Al-Maarif University

College of Pharmacy
Biochemistry (1)
1st Semester 2024/ 2025

Lipid chemistry

Ass. Prof. Dr. Abdulrahman Al-Bazzaz

Lipids , Eicosanoids, free radicals & Anti-oxidants

 Definition of Lipids
▪They are a heterogeneous group of organic compounds that are either insoluble or poorly soluble in water
(hydrophobic).

▪By contrast, they are easily dissolved in organic non-polar solvents such as methanol, acetone, chloroform, and
benzene.

▪Their low water solubility is due to a lack of polarizing atoms (O, N, S, & P)

▪Functions of lipids:
1. High source of energy (9 Kcal/gm)

2. Acts as medium for fat soluble vitamins (AEDK)

3. It serves as insulating material in the subcutaneous tissues

4. Building blocks in the cell membrane (lipid bi-layers)

5. Support the vital organs such as heart, kidneys, and nerves

 Chemistry of Lipids
- Lipids are widely distributed throughout both plant and animal kingdom and are
essential constituents of cell membrane.

• Fats are said to be protein sparing because their availability in the diet reduces
the need to burn proteins for energy.

Lipids have several important biological functions:

1. They serve as the reservoir of energy because of their:

a. High energy content. The calorific value is 9 kcal/gm as compared to

carbohydrates which have calorific value of 4 kcal/gm.

b. Storage in concentrated form in water free state (anhydrous) in the tissues as

compared to carbohydrates which are highly hydrated and cannot be stored in such
concentrated form.
2. As structural components of cell membranes.

3. As transport forms of various metabolic fuel.

4. As protective coating on the surface of many organs such as kidney, against injury.

5. To facilitate the absorption of the fat soluble vit. A, D, E & K.

Dietary fat can be divided into two types:

a. Visible fat or fat consumed as such, e.g. butter, oils, ghee.

b. Invisible fat or fat present as part of other foods items,

e.g. egg, fish, meat, cereal, nuts, etc.
Classification of lipids
Classification of Lipids
 1. Simple lipids Example : Fatty acids(FAs)
Fatty acids are carboxylic acids with non-branching hydrocarbon chains ranging from 4
to 36 carbons (C4 to C36). The numbering of carbons in fatty acids begins with the C of the
carboxylate group (COOH) .

The most commonly fatty acids have even numbers of carbon atoms in an unbranched
chain of 12 to 24 carbons; they are either saturated or unsaturated (one or more double
bonds).

The configuration of the double bonds in most unsaturated fatty acids is cis.
Trans fatty acids correlate with increased blood levels of LDL (bad cholesterol) and
decreased HDL (good cholesterol).

Short chain and unsaturation enhance the fluidity of fatty acids and their derivatives by
lowering the melting temperature.
Fatty acids that contain multiple sites of unsaturation are termed polyunsaturated fatty
acids (PUFAs). The double bonds are separated by at least one methylene group.
 1. Simple lipids Example : Fatty acids(FAs)
▪They are present in all organisms as components of fats and membrane lipids. In these
compounds, they are esterified with alcohols.

▪However, fatty acids are also found in small amounts in unesterified form. In this case, they
are known as free fatty acids (FFAs).

▪They usually contain an even number of carbon atoms (because they are synthesized from
two carbon units, acetyl-CoA)

▪They are either saturated (containing no double bonds) or unsaturated (containing one or more
double bonds usually in the cis configuration)

▪Double bonds lower the melting temperature and make FA more fluid
 Classification of lipids
1. Simple Lipids
They are esters of fatty acids with various alcohols.

If the alcohol is glycerol, then they are called fats or neutral fats and are also called
triglycerides as all the three hydroxyl groups of the glycerol are esterified.

If the fat is liquid at ordinary temperature it is called an oil.

All of the three fatty acids can be same or different.

If all the three fatty acids are same, then they are called simple triglycerides.

