SENSORS

Sensors are basically devices which “read” a physical stimulus, and then convert that reading
in to an electrical signal output.

Temperature Sensor
A temperature sensor is a device that detects change in temperature. The device, which gives

temperature measurement in the readable form via an electrical signal.

Working Principle

Temperature sensors measure temperature readings via electrical signals. They contain two

metals that generate an electrical voltage or resistance when a temperature change occurs.

The resistance or voltage in the diode detects and sends the signal into readable values such as

Fahrenheit, Kelvin, or Centigrade.

The voltage change in the diode terminal is the fundamental principle of temperature sensors.

The temperature and voltage are directly proportional to each other.

Types of Temperature Sensors

The temperature sensors are mainly classified into two. They are

• Contact Type Temperature Sensors

• Non-Contact Type Temperature Sensors

Contact Type Temperature Sensors

There are some temperature sensors that can only measure the hotness or coldness of an object

by being in contact with the object. Such temperature sensors are classified as contact-type.

They can detect solids, liquids, or gases at a variety of temperatures.

Contact Temperature Sensor Types: Thermocouples, Thermistors, and RTDs

• Thermocouples The difference in temperature between the two different metal wires

causes an electrical current to flow, which the thermocouple measures.

• Thermistors measure the resistance of a semiconductor material when exposed to different

temperatures.

• Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) measure temperature by measuring the

resistance of a wire when exposed to different temperatures.

Non-Contact Type Temperature Sensors

Non-Contact Sensors can measure the temperature without being in contact with the object.

This can be done by utilizing the radiation of the heat source. The common non-contact

sensor is an infrared sensor (IR).

IRs detect an object’s energy remotely and send a signal to an electrical circuit, which uses a

calibration diagram to determine the object’s temperature.

Application of Temperature Sensor

• Used in electric motors for measuring the temperature of the motor winding, bearing,
brushes, etc.
• Used in mechanical engines for measuring the internal temperature
• Used in humidity and air control conditioning equipment

Advantages of Temperature Sensor

• Low cost
• Can be used for both embedded and surface mount applications
• Faster response
• Temperature probes have precise linearity and low hysteresis.
Optical Sensor

A sensor that is used to convert the light rays into electronic signals. These sensors help in

measuring the incident light’s intensity & changing it into a readable form through an

incorporated measuring device based on the type of sensor. Generally, this sensor includes a

light source, sensor, and measuring device.

An optical sensor converts light rays into an electronic signal.

Optical sensors can be either internal or external.

External sensors gather and transmit a required quantity of light, while internal sensors are

most often used to measure the bends and other small changes in direction.

The measurands possible by different optical sensors are Temperature, Velocity Liquid level,

Pressure, Displacement (position), Vibrations, Chemical species, Force radiation, pH- value,

Strain, Acoustic field and Electric field

Types of Optical Sensors

• Photoconductive devices used to measure the resistance by converting a change of

incident light into a change of resistance.
• The Photodiodes convert an amount of incident light into an output current.

Applications
Photodiodes
Applications like Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR).

Working Principle
Photodiodes operates based on photon absorption, which creates electron-hole pairs in

semiconductor materials. Quantification of electric current that is directly proportional to the

intensity of the incident light.

Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) Applications

In LIDAR technology, which uses light pulses to detect distances. By measuring the reflected

light pulses from objects, photodiodes in LIDAR systems are able to determine their distance
using the speed of light and the interval between the transmitted and received pulses. LIDAR

used in atmospheric research, autonomous vehicles, and topographical mapping.

Other Applications

Optical sensors used in computers, motion detectors.

Ambient Light Sensors

Biomedical Applications

Optical sensors have robust applications in the biomedical field. Some of the examples Breath
analysis using tunable diode laser, Optical heart-rate monitors an optical heart-rate monitor
measures your heart rate using light.

