Nervous System (NS)

Part 2. Protection, Nourishment and Overview of CNS

Avgis Hadjipapas,
Professor for Neuroscience and Research Methods
[email protected]

Based on The Central Nervous System, Ch.5, Human Physiology – From Cells to Systems | 9e,
Lauralee Sherwood
Learning Outcomes

• Describe the means of protection of the

CNS
• Describe the nourishment of the CNS
including the cerebrospinal fluid and blood
Brain Barrier and critical limits on brain
nourishment
• Provide a gross overview of the CNS and
brain and fundamental functional and
evolutionary considerations
Protection of CNS
 Protection and Nourishment of the Brain
• Major features protect the CNS from injury
– Cranium and vertebral column (hard, bony structures )
– Meninges
– Cerebrospinal fluid
– Blood–brain barrier
• Three meningeal membranes wrap, protect, and nourish the central nervous system
– Dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater
• The brain floats in its own special cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
– Surrounds and cushions the brain and spinal cord
• Highly selective blood–brain barrier regulates exchanges between blood and brain
– Shields from harmful changes
• Brain depends on constant delivery of oxygen and glucose by the blood
– Cannot produce ATP without O2 → Brain damage results if deprived of O2
The Meninges
• Dura mater (latin, mater: mother-protective,supportive-)
– outermost, tough (latin, dura: tough), inelastic covering that consists of two
layers
– in places, layers separated - dural sinuses & larger venous sinuses: venous
blood draining from the brain back to heart; CSF drains to blood

• Arachnoid mater
– delicate, richly vascularized layer with a “cobwebby” appearance (greek:
Arachne: spider; ‘spider web’)
– subarachnoid space: space between arachnoid and pia filled with CSF
– arachnoid villi protrude into dural sinuses →CSF is reabsorbed across the
surfaces of villi into blood within the venous sinuses

• Pia mater
– the innermost meningeal layer; most fragile (latin, pia: gentle)
– adheres to surface of brain + spinal cord
– Highly vascular; essential in CSF formation
Meninges- spatial relations
Nutrition of CNS
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
• CSF surrounds brain and spinal cord (subarachnoid space and ventricles)
• Volume of CSF is about 125 – 150 ml (replaced 3 times/24h )
• CSF has about same density as brain →the brain floats in CSF→
– Shock absorber: prevent brain from bumping against interior of the skull when sudden,
jarring/shaking movements.

• CSF formed by choroid plexuses of ventricles in the brain

• Choroid plexuses
- Highly vascular masses of pia dipping into pockets of ependymal cells lining the ventricles
- Ependymal cells selectively transport materials from pia capillary blood into the ventricular
cavity

• CSF is not in direct contact with neural cells

– Only interstitial fluid in direct contact with neural cells
– Exchange of materials is between neural cells and interstitial fluid
• BUT … The composition of interstitial fluid influenced more by alterations in CSF
than blood→ composition of CSF carefully regulated!
 Circulation of CSF
• Generated at plexuses in ventricles and then
flows
• …through interconnected ventricles and the
spinal cord central canal
• … through openings (apertures) in 4th
ventricle into subarachnoid space
• … when reaching upper regions of brain:
reabsorbed into venous blood through the
arachnoid villi
• Flow facilitated by ependymal cell ciliary
beating, circulatory and postural factors
• Normal CSF pressure ~ 10 mmHg
• Hydrocephalus (greek: water in head).
– Occurs when CSF accumulates, due to the
block in its circulation or reabsorption.
– If left untreated →increased CSF pressure→
brain damage and mental retardation
– Treatment – surgically shunting excess CSF
to veins elsewhere in the body
Composition of CSF
• Composition of CSF differs from blood

• CSF lower in K+, higher in Na+ →

electrochemical gradients greater

• Almost no proteins in CSF

• Lumbar puncture: CSF examined for:
– pressure, gross appearance/color, WBC,
neutrophil/lymphocyte count, glucose, protein,
stain for bacteria and culture + TB
Blood-Brain Barrier(BBB)- structure

• capillary endothelia in brain joined by tight junctions -

in contrast to elsewhere in body→ only route is through
endothelial cells

• Astrocytes whose processes surround brain capillaries

induce formation of tight junctions
• Promote production of specific carrier proteins + ion
channels which regulate transport across endothelial
cells
• BBB is highly permeable to lipid soluble substances
e.g. O2, CO2, alcohol, steroid hormones, lipid soluble
drugs
Blood-Brain Barrier- function

• Protects brain from chemical fluctuations in blood, e.g. abrupt

changes in blood K+ (neural function!)
• Prevents harmful substances from reaching brain

