). This program aims to reduce poverty and improve
health and education outcomes. Bolsa Familia provides urban families with financial stability
and encourages educational attainment, which is crucial for breaking the cycle of poverty in

49
rapidly growing cities. However, the program has faced criticism for issues such as insufficient
funding, bureaucratic hurdles, and challenges in reaching the most vulnerable populations.

Chile took a more robust approach to supporting families in this context with their Family
Welfare Policy. This initiative includes a range of programs to help families, such as childcare
subsidies, parental leave, and family counselling services (Ministry of Social Development and
Family, Chile, 2021). As urbanization in Chile leads to higher living costs and increased stress on
family structures, these programs are vital in ensuring that urban families can thrive and maintain
a balanced life. These initiatives also face challenges such as unequal access to benefits,
particularly for low-income families and those living in informal settlements, making it difficult
for families to achieve true economic stability (Ministry of Social Development and Family,
Chile, 2021).

Europe

Almost all of Europe except those in Eastern Europe have at least one form of housing allowance
(Whitehead, 2019). One particular European region implementing helpful urbanization policy is
the UK. The United Kingdom’s urbanization and housing policies have improved significantly,
primarily through housing allowances, rent controls, job creation, and income-related benefits
allocated to support low-income households (UK Ministry of Housing, Communities, & Local
Government, 2019; Whitehead, 2019). One of those policies is the Housing Benefit System,
which was developed to assist low-income families by paying for their housing (Whitehead,
2019). Initially, it ensured that all tenants could meet a minimum income requirement, which
included paying the total rent and any permitted service fees for those whose incomes were
equivalent to the bare necessities allowance (Whitehead, 2019). Over time, this system improved
to include rent rebates and allowances focused on individual household circumstances
(Whitehead, 2019). However, rising rents and housing shortages in urban areas have strained the
system, making it challenging to provide adequate support for all eligible families (Whitehead,
2019).

Furthermore, the UK has implemented other policies, including rent controls in both public and
private sectors, to ensure affordable housing (Whitehead, 2019). The UK’s policy on housing
allowances, particularly the move from supply-side subsidies to demand-side benefits, has
substantially impacted housing assistance systems (Kemp, 2007). Despite these policies, the
effectiveness of rent controls has been debated, with some arguing that they can lead to reduced
housing supply and maintenance issues as landlords may be less incentivized to invest in their
properties (Kemp, 2007). Housing policies play a critical role in determining economic and
social outcomes by increasing social inclusion and reducing social exclusion (Hills, 2001).

Some European countries have also prioritized family leave policies, surpassing the impact of the
U.S. policy described above. France’s family allowance programs provide financial support to
families with children, helping cover the costs of raising children and reducing child poverty

50
(CAF, 2020). Sweden offers one of the most generous parental leave policies globally, allowing
parents to take up to 480 days of leave per child, with part of this time specifically reserved for
fathers to promote shared parenting responsibilities (Swedish Social Insurance Agency, 2021).
These programs are particularly relevant in urban settings where living costs are often higher,
placing strain on family budgets. They aim to preserve work-life balance and provide crucial
support for families caring for newborns or ill family members, helping them navigate personal
responsibilities without the fear of job loss—a vital aspect for urban households. Given the
increase in dual-income households and heightened work pressures in urban areas, such policies
are crucial for preserving family stability and ensuring that urban employees can juggle personal
obligations with professional duties (Garcia, 2019). However, while these generous family leave
policies provide substantial support, they can also be expensive for governments to maintain and
may lead to increased tax burdens on citizens. Additionally, there can be challenges in ensuring
that both parents, especially fathers, take full advantage of the leave if available due to
workplace cultures and societal expectations (Swedish Social Insurance Agency, 2021).

Asia and Oceania

Some of the best practices in urbanization policies exist in Asia and Oceania. For example, India
has focused on facilitating a smoother transition from rural to urban living for families engaged
in this move. The Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission is an initiative to improve
urban infrastructure and service delivery mechanisms in major Indian cities (Ministry of Housing
and Urban Affairs, Government of India, 2019). The program focuses on creating economically
productive, efficient, equitable, and responsive cities. This mission supports the rapid
urbanization India is experiencing by enhancing living conditions and providing essential
services to urban families.