If the fatty acids are different, then they are called mixed triglycerides.
 Fatty Acids
-Fatty acids in nature as such are not very abundant but are present as ester.
-Fatty acids are represented by general formula R—COOH.
-A fatty acid is a long chain aliphatic carboxylic acid.
General points about them.
1. They are monocarboxylic acids.
2. Number of carbon atoms are even, though odd NO. fatty acids exist but are very rare.
3. They may be saturated or may be unsaturated.
If unsaturated they can be monounsaturated or poly-unsaturated acids.
- Fats obtained from animals are generally saturated and those from plants are commonly
polyunsaturated.
However, these are some exceptions: coconut, palm oils are highly saturated.
 Fatty acids in Food: Saturated vs Unsaturated
▪The incidence of cardiovascular disease is correlated with diets high in
saturated FA or trans-form of unsaturated FA

▪By contrast, a diet that is relatively higher in cis- form of unsaturated FA

(specially PUFA) may reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease
 Fatty acids in Food: Saturated vs Unsaturated
▪Vegetable oils (corn, olive and sunflower oils) are usually rich in unsaturated FA than do
animal oils and fats (milk fat) which contain saturated FA

▪Some Vegetable oils (Palm and coconut oils) are rich in saturated FA

▪Margarine made from vegetable oils (by hydrogenation) is much lower in saturated fatty
acids than is butter, which is made from milk fat.

▪In 1869, Mouriès (French chemist) won a prize from Napoleon III for developing a substitute
for butter Margarine

▪However, margarine may present its own cardiovascular risks. Its fatty acids contain
trans-double bonds

▪The effects of trans fatty acids on LDL, HDL, and cholesterol levels are similar to those of
saturated FA (increase the cholesterol)
 1. Simple lipids Example : Fatty acids(FAs
▪In Fatty acids, the carbon atoms are numbered from the carboxylic end, which
is known as carbon number 1

▪The carbon atom adjacent to the carboxyl group is known as carbon number
2 or α-carbon, and the next carbon as carbon 3 or β- carbon and the next
carbon 4 or γ-carbon, …etc.

▪The methyl carbon at the other end of fatty acid is known as omega carbon
(ώ-carbon).ώώώ

▪ώ -3 is the third last carbon, while ώ -6 is the sixth last carbon

1. Simple lipids Example : Fatty acids(FAs)
 Fatty Acids

- The most common (Non – essential ) among the saturated fatty acids are
palmitic acid (C16), stearic acid (C18) but among the unsaturated fatty acid, oleic
acid (C18).

- Unsaturated fatty acids have lower melting point than saturated fatty acids of
same chain length.

- Fatty acids with odd number carbon atoms occur in trace amounts in
terrestrial and marine animals.

- Fatty acids with one to eight carbons are liquids at room temperature while
those with more carbon atoms are solids.
 The most common( Non-essential ) fatty acids in neutral fats are:

No. of atoms Formula

Butyric acid 4 CH3—(CH2)2—COOH

Caproic acid 6 CH3—(CH2)4—COOH

Lauric acid 12 CH3—(CH2)10—COOH

Palmitic acid 16 CH3—(CH2)14—COOH

Stearic acid 18 CH3—(CH2)16—COOH

Oleic acid 18 CH2—(CH2)7—CH=CH—(CH2)7 —COOH

 Essential fatty acids (EFA)
▪ The fatty acids cannot be synthesized by the body and, therefore, should
be supplied in the diet
▪ Only two fatty acids are known to be essential for humans: alpha-linolenic acid
(Omega-3 fatty acid) and linoleic acid (Omega-6 fatty acid)

Functions of EFA

o Membrane structure and functions.

o Transport and oxidation of cholesterol. EFA tend to lower plasma cholesterol.
o Prevention of fatty liver.
o They are needed for synthesis of eicosanoids (prostaglandins, prostacyclins).
 ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS
- They are also called polyunsaturated fatty acids.
- They are not synthesized in the body and hence, have to be provided in the diet.

- Although linolenic acid (Omega-3 fatty acid) and arachidonic acid are synthesized by the
body from linoleic acid (Omega-6 fatty acid) but they are synthesized in insufficient
quantity for our needs.
Essential fatty acids are needed for:

1. Proper cell membrane formation

2. Synthesis of prostaglandins prostacyclins, thromboxanes and leukotrienes.

Essential fatty acids are:
1. Linoleic acid 18 2 9, 12 Vegetable oils
2. Linolenic acid 18 3 9, 12, 15 Vegetable oils
3. Arachidonic acid 20 4 5, 8, 11, 14 Vegetable oils
4. Timnodonic acid 20 5 5, 8, 11, 14, 17 Fish oils
 Essential Fatty acids
▪ In the body, they produce hormone-like substances that regulate a wide range of functions,
including blood pressure, blood clotting, blood lipid levels, the immune response, and the
inflammation response to injury infection.
Class Name Source

