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An Introduction to Nonlinear Analysis 1st Edition Martin
Schechter Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Martin Schechter
ISBN(s): 9780521892827, 0521892821
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 1.21 MB
Year: 2004
Language: english
 CAMBRIDGE STUDIES IN ADVANCED MATHEMATICS 95
Editorial Board
B. Bollobas, W. Fulton, A. Katok, F. Kirwan, P. Sarnak, B. Simon

An Introduction to Nonlinear Analysis

The techniques that can be used to solve nonlinear problems are very
different from those used to solve linear problems. Many courses in anal-
ysis and applied mathematics attack linear cases simply because they are
easier to solve and do not require a large theoretical background in or-
der to approach them. Professor Schechter’s book is devoted to nonlinear
methods using the least background material possible and the simplest
linear techniques.

An understanding of the tools for solving nonlinear problems is devel-

oped while demonstrating their application to problems first in one di-
mension, and then in higher dimensions. The reader is guided using
simple exposition and proof, assuming a minimal set of prerequisites.
To complete, a set of appendices covering essential basics in functional
analysis and metric spaces is included, making this ideal as a text for an
upper-undergraduate or graduate course, or even for self-study.

Martin Schechter is Professor of Mathematics at the University of

California, Irvine.
CAMBRIDGE STUDIES IN ADVANCED MATHEMATICS
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An Introduction to Nonlinear
Analysis

Martin Schechter
University of California, Irvine
published by the press syndicate of the university of cambridge
The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom
cambridge university press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK
40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA
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C Cambridge University Press 2004

This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

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First published 2004

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the product.
BS

D

To my wife, Deborah, our children,

our grandchildren (all twenty one of them so far)
and our extended family.
May they enjoy many happy years.
 Contents

Preface page xiii

1 Extrema 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 A one dimensional problem 1
1.3 The Hilbert space H 10
1.4 Fourier series 17
1.5 Finding a functional 20
1.6 Finding a minimum, I 23
1.7 Finding a minimum, II 28
1.8 A slight improvement 30
1.9 Finding a minimum, III 32
1.10 The linear problem 33
1.11 Nontrivial solutions 35
1.12 Approximate extrema 36
1.13 The Palais–Smale condition 40
1.14 Exercises 42

2 Critical points 45
2.1 A simple problem 45
2.2 A critical point 46
2.3 Finding a Palais–Smale sequence 47
2.4 Pseudo-gradients 52
2.5 A sandwich theorem 55
2.6 A saddle point 60
2.7 The chain rule 64

vii
viii Contents
2.8 The Banach fixed point theorem 65
2.9 Picard’s theorem 66
2.10 Continuous dependence of solutions 68
2.11 Continuation of solutions 69
2.12 Extending solutions 71
2.13 Resonance 72
2.14 The question of nontriviality 75
2.15 The mountain pass method 76
2.16 Other intervals for asymptotic limits 79
2.17 Super-linear problems 82
2.18 A general mountain pass theorem 83
2.19 The Palais–Smale condition 85
2.20 Exercises 85

3 Boundary value problems 87

3.1 Introduction 87
3.2 The Dirichlet problem 87
3.3 Mollifiers 88
3.4 Test functions 90
3.5 Differentiability 92
3.6 The functional 99
3.7 Finding a minimum 101
3.8 Finding saddle points 107
3.9 Other intervals 110
3.10 Super-linear problems 114
3.11 More mountains 116
3.12 Satisfying the Palais–Smale condition 119
3.13 The linear problem 120
3.14 Exercises 121

4 Saddle points 123

4.1 Game theory 123
4.2 Saddle points 123
4.3 Convexity and lower semi-continuity 125
4.4 Existence of saddle points 128
4.5 Criteria for convexity 132
4.6 Partial derivatives 133
4.7 Nonexpansive operators 137
4.8 The implicit function theorem 139
4.9 Exercises 143
 Contents ix
5 Calculus of variations 145
5.1 Introduction 145
5.2 The force of gravity 145
5.3 Hamilton’s principle 148
5.4 The Euler equations 151
5.5 The Gâteaux derivative 155
5.6 Independent variables 156
5.7 A useful lemma 158
5.8 Sufficient conditions 159
5.9 Examples 165
5.10 Exercises 167

