1. India has a very rich and long tradition of paintings.

Discuss with special focus on mural

paintings.
Approach:
• Substantiate the given statement with examples.
• Discuss with examples the tradition of mural paintings from various parts of India.
• Conclude appropriately
Answer:
India has one of the greatest traditions of painting. It has developed through time accommodating
different religious beliefs, cultural and regional traditions, social and political aspirations of rulers
and masses.
Indian painting tradition goes back to the paleolithic age to the rock paintings of Bhimbetka, and
Lakhudiyar. These rock paintings were represented by lines and geometric patterns.
Vishnudharmottara Purana has a chapter named Chitrasutra (5th century AD), which presents
specifics about the traditions of paintings. It should be considered as a source book of Indian art in
general and painting specifically. The painting tradition later developed from mural paintings to
miniature paintings, portrait paintings, imperial paintings etc. These different styles of paintings got
patronized by different rulers and regions leading to development of different schools of paintings as
Rajasthani School, Gujrati School, Pahadi School etc.
Mural paintings, which are drawn directly on walls are among the most distinguishing features of
Indian art and painting tradition. Following are a few examples of mural paintings that can be found
from across India.
• Ajanta murals: Ajanta is the only surviving example of painting of the first century BCE and the
fifth century CE. The subject matter of these paintings is almost exclusively Buddhist, mostly
associated with the Jataka. Notable painting of this cave is of Padmapani, which is a beautifully
ornamented life size image of the Bodhisattva.
• Ellora murals: Paintings drawn on the ceiling of Kailashnath Temple dedicated to lord Shiva are
impressive illustrations of excellence of craftsmanship of that time. It was developed under the
patronage of Rashtrakuta king Krishna I.
• Sittanavasal murals: These are intimately connected with Jain themes and symbolism. The
contours of these paintings are firmly drawn dark on a light red ground. Notable art includes a
decorative scene of great beauty, a lotus pool with birds, elephants, buffaloes and a young man
plucking flowers.
• Chola murals: Under Raja Raja Chola, the paintings were executed on the walls of Brihadeshwara
temple, they show various narrations and aspects related to Lord Shiva.
• Vijayanagar murals: The Virupaksha temple at Hampi have paintings on the ceiling of its
mandapa narrating events from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Walls of Lepakshi temple
are fine examples of evolved pictorial language of Vijayanagar tradition wherein the faces are
shown in profile and figures and objects in two-dimensional.
 • Kerala murals: Kerala painters have combined traditions from Nayaka and Vijayanagara
Schools. These murals have an element of local tradition of kathakali, Ramayana, Mahabharat and
kalam ezhuthu. Murals are drawn using vibrant and luminous colors, representing human figures
in three-dimensionality. It can be seen at Krishnapuram palace, Padmanabhapuram palace,
Trissur Vadakkunathan temple etc.
The long and rich tradition of Indian painting needs to be preserved and promoted. Initiatives like the
Wall of Peace, modern mural art on the 700-feet long compound wall at Cherpulassery (Kerala) is a
step in this direction.