α-Linolenic 18:3; 9,12,15 Linseed oil

ω-3 Eicosapentaenoic (EPA) 20:5; 5,8,11,14,17 Fish oils, cod liver, mackerel, menhaden, salmon oils
family
Docosahexaenoic (DHA)
Fish oils, phospholipids in brain
22:6; 4,7,10,13,16,19

γ-Linolenic 18:3; 6,9,12 Oil of evening primrose, borage oil

ω-6
Linoleic 18:2; 9,12 Corn, peanut, cottonseed, soybean and many plant oils
family

Arachidonic
Dr. Yasser Kandil acid 20:4; 5,8,11,14
(20) Animal fats and in peanut oil
Essential Fatty acids
 1. Simple lipids Example : Triglycerides (TAGs)
▪TAGs are the major energy reserve and the principal neutral derivatives of
glycerol found in animals.

▪These molecules consist of a glycerol esterified with three fatty acids.

▪If all 3-fatty acids are the same, the molecule is called a simple TAG

▪If the molecule contains 2-3 different fatty acids, called mixed TAG

▪TAGs in animals are found primarily in the adipose tissue (body fat), which
serves as a depot or storage site for lipids.

▪Monoacylglycerols and diacylglycerols also exist, but are far less common than
the TAGs.
1. Simple lipids Example : Triglycerides (TAGs)
 1. Simple lipids Example : Triacylglycerols
Also referred to as triglycerides, fats, or neutral fats.
Triacylglycerols are fatty acid esters of glycerol. They are composed of
3 fatty acids each in ester linkage with a single glycerol.
Triacylglycerols containing only saturated fatty acids
Simple triacylglycerols contain only one type of fatty acids;
Mixed triacylglycerols, two or three types.
Triacylglycerols are primarily storage fats; they are present in many foods
In some animals, triacylglycerols stored under the skin serve not only as energy
stores but as insulation against low temperatures.

Neutral lipids : The lipids which are uncharged are referred to as neutral lipids
e.g. triacylglycerols
1. Simple lipids Example : Triglycerides (TAGs)
Simple TAG

Mixed
TAG
 Triacylglycerols as stored fuels

▪ Two significant advantages to using triacylglycerols as stored fuels, rather

than polysaccharides such as glycogen and starch.
o Carbon atoms of fatty acids are more reduced than those of sugars,
oxidation of triacylglycerols yields more than twice as much energy, gram
for gram, as the oxidation of carbohydrates.

o Triacylglycerols are hydrophobic and therefore anhydrated, the organism

that carries fat as fuel does not have to carry the extra weight of water of
hydration that is associated with stored polysaccharides (2 g per gram of
polysaccharide).
 2. Compound Lipids

1. Phospholipids : Glycerol + Fatty acids + Phosphate

2. Sphingomyelins : Sphingosine + Fatty acid + Phosphate + Choline

3. Cerebrosedes (glycolipids) : Sphingosine + Fatty acid + Simple sugar(s)

4. Gangliosides (glycolipids): Sphingosine + Fatty acid + 2-6 simple sugars one

of which is sialic acid
 2. Compound lipids Ex: Phospholipids
▪ Phospholipids are the main lipid constituents of biological membranes
1) Phosphatidic acid is important as an intermediate in the synthesis of TAG as well as
phosphoglycerols but is not found in any great quantity in tissues
2) Lecithins and Cephalin are the most abundant phospholipids of the cell membrane
3) Dipalmitoyl lecithin is a very effective surface active agent and a major constituent of the
surfactant preventing adherence of the inner surfaces of the lungs. Its absence from the
lungs of premature infants causes respiratory distress syndrome (RDS)
4) Cardiolipin is a major lipid of mitochondrial membranes
5) Plasmalogens occur in brain and muscles
6) Sphingomyelins are found in the nervous system
 Phospholipids degradation
▪The snakes venoms contain phospholipase A2, which hydrolyzes of fatty acid at the C-2
position of phospholipids to produce lysophospholipids.

▪ The snakes venoms act on both Lecithin and Cephalin to produce Lysolecithin and
Lysocephalin

▪Both Lysolecithin and Lysocephalin act as detergent and dissolves the membranes of RBCs,
causing hemolysis and death.
 Proteolipids
▪This is a group of lipid surrounds the protein, making the molecule insoluble in water but
soluble in fat solvents.