6 Degree theory 171

6.1 The Brouwer degree 171
6.2 The Hilbert cube 175
6.3 The sandwich theorem 183
6.4 Sard’s theorem 184
6.5 The degree for differentiable functions 187
6.6 The degree for continuous functions 193
6.7 The Leray–Schauder degree 197
6.8 Properties of the Leray–Schauder degree 200
6.9 Peano’s theorem 201
6.10 An application 203
6.11 Exercises 205

7 Conditional extrema 207

7.1 Constraints 207
7.2 Lagrange multipliers 213
7.3 Bang–bang control 215
7.4 Rocket in orbit 217
7.5 A generalized derivative 220
7.6 The definition 221
7.7 The theorem 222
7.8 The proof 226
7.9 Finite subsidiary conditions 229
7.10 Exercises 235

8 Mini-max methods 237

8.1 Mini-max 237
8.2 An application 240
8.3 Exercises 243
x Contents
9 Jumping nonlinearities 245
9.1 The Dancer–Fučı́k spectrum 245
9.2 An application 248
9.3 Exercises 251

10 Higher dimensions 253

10.1 Orientation 253
10.2 Periodic functions 253
10.3 The Hilbert spaces Ht 254
10.4 Compact embeddings 258
10.5 Inequalities 258
10.6 Linear problems 262
10.7 Nonlinear problems 265
10.8 Obtaining a minimum 271
10.9 Another condition 274
10.10 Nontrivial solutions 277
10.11 Another disappointment 278
10.12 The next eigenvalue 278
10.13 A Lipschitz condition 282
10.14 Splitting subspaces 283
10.15 The question of nontriviality 285
10.16 The mountains revisited 287
10.17 Other intervals between eigenvalues 289
10.18 An example 293
10.19 Satisfying the PS condition 294
10.20 More super-linear problems 297
10.21 Sobolev’s inequalities 297
10.22 The case q = ∞ 303
10.23 Sobolev spaces 305
10.24 Exercises 308

Appendix A Concepts from functional analysis 313

A.1 Some basic definitions 313
A.2 Subspaces 314
A.3 Hilbert spaces 314
A.4 Bounded linear functionals 316
A.5 The dual space 317
A.6 Operators 319
A.7 Adjoints 321
A.8 Closed operators 322
 Contents xi
A.9 Self-adjoint operators 323
A.10 Subsets 325
A.11 Finite dimensional subspaces 326
A.12 Weak convergence 327
A.13 Reflexive spaces 328
A.14 Operators with closed ranges 329

Appendix B Measure and integration 331

B.1 Measure zero 331
B.2 Step functions 331
B.3 Integrable functions 332
B.4 Measurable functions 335
B.5 The spaces Lp 335
B.6 Measurable sets 336
B.7 Carathéodory functions 338

Appendix C Metric spaces 341

C.1 Properties 341
C.2 Para-compact spaces 343

Appendix D Pseudo-gradients 345

D.1 The benefits 345
D.2 The construction 346

Bibliography 353
Index 355
 Preface

The techniques that can be used to solve nonlinear problems are very
different from those that are used to solve linear problems. Most courses
in analysis and applied mathematics attack linear problems simply be-
cause they are easier to solve. The information that is needed to solve
them is not as involved or technical in nature as that which is usually
required to solve a corresponding nonlinear problem. This applies not
only to the practical material but also to the theoretical background.
As an example, it is usually sufficient in dealing with linear problems
in analysis to apply Riemann integration to functions that are piecewise
continuous. Rarely is more needed. In considering the convergence of
series, uniform convergence usually suffices. In general, concepts from
functional analysis are not needed; linear algebra is usually sufficient. A
student can go quite far in the study of linear problems without being
exposed to Lebesgue integration or functional analysis.
However, there are many nonlinear problems that arise in applied
mathematics and sciences that require much more theoretical back-
ground in order to attack them. If we couple this with the difficult techni-
cal details concerning the corresponding linear problems that are usually
needed before one can apply the nonlinear techniques, we find that the
student does not come in contact with substantive nonlinear theory until
a very advanced stage in his or her studies. This is unfortunate because
students having no more background in mathematics beyond that of
second year calculus are often required by their disciplines to study such
problems. Moreover, such students can readily understand most of the
methods used in solving nonlinear problems.
During the last few years, the author has been giving a class devoted
to nonlinear methods using the least background material possible and