• Prevents some hormones/neurotransmitters from reaching

brain

• But also … Limits use of drugs for treatment of CNS diseases

– Novel approaches to drug delivery to brain: safely and temporarily
breach BBB
– NOTABLE EXCEPTION TO BBB: hypothalamus
– depends on “sampling” the blood and act accordingly to maintain
homeostasis
– Part of its output is water-soluble hormones to enter blood stream
Brain depends on constant delivery of
oxygen and glucose by the blood

• Brain cannot produce ATP without oxygen

• Uses predominantly glucose (ketones only in starvation)
• Both ATP and glucose (and ketones) delivered by blood
• At rest, brain uses 20% circulating O2 and 50% of glucose
• Brain ~ 2% body weight but receives 15% cardiac output

• Brain damage if O2 cut off > 4-5 minutes

• … or glucose >10-15 minutes
Cerebrovascular accident (CVA or stroke)

• When brain vessel is blocked by a clot (>80% of strokes are indeed

ischemic strokes) or ruptures (hemorrhagic stroke), supplied tissue loses
its O2 and glucose supply → damage and usually death of tissue.
• Contribution by many modifiable life style risk factors→ Prevention!!!
• Mainstay of treatment is dissolving clot within 3 hours
• Very important to recognize signs EARLY- call 112
Overview of CNS
Overview of the Central Nervous System

• The CNS consists of the brain and spinal

cord: ~85 billion neurons, 1 quadrillion
synaptic connections
• The system allows us to:
– Subconsciously regulate homeostatic
responses
– Experience emotions
– Voluntarily control movements
– Be aware of body and surroundings
– Engage in other higher cognitive processes
Components of the Brain

• Brain stem
• Cerebellum
Decreased
• Forebrain evolutionary age,
– Diencephalon increased
• Hypothalamus sophistication
• Thalamus
– Cerebrum
• Basal nuclei
• Cerebral cortex
Schematic gross subdivision of brain
components
Cerebral cortex

Basal nuclei
(lateral to thalamus) Basal nuclei

Thalamus
Thalamus
(medial)

Cerebellum
Hypothalamus

Midbrain Brain stem

Brain stem Pons

Spinal cord

Medulla
Essential functions of brain components

1. Sensory perception
Cerebral Cortex 2. Voluntary control of movement
3. Language
4. Personality traits
5. Sophisticated mental events, such as thinking, memory, decision
making, creativity, and self-consciousness

Basal nuclei 1. Inhibition of muscle tone

2. Coordination of slow, sustained movements
(ganglia) 3. Suppression of useless patterns of movement

1. Relay station for all synaptic input

Thalamus 2. Crude awareness of sensation
3. Some degree of consciousness
4. Role in motor control

Hypothalamus 1. Regulation of many homeostatic functions, such as temperature

control, thirst, urine output, and food intake
2. Important link between nervous and endocrine systems
3. Extensive involvement with emotion and basic behavioral patterns
4. Role in sleep–wake cycle

Cerebellum 1. Maintenance of balance

2. Enhancement of muscle tone
3. Coordination and planning of skilled voluntary muscle activity

1. Origin of majority of peripheral cranial nerves

Brain stem 2. Cardiovascular, respiratory, and digestive control centers
3. Regulation of muscle reflexes involved with equilibrium and
posture
4. Reception and integration of all synaptic input from spinal cord;
arousal and activation of cerebral cortex
5. Role in sleep–wake cycle
Basic principles of organization

• No brain region acts in isolation

• networks of neurons linked by synapses &
communicate throughout brain (and other NS) →
distributed processing within functional neural
networks (cell assemblies)
• But neurons working together towards given function
also tend to be organized within discrete locations →
localized functional regions
Basic principles of evolutionary
development and the cerebral cortex
• primitive NS consists of few interneurons between afferent
and efferent neurons (btw sensation and action).
• During evolution interneuronal component progressively
expanded and localized in head →brain
• Newer, more sophisticated layers of brain added on older, more
primitive layers
• cerebrum most developed in humans ~80% of brain weight
• cerebral cortex: the outer layer of the cerebrum; highly
convoluted (folded) → large increase in surface area (in more
primitive mammal groups cortex is smooth)
• increased circuitry in cerebral cortex is what makes us
uniquely human (the mind: perception, cognition, thought,
emotion, motivation, planned action etc.)
Learning Outcomes

• Describe the means of protection of the

CNS
• Describe the nourishment of the CNS
including the cerebrospinal fluid and blood
Brain Barrier and critical limits on brain
nourishment
• Provide a gross overview of the CNS and
brain and fundamental functional and
evolutionary considerations
Questions?