China’s approach to urban policy has focused on providing affordable housing to low- and
middle-income families in urban areas. Programs include the construction of public rental
housing and subsidies for low-income families (Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural
Development of the People’s Republic of China, 2020; World Bank, 2014). Given the massive
urbanization in China, which sees millions migrating to cities annually, this policy helps prevent
urban poverty (Ma & Hsu, 2021). Overall, China’s urbanization policy, which has evolved
through the years, reflects a strategic effort to manage population distribution, enhance economic
development, and integrate rural migrants into urban areas. However, challenges remain,
including rising housing prices, which can make even subsidized housing unaffordable for some
families. Additionally, rapid urbanization has strained urban infrastructure and services, leading
to congestion and environmental degradation (Ma & Hsu, 2021).

Australia has had exemplary policies addressing urbanization housing issues, high cost of living,
and struggles with sustainability in densely populated cities. The National Housing and
Homelessness Agreement funds states and territories to improve access to affordable housing

51
and reduce homelessness (Australian Government Department of Social Services, 2020). The
policy includes initiatives to increase the supply of social housing and support services for those
experiencing homelessness. Their Family Tax Benefit also benefits families in urban areas with
higher living costs. The payment is designed to help families with the cost of raising children
based on the number of children and household income. It also supports single-parent families or
families with one primary income earner (Australian Government Services, 2021). Regarding
sustainability, Australia enacted the Smart Cities Plan to improve the productivity and liveability
of its major cities. The initiative includes investments in infrastructure, technology, and
innovative urban planning practices to address the potential challenges of urbanization
(Australian Government Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and
Communications, 2016). The plan directly impacts families by creating more efficient,
connected, and sustainable urban environments where families can thrive.

9. Policy and Programs Addressing Families and

Migration - Best Practice
This section delves into migration policies and programs specifically tailored to address the
needs of families, examining best practices across different regional and global contexts. Diverse
approaches are analysed, showcasing efforts to support migrant families amidst urbanization and
displacement. Through an exploration of innovative policies and initiatives, this section sheds
light on effective strategies aimed at fostering the well-being and integration of migrant families
worldwide.

Middle East and North Africa

Egypt offers an exemplary model of migration policies that serve as a reference for other
countries seeking to develop their own migration frameworks. For centuries, Egypt has long
been a source of migratory movement between and among Asia, Africa, and Europe. It is also a
long-standing bridge to the Mediterranean world (Habersky et al., 2023). The Egyptian refugee
protection system relies on international refugee law in its structure (Habersky et al., 2023). The
four key protection areas are refugee status, family reunification, identification documents, and
healthcare (Habersky et al., 2023).

Egypt has ratified several international conventions to safeguard immigrants’ rights, including
the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), the International Covenant on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), and the Convention on the Rights of the Child
(CRC). Meanwhile, Egypt has adopted the African Charter on Human and People's Rights,
which means that African regional law also plays a significant part in the legal rights owed to
refugees on the continent (Habersky et al., 2023).

52
In addition to the state, the UNHCR plays a vital role in hosting and protecting refugees in
Egypt. The UNHCR recognizes refugees and provides funds to the most vulnerable immigrants
(Habersky et al., 2023).

Therefore, all the international and regional treaties, as discussed, have the potential to provide a
robust framework of protection for refugees and other forced migrants in Egypt.

North America

Some aspects of Canadian and the United States migration policy provide examples of
humanizing and supportive policies that benefit families. Within the last five years, the Canadian
government has shifted towards prioritizing the economic benefits of migration into the country
through growth and support programs (Milaney et al., 2020). The Immigration and Refugee
Protection Act, as discussed previously, aims to encourage the integration and security of
migrants who are transitioning into the Canadian economy (Milaney et al., 2020). Like other
regions of the world, especially the Middle East and North Africa, though with a different
approach, Canada has implemented both a classification and sponsorship system for labour
immigration. Based on specific skills the government has deemed beneficial for the current
economic state, certain classes of migrants are prioritized or sponsored by a citizen or permanent
resident. These sponsorships allow an individual, instead of the government, to take on the legal
and financial responsibility of supporting a migrant (Milaney et al., 2020). Further development
of this policy should include holistic support for violence, trauma, and housing, as well as
childcare and legal support to ease transitions for sponsored families.