▪Proteolipid combinations abundant in brain tissue, but also present in a wide variety of
animal and plant tissues.
▪The protein moiety has a high content of hydrophobic amino acids.
▪They are completely differ from lipoproteins in which the protein surrounds the lipid, making
the molecule soluble in water. They are:

1. Chylomicrons (CM)
2. Very Low Density Lipoproteins (VLDL)
3. Low Density Lipoproteins (LDL)
4. High Density Lipoproteins (HDL)
 Lipoproteins (Lipid transport to tissues)
▪Lipids are hydrophobic and insoluble in aqueous environments. Therefore,
special methods are needed to transport them round the body.
▪ Lipoproteins: Macromolecular complexes of lipids and proteins. They are transport fat
molecules, such as triglycerides, phospholipids, and cholesterol within the water-based
solution of the bloodstream to all the cells and tissues of the body.
▪ Five types of lipoproteins:
1. Chylomicrons, transport dietary lipids (exogenous( from intestine to peripheral tissues.
2. Very low density lipoproteins (VLDL), transport the lipids (endogenously synthesized)
mainly TG from liver to peripheral tissues.
3. Low density lipoproteins (LDL) ("bad" cholesterol), transport cholesterol from liver to
peripheral tissues.
4. High density lipoproteins (HDL) ("good" cholesterol), carry cholesterol from
peripheral tissues to liver.
5. Intermediate density lipoproteins (IDL).
 3. Derived Lipids
1. Steroids are :
• Animal or human like Cholesterol
• Plant like Ergosterols
▪They contain:

1.–OH group C3,

2.Methyl groups at C10 and C13,
3.Double bond between C5 and C6,
4.Side chain at C17

2. Terpens like Fat soluble vitamins ( A,E,D,K)

3- Derived Lipids: are the derivatives obtained by the hydrolysis of
simple and compound lipids. These include fatty acids, alcohols,
mono-and diacylglycerol, lipid soluble vitamins and steroids.
The most common derived lipids are steroids.

Sterols are structural lipids present in the membranes of most

eukaryotic cells. The characteristic structure is the steroid nucleus,
consisting of four fused rings, three with six carbons and one with five

There are several steroids in the biological system. These include

cholesterol, bile acids, vitamin D, sex hormones, adrenocortical
hormones
 Cholesterol
A 27 carbon lipid, it makes up 50-60% of all membrane lipid
Cholesterol is exclusively found in animals tissues
Amphipathic, with a polar head group (hydroxyl group) and a
nonpolar hydrocarbon body (the steroid nucleus and the
hydrocarbon side chain at C-17)
Major site of cholesterol synthesis is the liver with significant
synthesis in intestines
Precursor of steroid hormones, bile salts and Vitamin D
▪ Cholesterol is an human or animal sterol whose basic structure includes:

1) cyclopentano perhydro-phenanthrene nucleus

2) 27 carbon atoms

3) Hydroxyl group at C3,

4) Double bond between C5 and C6,

5) Eight-membered hydrocarbon chain attached to C17 in the D ring,

6) 2 methyl groups attached to C10 and C13,

▪Approximately one third of plasma cholesterol exists in the free (unesterified).

▪The remaining two thirds exists as cholesterol esters in which a long-chain fatty acid
(usually linoleic acid) is attached by ester linkage to the OH group at C3 of the A-ring
 Cholesterol Structure

▪ Cholesterol-ester is the storage form of

cholesterol

▪ It is formed either in tissues or plasma.

1) In tissues, cholesterol is esterified by ACAT

(Acyl-CoA Cholesterol Acyl Transferase)

2) In plasma, cholesterol is esterified by LCAT

(Lecithin Cholesterol Acyl Transferase)
 Cholesterol Sources
1. Endogenous:
▪ Cholesterol is formed in the body almost in all cells from acetyl-CoA, which can be produced
from glucose, fatty acids, or ketogenic amino acids.
▪About 700 mg of cholesterol is synthesized per day
2. Exogenous:
▪ Cholesterol only presents in food of animal origin such as egg yolk, meat, liver and brain.
▪ Diet supplies about 300 mg of cholesterol per day.
▪ Excretion of cholesterol: About one gram of cholesterol is excreted daily:
▪½ gram is secreted as such with bile, which transports it to the intestine for elimination.
▪½ gram is converted to bile acids, which are excreted in the faeces.
 Cholesterol Functions
1. Serves as a stabilizing component of cell membranes of
every body cell

2. It is the precursor of the bile acids (Cholic,

Deoxycholic, chenodeoxy cholic and lithocholic acids)
and bile salts (Na and K salts of these acids).