Electrochemical sensor

Electrochemical sensors involve using electrodes to measure the electrochemical changes that

occur when chemicals (sample or analyte) interact with a sensing surface.

These devices that quantitatively detects a particular chemical species as an oxidation or

reduction current.

“Electrochemical sensors use electrodes as the transducer component.

Electrochemical sensors consist of working or sensing electrode, electrolyte, counter electrode,

and reference electrode. The sensing electrode has a chemically modified surface. This

modification ensures the selectivity, facilitating the reduction or oxidation of the analyst.
The electrolyte is part of the electric circuit of an electrochemical sensor system. Charge

transport in the sample can be electronic, ionic or mixed.

Components:

A receptor (working electrode) that binds the sample or analyte

A transducer to convert the chemical reaction in to a measurable electrical signal

In case of electrochemical sensors the receptor (working electrode) acts as the transducer.

Working principle of electrochemical sensors:

The following steps are involved in the working of electrochemical sensor:

1. Diffusion of the analyst to the electrode.
2. Adsorption onto the electrode surface.
3. The recognition element interacts with target analyte and signal is generated.
4. Electrochemical transducers transform the chemical changes into electrical signals
5. The electric signals are related to the concentration of analyte.
Application Electrochemical sensors:
1) They are used in security and defense applications like detection of toxic gases, warfare
agents etc.
2) They are used in water analysis and environmental monitoring, like measurement of toxic
metal concentration in water, detection of oxides of nitrogen and sulphur, CO, PH of water
etc.
3) They are used in diagnostic and health –care applications, like in situ monitoring of glucose,
serum, uric acid, blood Ca, Fe, Acetylcholine etc.
4) They are used in soil parameter analysis, evaluation and in agriculture applications.
5) Electrochemical sensors used for the diagnosis of diseases and disorders.
6) They are used for the monitoring of toxic levels of different substances in food quality and
environmental control.
Smart Sensors
It is a device capable of sense the physical environment, and using its computing resources to
perform predefined functions according to the type of information detected to process and
transmit data.
Working process
➢ The physical sensor converts a physical quantity into a measurable electrical signal.
➢ This signal is then processed by an embedded microcontroller or processor.
➢ It performs calculations, analyzes data, and makes decisions based on predefined
algorithms.
➢ Next is connectivity. communication interfaces such as Bluetooth, WiFi, or cellular
networks, sensors can transmit the collected and analyzed data to control systems or storage
and processing platforms.
There are also self-diagnostic functionalities.
They allow Smart Sensors to detect and report potential failures.
Applications
The most common measures are temperature, pressure, humidity, motion, gas, light, and sound
sensors.
In industry, they are used for equipment monitoring, quality control, and process production
optimization.
Because of their ability to detect anomalies and prevent breakdowns.
In the field of smart cities or Smart Cities, these sensors play a key role in infrastructure
management, air and water quality monitoring, and waste and energy management.
The healthcare sector also greatly benefits from this innovation, particularly in wearable
medical devices. They allow real-time monitoring of patients’ vital parameters, facilitating
remote surveillance and rapid intervention when necessary.
In precision agriculture, smart sensors are used for environmental condition monitoring
such as soil moisture, temperature, and nutrient levels.
Autonomous vehicles
Compared to traditional sensors, they enable a more precise and automated collection of
environmental data.
 POLYMERS
Polymers are materials of very high molecules formed by the repeated union of several simple
molecules called monomers.

Ex: Polyethylene, Teflon.

In order to form polymers monomers either should have

1. Reactive functional group

2. = or ≡ bonds to provide necessary linkage

Polymers are obtained through the combination of small molecules called monomers. The
Monomer can be linked together through strong covalent bonds to generate a polymer.

Monomers may be of same type or different.

If all the monomers are of same type then the polymer formed is called homopolymer.