2. Bring out the main contributions of the Mauryan empire to Indian culture and heritage.
Approach:
• Write a brief introduction about the Mauryan empire.
• Bring out the contributions of the Mauryan empire to Indian heritage and culture.
• Conclude accordingly.
Answer:
By the fourth century BCE, Chandragupta Maurya, with the help of Chanakya, overthrew the
Nandas and established the rule of the Mauryan Dynasty. Mauryan Empire made immense
contributions to Indian heritage and culture which is given below:
• Spread of material culture: The Mauryan Period witnessed rapid development of material
culture in the Gangetic basin which was based on an intensive use of iron, plenty of punch marked
coins, abundance of beautiful pottery called Northern black polished ware, and above all the rise
of towns in India.
• Contribution to Architecture:
o Pillars: The Mauryan pillars are rock-cut pillars thus displaying the carver’s skills. Such
pillars were erected to disseminate the Buddhist ideology and court orders in the entire
Mauryan empire. For instance, Pillar edict I deals with Ashoka’s principle of protection of
people and Pillar edict IV deals with the duties of Rajukas (officers).
o Stupas: There were numerous stupas constructed earlier but new additions were made
during this period. Apart from the circumambulatory path, gateways were added. Gradually
narrative became a part of the Buddhist tradition and thus events from the life of the Buddha,
the Jataka stories, were depicted on the railings and toranas of the stupas.
o Caves: Mauryan period also saw the earliest known examples of rock-cut cave architecture in
India. These caves contain a beautifully decorated façade, rectangular caves with circular
chambers at the back, and polishing inside the cave. For ex., Lomas Rishi cave at Barabar
hills near Gaya in Bihar.
o Inscriptions: Inscriptions are unique in their style and content, and form a rich source of
information on Ashoka’s political ideas and practice. These inscriptions throw light on some
aspects of Ashoka’s administration and on his relationship with Buddhism.
• Contribution to Art:
o Sculpture: The work of local sculptors illustrates the popular art of the Mauryan Period. The
distinguishing elements of this period are the polished surfaces, full round faces, and
physiognomic details. For ex., a life-size standing image of a Yakshini from Didarganj.
o Pottery: Mauryan period consists of many types of wares but the most highly developed
technique is Northern Black polished ware (NBPW), which was the hallmark of the
preceding and early Mauryan Periods. It is made of finely levigated alluvial clay with peculiar
luster and brilliance.
• Religion: The Mauryans’ tolerant approach helped to flourish three diverse religions in India:
Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism. Jainism and Buddhism flourished under the Maurya empire as
these religions received royal patronage from Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka respectively.
Under Ashoka, Buddhism was widely propagated and spread to Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.
Thus, the Mauryan Empire made an indelible contribution to the culture and heritage of the Indian
subcontinent.
 3. The Persian and Greek invasions from 6th BC to 4th BC in the Indian sub-continent
had significant impacts on Indian art and culture. Discuss.
Approach:
 Give a brief introduction about Persian and Greek invasions.
 Discuss their significant impacts on Indian art and culture.
 Conclude accordingly.
Answer:
The Persian and Greek invasions of India began in the sixth century BC when Cyrus invaded the Indian
sub-continent. Further, the contact between the Greeks and ancient Indians can be historically
ascertained after the Greek invasion of Achaemenid empires under Alexander in 326 BC. Several
principalities of the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent were annexed in this invasion and
were handed over to Seleucus Nicator, a Greek general.
Impacts of Persian and Greek invasions on Indian art and culture:
 Sculptures: The influence of Persian and Greek art can be found in the development of
Indian sculptures. For instance, Gandhara School of Art had a combination of Indian
and Greek styles, while Mauryan pillars and rock edicts reflected Persian influence, as
they had polished motifs, inscribed proclamations, etc.
 Architecture: Greek and Persian influence can be found in the development of Indian
architecture as well. For example, the palace of Chandragupta Maurya was inspired
by the Achaemenid palaces at Persepolis in Iran.
 Literature and history: The Kharoshthi script (Indo-Bactrian script) was used in
some of the Ashokan inscriptions belonging to the third century A.D. Further, valuable
information about the socio-economic conditions of India of that time is known from the
Greek accounts left by Arrian, Nearchus, and Megasthenes.
 Astrology: The Greeks had some influence on Indian astrology as well. The concept of
the Zodiac has been taken from the Greeks and the Greek term Horoscope has been
translated to Horashastra in Sanskrit.
 Coinage: The Persian silver coins were known for their refined minting and elegant
looks. This had an impact, as Indian rulers adopted similar techniques to mint their
coins on the Persian model. Further, beautifully designed gold and silver coins, along
with the name and images of kings, were influenced by the legacy of the Greeks.
The Persian and Greek invasions had a profound impact on Indian art, culture, politics, and society.
They introduced new techniques, styles, and ideas to the Indian sub-continent, which enriched and
influenced Indian art and culture. The invasions also brought about political and administrative
changes and facilitated cultural exchange and economic growth.