3. It is the precursor of steroid hormones (Estrogens,

progesterone, testosterone and androgens).

4. It is the precursor of Glucocorticoids (cortisone and

hydrocortisone) and mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)

5. It is the precursor of active form of vitamin D.

 ‫آمني يكول يجي مهم جداااااااااا‬

Bile acids
Bile acids are polar derivatives of cholesterol that stored in the
gallbladder after secretion by the liver, and then release into small
intestine to aid in the processes of digestion and absorption of fats
(emulsifying dietary fats to make them more readily accessible to
digestive lipases).
 Orientation amphipathic lipids

Depending on the precise conditions and the nature of

the lipids.
Three types of lipid aggregates can form when
amphipathic lipids are mixed with water

Micelles
Lipid bilayer
liposome
 lipid bilayer
▪The central feature of biological membranes is a double layer of
lipids, which are composed of lipids and proteins
▪Many membrane proteins contain covalently attached
oligosaccharides.
▪ Plasma membrane glycoproteins are always oriented with the
carbohydrate-bearing domain on the extracellular surface.
▪Some of the roles of oligosaccharides in the cell surface:
• Viruses that infect animal cells, such as the influenza virus, bind
to cell surface glycoproteins as the first step in infection.
•Bacterial toxins, such as the cholera and pertussis toxins, bind to
a surface glycolipid before entering
 Eicosanoids
▪ Eicosanoids are formed from C20 polyunsaturated essential FAs (In the body, they produce
hormone-like substances that regulate a wide range of functions, including blood pressure,
blood clotting, blood lipid levels, the immune response, and the inflammation response to injury
infection).
Arachidonate and some other C20 essential Fatty acids give rise to eicosanoids which
includes:

1. Prostaglandins (PG),

2. Thromboxanes (TX) ,

3. Leukotrienes (LT) ,

4. Lipoxins.
 Eicosanoids
- They serve as mediators of the inflammatory response.

The dietary precursor of the eicosanoids is the essential fatty acid, linoleic
acid(18:2; 9,12 present in corn, peanut, cottonseed, soybean and many plant
oils) using NADH2 to form NAD+ to form Arachidonic acid which is the
predominate precursor of prostaglandin.

Linoleic acid is more de-saturated & elongated to arachidonic

acid—the immediate precursor of prostaglandins—which is stored in
the membrane as a component of a phospholipid, generally
phosphatidylinositol.
 Eicosanoids
1. Are formed mostly in all tissues except RBCs.
2. Have short half-life.
3. Are synthesized in very small amounts.
4. Are act locally at the site of synthesis through receptor mediated G-protein &
that leads to increase CAMP levels. Epinephrine, Bradykinin, Thrombin & Angiotensin II act
through G-protein that increase CAMP which activates phospholipase A2 that catalyze the conversion
of phospholipid to arachidonic acids to form PG,TX and LT through cyclo-oxygenase & lipoxygenase
pathways
5. Are inactivated at their site of synthesis.
6. Are not stored.
There are two pathways of their formation:
1. Cyclooxygenase pathway
2. Lipoxygenase pathway.
 Prostaglandins
Prostaglandins are the derivatives of prostanoic acid which are the cyclic
derivatives of unsaturated fatty acids having twenty carbon atoms.

Prostaglandins are synthesized from essential fatty acids such as linoleic acid,
linolenic acid and arachidonic acid.

Five type of rings are found in the naturally occurring prostaglandins giving rise
to:
Prostaglandins of A, B, E, F and G or H series.
The prostaglandins which are widely distributed in the body are
PGE1, PGE2, PGE3, PGF1α, PGF2α and PGF3α.

Linolenic acid is the precursor to PGE3 and PGF1α,

Arachidonic acid is the precursor to PGF2 and PGF2α.
 1- Eicosanoids synthesized by Cyclooxygenase pathway
- Arachidonic acid is released from the phospholipid by phospholipase A2.
-

- Synthesis of the PG and TX begins with the oxidative cyclization of free arachidonic
acid to yield PGH2 by prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase—an endoplasmic reticulum
(ER) membrane protein that has two catalytic activities: fatty acid cyclooxygenase
(COX-1&2) and peroxidase.
• Opposing effects of PGI2 and TXA2 limit clot formation.
• There are 2-isozymes of the synthase: COX-1 (constitutive) & COX-2 (non-constitutive).
• Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) inhibit both enzymes COX-1 & COX-2.
1- Aspirin inhibits COX-1 & COX-2 irreversibly.
2- But phenylbutazone and indomethacin inhibit COX-1 & COX-2 reversibly
 2- Eicosanoids synthesized by 5-lipoxygenase pathway.