If the monomers are of different type then they are called as co-polymers.

homopolymer

Random copolymer

Properties:

1. High strength
2. Light weight and high strength to weight ratio
3. Processing advantage
4. Corrosion resistance
5. Flexible
Uses:
1. Food packing
2. Clothing
3. Home furnishing
4. Transportation
5. Medical devices, etc.

Important terms:

1. Monomers: these are simple molecules which combine each other to form polymers.
Monomers are also called “building blocks’’ of polymers. Examples: Ethylene, vinyl
chloride.
 2. Polymerization: It is the process of conversion of substances having low molecular
weight (monomers) in to substances having high molecular weight (polymers) with or
without elimination of by products.

3. Degree of polymerization:

It is defined as the total number of repeating units present in a polymer molecule.

Where ‘n’ is the degree of polymerization.

The molecular weight of a polymer can be calculated using the formula-

Mol. Wt. of polymer = degree of polymerization X mol.wt. of monomer.

4. Functionality: It is defined as the number of bonding sites or functional group present

in a molecule of the monomer. Depending on the number of bonding sites, the
monomers are called bifunctional, trifunctional or polyfunctional.

Methods of polymerization

➢ Bulk or mass polymerization:

This polymerization method occurs in homogenous system. The method used for the
polymerization of liquid monomers. The polymerization is carried out using of liquid
monomers and monomer soluble radical initiator. Liquid monomer which acts as a solvent
and the initiator should dissolve in the liquid monomer. Polymerization is Initiated either
thermally or photo chemically and the mixture is constantly agitated and heated to the
polymerization temperature.
Bulk polymerization is carried out in the absence of any solvent or dispersant hence it
is simplest in terms of formulation. Generally these reactions are exothermic in nature, the
heat evolved may cause the reaction to become too vigorous and difficult to control unless
efficient cooling is used.
The method is used for the manufacture of plexiglass, Polymethyl methacrolyte (PMMA),
PVC, polystyrene.
 Monomer + Initiator Polymer

Advantages-

• The system is simple and requires thermal insulation.

• The polymer obtained is pure.
• Cost effective
• Large castings may be prepared directly.
Disadvantages
• Heat transfer and mixing become difficult
• The viscosity of reaction mass increases.
• Very high molecular weights are obtained.
• As the polymerization progresses, the viscosity increases, the termination becomes
difficult and a gel effect is observed. This phenomenon is called as “gel effect” or
“auto acceleration”.

➢ Solution Polymerization

Some of the disadvantages of bulk polymerization are eliminated in solution polymerization.

In this method, the monomer and the initiator are dissolved in an inert solvent (non
reactive) to form a homogenous mixture. Heat released by the reaction is absorbed by the
solvent, hence reaction rate is reduced. In addition, the viscosity of the reaction mixture is
reduced, not allowing auto acceleration at high monomer concentrations. Decrease of viscosity
of reaction mixture by dilution also helps for the heat transfer. This helps to solve issues
connected with polymer production as most of polymerizations are exothermic reactions.
This process is one of two used in the production of sodium polyacrylate,
a superabsorbent polymer used in disposable diapers.
Monomer + Initiator
Polymer
Advantages

• The heat control and agitation is easy.

• The viscosity build up is negligible.
• The product obtained can be directly used as adhesive and coatings.

Disadvantages-

• Polymers of high molar mass cannot be formed as the solvent molecules may act as
chain terminators.
• The method become costlier since it uses costly solvents.
 • The product is contaminated by solvent.
• Requires solvent recovery and recycling.

Examples: Polyacrylic acid (PAA) and polyacrylamide

➢ Suspension Polymerization- (pearl)

1. In this method polymer is produced in a heterogeneous medium.
2. The dispersing medium is water.
3. In general, a suspension polymerization system consists of a dispersing medium (water),
water insoluble monomer(s) and a monomer soluble initiator.
4. The water insoluble monomer is suspended in water as tiny droplets by continuous
agitation.
5. The monomer droplets are prevented from coagulation by using small quantities of a water
soluble polyvinyl alcohol.
6. The initiator soluble only in the monomer droplets is added and the mixture is heated and
agitated constantly. The method is like bulk polymerization except the use of water as a
dispersing medium.
7. Polymerization takes place inside the droplet and product being dissoluble in water
produces spherical pearls or beads of polymer. Hence the method is also called pearl
polymerization.
8. They are isolated by the easy method of filtration, followed by washing.