xiii
xiv Preface
the simplest linear techniques. This is not an easy tightrope to walk.
There are times when theorems from Lebesgue integration are required
together with theorems from functional analysis. There are times when
exact estimates for the linear problem are needed. What should one do?
My approach has been to explain the methods using the simplest
terms. After I apply the methods to the solving of problems, I then
prove them. True, I will need theorems from functional analysis and
Lebesgue integration. At such times I explain the background theorems
used. Then, the students have two options: either to believe me or to
consult the references that I provide.
This brings me to the purpose of the text. I was unable to find a
book that contained the material that I wanted to cover at the level
that I wanted it presented. Moreover, I wanted to include a concise
presentation (without proofs) of all of the background information that
was needed to understand the techniques used in the body of the text.
The writing of this book gave me the opportunity to accomplish both.
If I think the students can handle it, I do prove background material in
the body of the text. Otherwise, I explain it in four appendices in the
back of the book. This also applies to topics that require a whole course
to develop. This approach is intended to accommodate students at all
levels. If they do not wish to see proofs of background materials, they
can skip these sections. If they are familiar with functional analysis and
Lebesgue integration, they can ignore the appendices.
The purpose of the course is to teach the methods that can be used
in solving nonlinear problems. These include the contraction mapping
theorem, Picard’s theorem, the implicit function theorem, the Brouwer
degree and fixed point theorem, the Schauder fixed point theorem, the
Leray–Schauder degree, Peano’s theorem, etc. However, the student will
not appreciate any of them unless he or she observes them in action.
On the other hand, if the applications are too complicated, the student
will be bogged down in technical details that may prove to be extremely
discouraging. This is another tightrope.
What surprised me was the amount of advanced background informa-
tion that was needed to understand the methods used to attack even
the easiest of nonlinear problems. I quote in the appendices only that
material that is needed in the text. And yet, an examination of these
appendices will reveal the substantial extent of this background knowl-
edge. If we waited until the student had learned all of this, we would
not be able to cover the material in the book until the student was well
advanced. On the other hand, students with more modest backgrounds
 Preface xv
can understand the statements of the background theorems even though
they have not yet learned the proofs. In fact, this approach can moti-
vate such students to learn more advanced topics once they see the need
for the material. In essence, I am advocating the cart before the horse.
I want the student to appreciate the horse because it can be used to
transport all of the items in the cart.
Equipping the student with the tools mentioned above is the main
purpose of the book. Of course, one can first present a theorem and
then give some applications. Most books function this way. However, I
prefer to pose a problem and then introduce a tool that will help solve
the problem. My choice of problems could be vast, but I tried to select
those that require the least background. This outlook affected my choice:
differential equations. I found them to require the least preparation.
Moreover, most students have a familiarity with them. I picked them as
the medium in which to work. The tools are the main objects, not the
medium. True, the students do not know where they are headed, but
neither does a research scientist searching for answers. It is also true
that no matter what medium I pick, the nonlinear problems that the
students will encounter in the future will be different. But as long as
they have the basic tools, they have a decent chance of success.
I begin by posing a fairly modest nonlinear problem that would be
easy to solve in the linear case. (In fact, we do just that; we solve the
linear problem.) I then develop the tools that we use in solving it. I do
this with two things in mind. The first is to develop methods that will be
useful in solving many other nonlinear problems. The second is to show
the student why such methods are useful. At the same time I try to keep
the background knowledge needed to a minimum. In most cases the
nonlinear tools require much more demanding information concerning
the corresponding linear problem than the techniques used in solving the
linear problem itself. I have made a concerted effort to choose problems
that keep such required information to a minimum. I then vary the
problem slightly to demonstrate how the techniques work in different
situations and to introduce new tools that work when the original ones
fail.
I then introduce new problems and new techniques that are used to
solve them. The problems and techniques become progressively more dif-
ficult, but again I attempt to minimize the background material without
ignoring important major nonlinear methods. My goal is to introduce
as many nonlinear tools as time permits. I know that the students will
probably not be confronted with the problems I have introduced, but
xvi Preface
they will have a collection of nonlinear methods and the knowledge of
how they can be used.
In the first chapter we confront a seemingly simple problem for peri-
odic functions in one dimension and go about solving it. The approach
appears not to be related to the problem. We then fit the technique to
the problem. (It is not at all obvious that the technique will work.) The
student then sees how the techniques solve the problem. The chapter
deals with the differentiation of functionals, Fourier series, finding min-
ima of functionals and Hilbert space methods. I try to explain why each
technique is used.
In the second chapter we consider the same problem for the cases when
the functionals used in the first chapter have no minima. We begin with
a simple algebraic problem in two dimensions. I introduce methods that
can be used to solve it by producing saddle points, and then general-
ize the methods to arbitrary Hilbert spaces. We then apply them to
the original problem. The tools used include the contraction mapping
principle, Picard’s theorem in a Banach space, extensions of solutions of
differential equations in a Banach space and the sandwich theorem.
The third chapter leaves periodicity and deals with boundary value
problems. I introduce mollifiers and test functions. As expected, different
and stronger techniques are required.
The fourth chapter studies saddle points of functionals using such
properties as convexity and lower semi-continuity. Conditions are given
which produce saddle points, and these are applied to various problems.
Partial differentiation is introduced, and the implicit function theorem
is proved.
The fifth chapter discusses the calculus of variations, the Euler equa-
tions and the methods of obtaining minima. Necessary and sufficient
conditions are given for the existence of minima. Many examples are
presented.
In the sixth chapter I cover degree theory and its applications. Topics
include the Brouwer and Schauder fixed point theorems, Sard’s theorem,
Peano’s theorem and the Leray–Schauder degree. Applications are given.
The seventh chapter is devoted to constrained minima, of both the in-
tegral (iso-perimetric) and finite (point-wise) types. The Lagrange mul-
tiplier rule is proved and a more comprehensive type of differentiation
is introduced.
The eighth chapter discusses mini-max techniques and gives examples.
In the ninth chapter I present the method of solving semi-linear
 Preface xvii
equations which are sub-linear at infinity. We solve them by relating
them to the Dancer–Fućı́k spectrum.
The tenth chapter is by far the largest; it is the first to tackle prob-
lems in higher dimensions. Even so, I limit the discussions to periodic
functions. We consider spaces of distributions, Sobolev inequalities and
Sobolev spaces. As expected, a lot of preparation is needed, and the
proofs are more difficult. We generalize the one-dimensional results to
higher dimensions.
There are four appendices. The first assembles the definitions and
theorems (without proofs) from functional analysis that are needed in
the text. I was surprised that so much was required. The second ap-
pendix deals with the theorems concerning Lebesgue integration required
by the text. Again, proofs are omitted with one exception. We prove
that Carathéodory functions are measurable. This theorem is not well
known and hard to find in the literature. The third appendix describes
what is needed concerning metric spaces. The fourth shows how pseudo-
gradients can be used to strengthen some of the theorems in the text.
It is hoped that this volume will fill a need and will allow students
with modest backgrounds to tackle important nonlinear problems.