Furthermore, the United States operates under a complex web of federal, state, and municipal
laws and administrative practices that significantly impact immigrants’ access to education,
employment, and health services. The immigration integration policies in the United States
profoundly impact immigrants and their children (Perreira & Pedroza, 2019). These policies aim
to enhance access to public and private health insurance and provide health care services through
federally qualified community health centres or local health departments (Perreira & Pedroza,
2019). In addition to healthcare services, the policies also address essential life needs for
immigrants, including educational attainment, employment, income, housing, and food (Perreira
& Pedroza, 2019).

Moreover, the United States has implemented several policies aimed at reducing poverty among
immigrants and assisting newly arrived immigrants in adjusting effectively to their new
environment. These policies focus primarily on expanding access to and benefits from existing
social safety net programs. The Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC), Child Tax Credit (CTC), and
Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) are essential programs. Expanding the
Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) has been suggested to enhance its impact on reducing poverty
(Garcia, et al., 2021). The EITC offers tax credits to low-income working families, with benefits
for those who have children (Garcia, et al., 2021). Under the American Rescue Plan Act, the

53
CTC has been temporarily extended to encompass families without income and to offer more
significant credits. SNAP provides food assistance to low-income families and has also seen
proposals for benefit increases to better support children's and families’ nutritional needs
(Garcia, et al., 2021). These programs, however, are not available to all immigrants, but rather
only to immigrants with a recognized form of documentation and legal status within the country.
This highlights legality as a key moderator.

Europe

Between 2010 and 2019, the EU had a liberal integration policy, which resulted in significant
changes in labour market mobility, education, political participation, citizenship, and
anti-discrimination (Solano et al., 2023). It should be noted that EU member states have
converged on policies as the EU has continued to expand (Solano et al., 2023). The policies
provide improved access for immigrants to the labour market, access to education, including
language and social orientation courses, strengthened measures to prevent discrimination against
immigrants, and increased opportunities for immigrants to be engaged in the political process
(Solano et al., 2023).

Migrant families often confront poverty, educational obstacles, and discrimination, highlighting
the need for inclusive policies and societal integration efforts. Interventions have been utilized in
the European Union to present the idea of integration for immigrants as a shared responsibility
between newly arrived immigrants and current residents. The Common Basic Principles for
Immigrant Integration Policy in the EU compels residents to engage in the reciprocal duty of
integration to ensure equal access to employment, education, institutional support, and
democracy for migrants (Bottero, 2022). This approach broadens the scope of integration beyond
individual immigrant families and emphasizes the importance of whole-society integration.

The ongoing conflict in Ukraine has highlighted the need for effective immigration policy,
particularly in neighbouring European countries. There are benefits for those who have existing
connections to the UK, who can apply to join a family member based in the UK and receive a
visa with three years’ leave, the right to work, and access to housing, education, and welfare via
the Ukraine Family Scheme Policy (Machin, 2023).

An exemplary illustration of European policy is the UK's initiatives for immigrants, particularly
the Vulnerable Persons Resettlement Scheme (VPRS), representing the UK government’s
primary approach to individuals forcibly displaced by the Syrian Civil War (Haycox, 2023).
Beneficiaries of the VPRS were provided immediate access to public funds (Haycox, 2023).
Each resettled family received an integration support plan for their first 12 months in the UK
(Haycox, 2023). Through this plan, immigrants received essential support services, including
housing, healthcare, employment, and education (Haycox, 2023). Thus, the UK has recognized
the need for a policy response to the numerous families displaced due to the civil war in Syria.

54
Asia and Oceania

An example of a successful immigration program exists in South Korea. By encouraging

language competence and giving vital information about Korean culture and society, the Korea
Immigration and Integration Program (KIIP) significantly contributes to the integration of
immigrants into Korean society. KIIP, which is available to all foreign nationals living in Korea,
provides educational programs, including “Korean and Korean Culture” and “Understanding
Korean Society,” to give immigrants the tools they need to integrate (Lim, 2021). In addition,
incentives like shorter wait times and waivers from written exams are granted to KIIP
participants when they change their residency status, earn permanent residency, or become
Korean citizens. Studies show that immigrants who participate in Korean-language immersion
programs are more able to adjust to Korean culture (Lim, 2021). Policymakers should prioritize
improving language competency among immigrants, enact anti-discrimination laws, and
implement various social integration policies and programs to foster immigrant integration (Lim,
2021). An increased ability to communicate in Korean strengthened an individual's feeling of
identity and helped make adjusting to Korean society easier. To guarantee the proper settling and
integration of immigrants, especially those who are at-risk refugees, into Korean culture, it is
imperative that they be actively encouraged to engage in KIIP (Lim, 2021).