4. Bring out the innovative methods used in the Swadeshi movement. Do you think the movement
was successful in achieving its desired objectives?
Approach:
 Introduce by briefly discussing the background of the Swadeshi movement.
 Highlight the innovative methods used in the movement.
 Bring out the success as well as the limitations of the movement.
 Conclude accordingly.
Answer:
The Swadeshi movement of 1905 was a nationalist movement sparked by the announcement of
partition of Bengal by the colonial government. The partition divided Bengal into two administrative
units and was seen by many Indians as a ploy to weaken the nationalist movement.
Innovative methods used in the Swadeshi movement:
 There was boycott of foreign goods, public burning of foreign cloth, boycott of foreign-made
salt, refusal by priests to ritualise marriages involving exchange of foreign goods, etc.
 Public meetings and processions emerged as major methods of mass mobilisation.
 Corps of Volunteers or Samitis such as the Swadesh Bandhab Samiti of Ashwini Kumar Dutta
 emerged as a very popular and powerful means of mass mobilisation.
 The movement witnessed imaginative use of traditional popular festivals and melas for
reaching out to the masses and spreading political messages. For example, Shivaji and
Ganapati festivals in Maharashtra were organized by Lokmanya Tilak.
i. Emphasis was given to self-reliance or ‘atma shakti’ through social reform and campaigns
against caste oppression, dowry system, consumption of alcohol, etc. Further, the swadeshi spirit
also found expression in the establishment of swadeshi textile mills, soap and match factories, etc.
The movement attained success in achieving certain objectives, such as:
• The social base of the anti-British struggle widened significantly with the participation of
women and students. Further, it was the first pan-India freedom movement, as it moved beyond
Bengal. For instance, it was led by Lala Lajpat Rai in Punjab, H.S. Rao in Madras, and Tilak in
Maharashtra.
• All the major trends of the national movement, from conservative moderation to political
extremism, from revolutionary activities to incipient socialism, from petitions and prayers to
passive resistance and non-cooperation, emerged during the Swadeshi Movement.
• The movement encompassed art, literature, science and industry. For instance, artists like
Abanindranath Tagore broke the domination of Victorian naturalism over Indian art and took
inspiration from Mughal, Ajanta and Rajput paintings.
• Boycott of British-controlled schools and colleges led to the establishment of Bengal Technical
Institute in 1906 as well as many national schools and colleges in various parts of the country.
The National Council of Education was set up to organize a system of education—literary,
scientific and technical—on national lines and under national control.
However, the movement also faced a number of challenges that prevented it from achieving its full
potential, which include:
• It led to a divide within the Congress between the Moderates and Extremists, which eventually
led to the Surat Split in 1907.
• Many Indians, particularly the upper classes, were still attached to British products and
lifestyles.
• The movement largely remained confined to the upper and middle classes and Zamindars,
and failed to reach the masses, especially the peasantry. Further, non-cooperation and passive
resistance remained mere ideas.
• Evoking Hindu festivals and mythology for inspiration led to the exclusion of Muslims.
Overall, the Swadeshi movement played an important role in shaping India's struggle for
independence. Further, though annulment of the partition of Bengal in 1911 was not a direct result
of the Swadeshi movement, the movement played a significant role in creating the conditions that led
to the decision.

5. Tribal movements in India were a response to the colonial policies of the British. Discuss.
Approach:
 Write a brief note on tribal movements in India.
 Discuss how the majority of these movements were a response to the colonial policies of the
time.
 Conclude appropriately.
Answer:
The tribal movements in India started in the late 18th century and lasted till independence. The tribes
can be divided into two main divisions i.e. non-frontier tribes and frontier tribes. The non-frontier
tribes constituted around 89% of the total tribal population and were confined to Central India, West-
Central India and Andhra region. Among the tribes that participated in the movements were Khonds,
Savaras, Santhals, Mundas, Oraons, Koyas, Kols, Gonds and Bhils. The frontier tribes belonged to the
North-Eastern frontier states and included Khasis, Nagas, etc.
The following colonial policies were the major reasons for tribal revolts in the country during the
British rule:
  Imposition of land revenue settlement: The British introduced the Zamindari system in
the tribal areas along with a new system of land revenue and taxation on tribal products thus
eroding tribal ownership over land and creating socio economic differentiation in the
egalitarian structure of the tribal society. The Munda rebellion was a direct result of the
land policy of the colonial government.
 Exploitation by outside economic agents: Large numbers of moneylenders, revenue
farmers and traders were introduced by the British, who over time, took control of the
tribal land and trapped them in a debt burden. This reduced the tribals to the status of
the labourers, share-
croppers, and tenants on their own land. This was one of the major factors behind the Santhal
rebellion.
• Control over forests: The Forest Act of 1865 and the Indian Forest Act of 1927 declared forests
as state property and restricted the rights of the tribal people to access and use the forest
resources. This led to the eviction and displacement of tribal people from their ancestral land.
The Kol, Bastar and Rampa rebellions were in response to this policy of restricted land use in
their respective regions.
• Christian missionaries in the tribal areas: It was perceived as a direct threat to the culture and
the way of the life of the tribal people. These missionaries exploited the poor people and
denigrated their culture. During his movement, Birsa Munda also attacked the churches.
• Civilising mission of the British: The British considered the tribals to be uncivilised and
criminals and their culture and system were looked down upon by them. Thus, they interfered in
tribal regions, which was one of the reasons for revolts by tribals.
• Oppressive system: The Zamindars, police, and justice system together formed a combined
system of extortions, oppressive extractions, forcible dispossession of property, abuse and
personal violence and a variety of petty tyrannies upon the tribals. Other noteworthy rebellions
against the British policies were by the Khonds, Bhils, Kolis, Ramosis, Khasis, and Nagas.
Although tribal revolts led to death and displacement of the tribal people, they also led to awareness
and recognition of tribal rights, emergence of tribal leaders, land reforms and redistribution, and
development of tribal identity. All these were to find a significant place in the freedom struggle and
determine the development path after independence.