TVSLB O
 1
Extrema

1.1 Introduction
One of the most powerful tools in dealing with nonlinear problems is
critical point theory. It originates from the fact in calculus that the
derivative of a smooth function vanishes at extreme points (maxima and
minima). In order to apply this basic reasoning, the given problem must
be converted to one in which we look for points where the derivative of a
function vanishes (i.e., critical points). This cannot always be arranged.
But when it can, one has a very useful method. The easiest situation
is when the function has extrema. We discuss this case in the present
chapter. We present a problem and convert it into the desired form. We
then give criteria that imply that extrema exist. The case when extrema
do not exist will be discussed in the next chapter.

1.2 A one dimensional problem

We now consider the problem of finding a solution of
−u

(x) + u(x) = f (x, u(x)), x ∈ I = [0, 2π], (1.1)
under the conditions
u(0) = u(2π), u
(0) = u
(2π). (1.2)
We assume that the function f (x, t) is continuous in I × R and is periodic
in x with period 2π. If u(x) is a solution, then we have
(u
, v
) + (u, v) = (−u

+ u, v) = (f (·, u), v)
for all v ∈ C 1 (I) satisfying (1.2). Here,

2π
(u, v) = u(x)v(x) dx,
0

1
2 Extrema
C 1 (I) is the set of continuously differentiable periodic functions on I,
and we used the fact that no boundary terms arise in the integration by
parts. The expression

(u, v)H = (u
, v
) + (u, v) (1.3)

is a scalar product corresponding to the norm

uH = (u
2 + u2 )1/2 . (1.4)

(See Appendix A for the definition of a scalar product and related terms.)
Thus, a solution of (1.1),(1.2) satisfies

(u, v)H = (f (·, u), v) (1.5)

for all v ∈ C 1 (I) satisfying (1.2).