The method is used for the manufacture of, PVC, polyvinyl acetate, polystyrene.

Advantages-

• The process is cheap since it involves only water instead of solvents.

• Viscosity increase is negligible.
• Agitation and heat control are easy.
• The product isolation is easy since the product is insoluble in water.
• The product is so pure.
Disadvantages-
• It is difficult to control the particle size.
• The method can be adopted only for water insoluble monomers.

Monomer + Initiator Polymer

➢ Emulsion Polymerization.
It is one of the important techniques used for the production of commercial plastics and
elastomers

The essential ingredients are-

• Water insoluble monomer.
• Water soluble initiator; such as potassium persulfate, H2O2 etc.
• Water.
• Surfactant (emulsifier) such as soap (RCOOH) and detergents (RSO3Na).

✓ It is resemble to suspension polymerization, here water is used as dispersing medium

✓ Water insoluble monomers is dispersed in water as uniform emulsion
✓ Initiator dissolve in the water
✓ Surfactants like soap or detergents are added and the mixture is vigorously stirred
✓ The surfactant molecules composed of a hydrophilic (water-loving-head) polar end and
hydrophobic (water-hating- tail) non-polar end, form a stabilizing emulsion before
polymerization by coating the monomer droplets.
✓ Other surfactant molecules clump together into smaller aggregates called micelles, which
also absorb monomer molecules.
✓ Initiator forms free radicals in the water, where they may find a few monomers to react
with. These radicals diffuse into the micelles and initiate the polymerization in each
micelle.
✓ The polymer growth inside the micelle causes its swelling. The polymer growth continues
until the growing chain is encountered by a radical and gets terminated.
✓ The product so formed is isolated either by coagulation using electrolytes or by freezing.

The method is used for the manufacture of PVC, polyvinyl acetate, Teflon, elastomers.

Advantages of emulsion polymerization include.

• High molecular weight polymers can be made at fast polymerization rates.
• Agitation and heat control is easy.
• The final product can be used as is and does not generally need to be altered or
processed.
Disadvantages of emulsion polymerization include:

• Surfactants remain in the polymer or are difficult to remove

• For dry (isolated) polymers, water removal is an energy-intensive process
• The polymer needs additional purification.

Synthesis, properties, and industrial applications of

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) (Teflon)

PTFE is a synthetic, semi-crystalline polymer made up of a carbon backbone

surrounded by fluorine atoms. It is produced in a free-radical addition polymerisation
reaction between tetrafluoroethylene (TFE) monomers.
The chemical name of Teflon is poly (1,1,2,2 tetrafluoroethylene). It is a thermoplastic
polymer. Teflon chemical formula is (C2F4)n. The Teflon formula shows repetitive or n
numbers of C2F4 units.

Production of Teflon

Teflon is manufactured by emulsion polymerization of tetrafluoethylene using peroxide

as intiator
nF2C=CF2 -(F2C-CF2)n-
Peroxide
Properties of Teflon
• It is a highly crystallinr
• High density
• High melting point is 600 K.
• It is a chemical resistance compound, the only chemicals that can affect these
compounds are alkali metals.
 • It shows good resistance towards heat and low temperature.
• It has a low water absorption capacity.
• It has an anti-adhesion ability due to which it is used as non-stick kitchen utensils.
• Good electrical insulating power in hot and wet environments
• Good resistance to light, UV and weathering
• Flexibility Availability of food, medical and high-purity grades
• Low water absorption

Applications of Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)

Uses of Teflon

• It is used in making waterproof fabric.