- Leukotrienes (LT) are linear molecules produced by the 5-lipoxygenase

pathway.

- The arachidonic acid form 5-hydroperoxyeicosatetraenoic acid (5-HPETE) by

the enzyme 5-lipoxygenase forming different types of leukotrienes (LT ) (A-D
types) with different effects.

- They mediate allergic response and are unaffected by NSAIDs.

NADH2 NAD+
Epinephrine, Bradykinin,
Thrombin & Angiotensin II
act through G-protein that increase CAMP
 • Increase vascular permeability
‫زﯾﺎدة ﻧﻔﺎذﯾﺔ اﻻوﻋﯿﮫ اﻟﺪﻣﻮﯾﮫ‬

• Makeup slow reacting substance of anaphylaxis

‫ﺗﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﺎده ﺑﻄﯿﺌﺔ اﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺤﺴﺎﺳﯿﮫ اﻟﻤﻔﺮطﮫ‬

• Increase chemotaxis of polymorphonuclear leucocytes

‫زﯾﺎدة اﻟﺘﺴﻤﻢ اﻟﻜﯿﻤﯿﺎوي ﻟﻠﻜﺮﯾﺎت اﻟﺒﯿﻀﺎءﻣﺘﻌﺪدة اﻻﺷﻜﺎل‬
 Free Radicals
- Free radical is defined as any atom or molecule that possesses an unpaired
electron.
- It can be anionics, are highly reactive molecules generated by the
biochemical redox reactions that occur as part of normal cell metabolism
and by exposure to environmental factors such as UV light, cigarette
smoking, environmental pollutions and gamma radiations.

- Human body is constantly under attack from free radicals.

- Some toxic compounds can result in the production of free radicals which
include anticancer drugs, anesthetics, analgesics, etc.
-
 Free Radicals
- The free radicals species which occur in the human body are:
a. Superoxide radical (•O2¯)
b. Hydroxyl radical (OH•)
c. Nitric oxide radical (NO•)

d. Peroxyl radical (ROO•).

Once formed, free radicals attack cell structures within the body.

As a result, free radicals have been implicated in numerous diseases such as

atherosclerosis, cancer, AIDS, liver damage, rheumatoid arthritis, Parkinson’s
disease, etc.
 The Antioxidant System
• In healthy individuals, the antioxidant system defends tissues against free radical attack.
• Antioxidants are known to prevent cellular damage and enhance repair.

- Three classes of antioxidants have been identified.

a. Primary antioxidants: They prevent the formation of new free radical species,
e.g. superoxide dimutase, glutathione peroxidase, ceruloplasmin, transferrin, ferritin.

b. Secondary antioxidants: They remove newly formed free radicals before they can initiate
chain reactions.
These chain reactions can lead to cell damage and further free radical formations, e.g. vitamin
E, vitamin C, β-carotene, uric acid, bilirubin, albumin.

c. Tertiary antioxidants: They repair cell structures damaged by free radicals attack, e.g.
DNA repair enzymes, methionine sulphoxide reductase.
 Process of Lipid Peroxidation
- This process is responsible for rancidity of food.
-
This process involves:

i. Initiation

ii. Propagation

iii. Termination.
Deficiency in the antioxidant system can develop for a number of reasons:
a. Low intake of dietary antioxidants

b. Total parenteral nutrition

c. Decreases that reduce the absorption of antioxidant nutrients from food, e.g.

Crohn’s disease

d. Renal dialysis

-In these situations the antioxidant system struggles to protect the body from free

radical attack and as a result the risk of free radical-mediated disease increases.
Increased antioxidant status by supplementation may indeed reduce the risk of
certain diseases.
i. High intake of vitamin E has been associated with reduced risk of mortality
from ischemic heart disease.
ii. High incidence of vitamin C and β-carotene have been associated with a
reduced incidence of some cancers.

iii. Dietary supplementation of vitamin E, β-carotene and selenium

significantly reduces mortality from esophageal cancer.
iv. Within one week on antioxidant rich, low fat diet reduces lipid peroxide levels and
increased aborrhic acid level in patient in the acute myocardial infarction.