As we mentioned before, our approach will be that of critical point

theory. It begins by asking the question, “Does there exist a differentiable
function G from a Hilbert space H to R such that (1.1),(1.2) is equivalent
to

G
(u) = 0?” (1.6)

(See Appendix A for the definition of a Hilbert space.) The reason for the
question is that in elementary calculus it is known that a critical point
of a differentiable function does satisfy such an equation. It is therefore
hoped that one can mimic the methods of calculus to find critical points
and thus solve

G
(u) = 0. (1.7)

Anyone who thinks that this should be easy is due for a rude awakening.
Actually, we are asking the following: Does there exist a mapping G from
a Hilbert space H to R such that

(a) G has an extremum at a“point” u

(b) G has a derivative at u
(c) G
(u) = −u

+ u − f (x, u(x))?

(The reason we want H to be a Hilbert space will become clear as we

proceed.)
 1.2 A one dimensional problem 3
As we shall see, none of these is easily answered. Moreover, a lot of
explaining has to be done. The motivation is clear. If g(x) is a differen-
tiable function on R and

g(a) = min g,
R

then it follows that

g
(a) = 0.

Thus, if we can find a “function” G(v) from H to R (such a “function”

is called a “functional”) which is differentiable and satisfies

G(u) = min G, (1.8)

H

we should be able to conclude that

G
(u) = 0. (1.9)

However, we do not know what it means for a functional to be differen-

tiable. We know that

g
(a) = lim [g(a + h) − g(a)]/h. (1.10)

h→0

But if we try to use this definition for a functional, we get

G
(u) = lim [G(u + v) − G(u)]/v, (1.11)

v→0

which is ridiculous since we cannot divide by elements of a vector space.

As an alternative definition, we have

b = g
(a) ⇐⇒ [g(a + h) − g(a) − hb]/h → 0 as h → 0. (1.12)

The corresponding statement for a functional is

w = G
(u) ⇐⇒ [G(u + v) − G(u) − vw]/v → 0 as v → 0. (1.13)

This does not appear to be any better. In fact, it is worse because one
cannot multiply two elements of vector spaces. Or can one? If w is an
element of a vector space such that a “product” v, w can be defined
(and have whatever properties we need), we might be in business. So we
try

w = G
(u) ⇐⇒ [G(u + v) − G(u) − v, w]/v → 0 as v → 0. (1.14)

But we still have the same objection as before, namely our inability to
4 Extrema
divide by an element of a vector space. However, there is a difference
between (1.10) and (1.12) in that we can replace (1.12) by

b = g
(a) ⇐⇒ [g(a + h) − g(a) − hb]/|h| → 0 as h → 0, (1.15)

while we cannot replace the denominator in (1.10) by |h|. “But what does
that gain?” you object. “We do not have absolute values of elements.”
True, but we do have a substitute which sometimes serves the same
purpose, namely the norm. Thus we can replace (1.14) by

w = G
(u) ⇐⇒ [G(u + v) − G(u) − v, w]/vH → 0 as vH → 0.

(1.16)

We want the “product” v, w to be linear and symmetric in v and w,

and we want the derivative of G at u to be unique. So suppose w1 also
satisfied (1.16). Then we would have

v, w − w1  /vH → 0 as vH → 0.

If we take v = εh and let ε → 0, we find that

h, w − w1  = 0 h ∈ H.

Thus, we would like

h, w = 0 ∀h ∈ H =⇒ w = 0. (1.17)

However, this is not essential. Suppose (1.17) does not hold. If g, h
satisfies

g, h ≤ CgH • hH , g, h ∈ H, (1.18)

then for each w ∈ H there is a unique g ∈ H such that

h, w = (h, g)H , h ∈ H. (1.19)

To see this, note that for each fixed w, h, w is a bounded linear func-
tional on H (for definitions see Appendix A). We apply the Riesz repre-
sentation theorem (Theorem A.12) to obtain (1.19). This is one advan-
tage of having H be a Hilbert space; we shall see others later. Instead
of defining G
(u) to be w, we can define it to be g. This gives

(G
(u), v)H = w, v, v ∈ H. (1.20)

Thus, even though w need not be unique, G
(u) is unique, as we now

show.
 1.2 A one dimensional problem 5
To summarize, we define the derivative as follows. If G(v) is a func-
tional defined on a Hilbert space H and there is a symmetric bilinear
form g, h on H satisfying (1.18) such that

[G(u + v) − G(u) − v, w]/vH → 0 as vH → 0, v ∈ H, (1.21)

holds for some u, w ∈ H, then G
(u) ∈ H exists and is given by

(G
(u), v)H = w, v, v ∈ H. (1.22)

This definition is independent of the bilinear form ·, · and the element
w. By this we mean that if ·, ·1 is another bilinear form on H satisfying
(1.18) and w1 is another element in H such that (1.21) holds with v, w
replaced by v, w1 1 , then

v, w = v, w1 1 , v ∈ H.