In New Zealand, victims of ongoing domestic violence can apply for a Victims of Family
Violence visa that allows women to gain visa status independent of an abusive partner. This
policy eliminates the control that is exercised in some abusive circumstances where a victimized
partner is unable to leave if they are being sponsored by their abuser for fear of becoming
illegally present in the country. This policy helps empower women to leave abusive situations
and gain independent status despite their immigration status (Ayallo, 2021).

10. Policy Recommendations to Address Migration and

Urbanization
Following a comparative policy analysis of global regions concerning urbanization and
migration, six critical areas for policy recommendations have been identified. These areas
encompass comprehensive urban planning, sustainable urban growth through effective family
planning, affordable housing and inclusive infrastructure, focus on family-friendly policies,
gender-responsive and child-sensitive legislation, and comprehensive healthcare services for
immigrants. These recommendations aim to address the multifaceted challenges associated with
urbanization and migration, ensuring sustainable and inclusive development that prioritizes the
well-being of individuals and families.

55
 1. Implementing Comprehensive Urban Planning Frameworks to Create Sustainable
Urbanization

Governments should develop and implement comprehensive urban planning frameworks that
promote sustainable development principles. There are considerable differences in the size,
types, and geographical distribution of cities within and between societies, and urbanization
planning allows for the centralization of services with increased access to employment,
education, and leisure activities. Urban planning includes access to affordable housing, quality
education, healthcare services, and recreational spaces. Families residing in urban areas will
benefit even more from implementing resilient and sustainable urban infrastructure, such as
green spaces and effective public transportation networks, which promote healthy living
conditions. Conversely, promoting good rural development policy may close the gap and reduce
the level of migration to urban areas in the first place.

2. Promoting Sustainable Urban Growth Through Effective Family Planning

World populations are increasingly moving from rural to urban centres, making for larger cities
with higher population density. Migration from rural to urban areas generates a series of
concerns, including environmental stress and social adaptation of the migrants because urban
growth is associated with industrial development, air pollution, and land consumption.

Urban family planning is crucial for achieving the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
due to its significant impact on gender equality, employment, poverty alleviation, and health
outcomes. Access to comprehensive reproductive health services, such as contraception and
prenatal care, empowers women by allowing them to control their reproductive choices, leading
to fewer unintended pregnancies. This empowerment enables families to plan and space their
children effectively, which not only reduces financial burdens but also reassures them about the
economic benefits, facilitating investments in education and well-being.

Enhanced family planning services, especially for low-income urban families, contribute to
poverty reduction by enabling smaller family sizes. This reduction in family size has the
potential to bring hope for better maternal and child health outcomes, as access to contraceptives
and prenatal care reduces risks associated with pregnancy and childbirth, lowering maternal
mortality rates and improving newborn health. Women’s employment opportunities increase
when they can pursue education and careers without the constraints of unplanned pregnancies,
boosting economic independence and productivity.

Urban family planning is not just about the present but also about creating a more equitable and
sustainable future for urban communities. As more well-planned families manage resources
better, food security improves, ensuring access to nutritious food and reducing malnutrition.
Urban family planning, therefore, is pivotal for achieving the SDGs, as it influences multiple

56
dimensions of sustainable development, including health, education, employment, and food
security. Investing in family planning services is an investment in a better future.

3. Promoting Affordable Housing and Inclusive Infrastructure to Reduce

Socio-Economic Disparities

To mitigate socio-economic inequalities and promote social cohesion, governments should

support mixed-income housing developments, including affordable, and market-rate apartments.
Housing shortages can be addressed by providing private developers with incentives such as tax
credits, subsidies, and low-interest loans to build affordable housing units into their
developments. Improving living conditions and circumstances requires funding public housing
projects and modernizing the infrastructure to include dependable energy, clean drinking water,
sanitary facilities, and public transit.

4. Promoting a Focus on Family-Friendly Policies

Family-friendly policies that incorporate gender equality are vital for enhancing an inclusive,
equitable, and supportive society. Implementing flexible working arrangements, parental leave,
and access to quality childcare can empower women, increase workforce participation, and
enhance family well-being. Families can manage childcare and improve their well-being when
companies offer options such as remote work, flexible hours, and part-time schedules.