• It is used in making non-stick cookware.
• It is used in making an anti-friction device.
• It is used for coating medical appliances (surgical devices).
• Due to its high resistance to corrosion, it is used for coating the lining of
laboratory appliances.

Polyurethane
Polyurethane (PUR and PU) is a polymer composed of organic units joined
by carbamate (urethane, -NH-CO-O-) links. While most polyurethanes are thermosetting
polymers that do not melt when heated, thermoplastic polyurethanes are also available.
Prepared by the poly addition reaction between diisocyanate and a diol or a triol. During the
addition reaction the H atom of OH group migrates to and adds to nitrogen atom. The presence
of extra oxygen in urethane linkage offers increased flexibility to the polymer chains.

PROPERTIES
• Good Abrasion Resistance
• Good Impact Resistance
• Good Toughness
• Low Viscosity
• High Elongation
• Good Flexibility
• Good tear Strength
• Low Shrinkage
• Hydrolytically Stable
• Resilient (able to recoil or spring back into shape after bending, stretching, or
being compressed)

USE OF POLYURETHANES
Polyurethanes are used in
• The manufacture of flexible, high-resilience foam seating
• Rigid foam insulation panels
• Microcellular foam seals and gaskets
• Durable elastomeric wheels and tires(such as roller coaster wheels)
• Automative suspension bushings
• Electrical potting compounds
• High performance adhesives
• Surface coating and surface sealants
 • Synthetic fibres
• Carpet underlay
• Hard plastic parts(e.g, for electronic instrument)
• Hoses and skateboard wheels
• Used as soles for shoes

Weight average molecular weight,

The weight average molecular weight depends not only on the number of molecules present,
but also on the weight of each molecule. To calculate this, Ni is replaced with NiMi.

In mixture, if w is the mass of polymers with molar mass M1, w2 with molar mass M2…
up to wi with molar mass Mi then,
𝑤
But number of moles N=𝑀 and w=NM, therefore replacing wi by Ni ,

Number average molecular weight,

The number average molecular weight is defined as the total molar masses of polymer
divided by the total number of molecules in the mixture.

If in a sample N1 is the number of molecules with molar masses M1, N2 molecules with molar
mass M2 …. Up to Ni with Mi, then

The number average molecular weight is therefore given by:

Conducting polymers

Organic polymers having electrical conductance of the order of conductors are called
conducting polymers.

These can be classified as extrinsically and intrinsically polymers

Extrinsically conducting polymers are prepared by mixing conducting fillers like metal fibers,
metal oxides and carbon black with insulating polymers

Intrinsically conducting polymers conductivity is due to the organic polymer themselves.

Conductivity is due to presence of Pi electron and due to conjugation.
Conducting polyacetylene

Polyacetylene consists of chains of hundreds to thousands of carbon atoms linked by alternating

single and double bonds.
They conduct electricity when doped with oxidizing or reducing agents or protonic acids
Conductivity of pure polyacetylene is about 4.4 X 10-5S/cm.

1. Oxidative doping (p-doping)

In this process, pi-backbone of polymer is partially oxidized using a suitable oxidizing agent.
This creates positively charged sites on polymer backbone, which are current carriers for
conduction. The oxidizing agents used in p-doping are iodine vapour, iodine in CCl4, HBF4,
perchloric acid.

a. The oxidative dopant such as iodine is added.

b. It takes away an electron from the pi- backbone of the polyacetylene chain and creates a
positive hole on one of the carbon.

c. The other pi electron resides on the other carbon making it a radical

d. The radical ion formed is called polaron

e. A dipolaron ( solitron) is formed on further oxidation

f. Then these radicals migrate and combine to establish a back bone double bond.

g. As the two e- are removed the chain will have two positive centers

h. The chain as a whole is neutral but holes are mobile and when potential is applied they
migrate from one carbon and account for conductivity.
Reductive doping