To see this, we note that there are elements g, g1 ∈ H such that

(v, g)H = v, w, (v, g1 )H = v, w1 1 , v∈H

by the Riesz representation theorem (Theorem A.12). Then we must

have

(v, g)H = (v, g1 )H , v ∈ H,

which implies g = g1 by taking v = g − g1 . Thus, we may use any conve-

nient bilinear form ·, · as long as it satisfies (1.18).

The derivative as defined above is called the Fréchet derivative.

There are other definitions. We shall discuss some others later on.

We also note that as in the case of functions of a single variable, dif-

ferentiability implies continuity. For if G
(u0 ) exists, then (1.21) implies
that there is a δ1 > 0 such that

|[G(u0 + v) − G(u) − (v, G
(u0 ))H ]/vH | < 1, vH < δ1 .

Thus,

|G(u0 + v) − G(u0 )| ≤ vH [G
(u0 )H + 1], vH < δ1 .

Let ε > 0 be given. Take δ > 0 such that δ < δ1 and δ < ε/[G
(u0 )H + 1].
Then vH < δ implies

|G(u0 + v) − G(u0 )| ≤ vH [G
(u0 )H + 1] < ε.

6 Extrema
Continuity of the derivative is no problem to define. It is the same as
that for the functional itself. That is, G
is continuous at u if

G
(v) → G
(u) as v → u.

As expected, we have

Lemma 1.1. If G
(u) exists and (1.8) holds, then G
(u) = 0.

Proof. By (1.8),

G(u) ≤ G(u + v), v ∈ H.

Therefore,

−(v, G
(u))H /vH ≤ [G(u + v) − G(u) − (v, G
(u))H ]/vH

→ 0 as vH → 0.

Take v = −εh. Then

(εh, G
(u))H /εhH ≤ [G(u − εh) − G(u) + (εh, G
(u))H ]/εhH

→ 0 as ε → 0, h ∈ H.

Consequently,

(h, G
(u))H ≤ 0, h ∈ H.

Since −h ∈ H whenever h ∈ H, this implies

(h, G
(u))H = 0, h ∈ H.

Hence G
(u) = 0 (just take h = G
(u)).

Now that we know what it means for a functional to be differentiable,

we want to find a functional which will satisfy (c) above. This is not a
trivial matter. In fact, we have no logical reason to believe that such a
functional exists. But this does not deter us. We first look for a functional
such that G
(u) = −u

. At this point we will have to think seriously
about the Hilbert space H in which we will work. Since we are looking
for a solution of (1.1),(1.2), it would be natural to take H to have the
norm given by (1.4). Since we want

(v, u

) = −(v
, u
), u, v ∈ H ∩ C 2 (I), (1.23)

this suggests

v, h = (v
, h
). (1.24)
 1.2 A one dimensional problem 7
Thus, we want

[G(u + v) − G(u) − (v
, u
)]/vH → 0 as vH → 0.

We can make use of the identity (1.23). This suggests trying

G(u) = u
2 , u ∈ H. (1.25)

It looks good because

[G(u + v) − G(u) − 2(v
, u
)]/vH = v
2 /vH → 0 as vH → 0.

Hence we have

Theorem 1.2. If G is given by (1.25), then

(G
(u), v)H = 2 (u
, v
), u, v ∈ H. (1.26)

If u ∈ H ∩ C 2 (I), then

(G
(u), v)H = 2 (−u

, v), v ∈ H ∩ C 1 (I). (1.27)

Note that we are off by a factor of 2, but this should not cause any
indigestion. The same procedure will give us a functional satisfying

(G
(u), v)H = 2 (u, v), u, v ∈ H. (1.28)

We merely take G(u) = u2 in this case.