Governments and organizations may make families feel more supported and included by
enforcing family-friendly policies and advocating for gender equality. When women are free to
engage fully in the workforce, they increase productivity and economic growth. Gender equality
in the workplace can also result in more inclusive and diverse work cultures, which encourage
creativity and innovation.

5. Developing Gender-Responsive and Child-Sensitive Legislation and Social

Protection Measures to Protect Women and Children

To mitigate violence against women and children, countries that accept immigrants should
implement and enforce sanctuary policies. Sanctuary policies can create a safe environment for
immigrants and encourage them to engage with law enforcement without the fear of deportation.
To implement sanctuary policies, governments should pass laws that explicitly support these
guidelines developed to mitigate violence. Additionally, educational and awareness campaigns
are critical to inform immigrants, especially women and children who are vulnerable to violence,
about their rights and support services, including laws and guidelines available to them.

6. Providing Complementary Healthcare Services and Mental Health Support for

Immigrants

57
Migration often leads to depression in children and families because of the transition from one
environment to a different culture and climate. This transition can disrupt social networks,
educational opportunities, and overall stability and contribute to feelings of isolation and anxiety.
The pressure of adapting to a new society and economic hardship can exacerbate mental health
issues among immigrants. State-level provision of insurance programs contributes to a reduction
in depression and mental health issues. The insurance coverage should include mental health
care, counselling services, and psychological support to address the needs of children and
families. Furthermore, support services such as shelters and counselling for the victims of
violence should be provided, with services in multiple languages to accommodate the diverse
backgrounds of immigrants.

Schools play a pivotal role in supporting migrant children. Promoting mental health services
within the educational system can provide an accessible platform for children to get the
necessary support. Schools can offer counselling and mental health education, helping children
to understand and manage their emotions during the transition. Meanwhile, training teachers to
recognize the signs of mental health issues can help the students get available support promptly.

11. Conclusion
Accounting for the complexity and ever-evolving nature of urbanization and migration
dynamics, it is necessary that continual research be undertaken to comprehensively address
specific aspects of global urbanization and migration as they relate to families. This report has
provided valuable insights into the overarching trends, challenges, and successes, but there
remains a need for focused studies and analyses that explore the regional nuances and contexts in
more depth. Particularly noteworthy is the need for more research addressing specific regions
and issues. First, there is a notable gap in research focusing on low- and middle-income
countries, where the impact of urbanization and migration on families can be especially
pronounced. Second, there is a significant need to explore the role of women and mothers within
the context of urbanization and migration, as their experiences and challenges are often unique
and under-researched. More reports are also needed to evaluate the efficacy of policies related to
urbanization and migration in low- and middle-income countries. Research that focuses on
comprehending these regional variations and their implications for families is essential to
provide tailored interventions that address local needs and realities. Addressing the gaps in
research and policy evaluation is crucial for developing targeted interventions that respond
effectively to the needs of families in diverse urban contexts. Future studies should prioritize
gathering empirical data and insights from overlooked regions and marginalized groups to ensure
inclusive and equitable policy frameworks.

Additionally, new opportunities and difficulties arise due to rapid urbanization and changes in
migration policy and patterns, calling for creative and timely policy solutions. As urbanization
and migration evolve, there is a growing urgency to monitor and adopt policies that support
58
family cohesion and well-being. This requires ongoing dialogue among policymakers,
researchers, and community stakeholders to identify emerging challenges and opportunities in
real time. Finally, given that migration is a global issue, countries must take collective
responsibility and prioritize policy and research efforts to support one another in addressing these
complex and ever-changing challenges. By facilitating collaboration among countries grappling
with similar challenges, there is an opportunity for shared learning, which results in more
impactful policy solutions. Collaborative efforts among international organizations,
governments, and civil society are essential for fostering sustainable urban development and
inclusive migration policies. By sharing best practices and lessons learned, countries can
collectively address global migration challenges and promote human rights and social justice for
migrant families worldwide. Lastly, empowering local communities to participate in
decision-making processes and implementing bottom-up approaches to urban planning can
enhance the resilience of families in rapidly changing urban landscapes. This approach ensures
that policies reflect urban residents’ diverse needs and aspirations, fostering inclusive growth and
social cohesion. Through such measures, cities can become resilient hubs where all families
flourish amid urban complexities.

59
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