Next we turn to finding a functional G which will satisfy

(G
(u), v)H = (f (·, u), v), u, v ∈ H. (1.29)

Here it is not obvious how to proceed. Going back to the definition, we

want to find a functional G such that

[G(u + v) − G(u) − (v, f (·, u))]/vH

converges to 0 as vH → 0. It is not easy to guess what G should be,

but if we refer back to the comparison with a real valued function, we
want to find a function F (t) such that

F
(t) = f (x, t).

This would suggest that we try something of the form

G(u) = F (x, u(x)) dx = (F (·, u), 1). (1.30)
I
8 Extrema
If we now apply our definition, we want
[G(u + v) − G(u) − (v, f (·, u))]/vH


= [F (x, u + v) − F (x, u) − vf (x, u)] dx/vH . (1.31)
I

But

1
F (x, u + v) − F (x, u) = [dF (x, u + θv)/dθ] dθ
0

1
= Ft (x, u + θv)v dθ. (1.32)
0

Thus, the left-hand side of (1.31) equals

1
[Ft (x, u + θv) − f (x, u)]v dθ dx/vH .
I 0

We want this expression to converge to 0 as vH → 0. This would

suggest that we take Ft (x, t) = f (x, t). Let us try

t
F (x, t) = f (x, s) ds. (1.33)
0

Then the expression above is bounded in absolute value by the square

root of


1
|f (x, u + θv) − f (x, u)|2 dθ dx. (1.34)
I 0

In order to proceed, we must make an assumption on f (x, t). The easiest

at the moment is that it is continuous in I × R and satisfies
|f (x, t)| ≤ C(|t| + 1), x ∈ I, t ∈ R, (1.35)
for some constant C. We have
Theorem 1.3. Under the above hypothesis, if G is given by (1.30), then
it satisfies (1.29).
Proof. The theorem will be proved if we can show that the expression
(1.34) converges to 0 together with vH . If this were not true, there
would be a sequence {vk } ⊂ H such that vk H → 0 and


1
|f (x, u + θvk ) − f (x, u)|2 dθ dx ≥ ε > 0. (1.36)
I 0

Since v ≤ vH , we have vk  → 0. Moreover by Theorem B.25, there

is a renamed subsequence (i.e., a subsequence for which we use the same
 1.2 A one dimensional problem 9
notation) such that vk (x) → 0 a.e. The integrand of (1.36) is majorized
by

C(|u|2 + |vk |2 + 1),

which converges in L1 (I) to

C(|u|2 + 1).

Moreover, the integrand converges to 0 a.e. Hence, the left-hand side

of (1.36) converges to 0 by Theorem B.24, contradicting (1.36). (See
Appendix B for the elements of Lebesgue integration.) This proves the
theorem.

In order to solve the problem we will have to

(a) find G(u) such that

(G
(u), v)H = (u, v)H − (f (·, u), v), u, v ∈ H. (1.37)

holds,
(b) show that there is a function u(x) such that G
(u) = 0,
(c) show that u

exists in I,
(d) show that G
(u) = 0 implies (1.1).

This is a tall order, and some of these steps are not easily carried out.

But first things first. We must decide on the space H where we will be
working. Our initial impulse is to look for a space contained in C 2 (I),
since (1.1) involves second order derivatives. However, the use of such a
space is not suitable for our approach since the scalar product (1.3) looks
very tempting in light of (1.37), and second derivatives do not appear in
it. One might then think that C 1 (I) would be suitable. It turns out that
even this is not the case because C 1 (I) is not complete with respect to
the norm (1.4).

“So what?” you exclaim, “Why do we need completeness?” The reason

is simple. We want to find a function u(x) which satisfies G
(u) = 0. This
means that u is a critical point of G. How do we find critical points?
In most cases in infinite dimensional spaces, this is carried out by a
limiting process, and one would like to know that this process has a
limit satisfying the desired equation. In particular, if we want to use the
scalar product (1.3), it would be very prudent on our part to use a space
which is complete with respect to the norm (1.4).
10 Extrema
How do we find such a space? Clearly, the norm (1.4) applies to all
u ∈ C 1 (I). We also want to restrict it to functions which satisfy (1.2)
(i.e., functions that are periodic with period 2π). However, this space is
not complete with respect to this norm. The easiest thing to do is to
“complete” the space with respect to the norm (1.4). This is not a trivial
process, but it is rather straightforward. Descriptions can be found in
many textbooks. In the next section we shall accomplish this in a very
easy way. Moreover, we shall know precisely what functions are added.
We call the resulting space H.

What do we get? We allow in functions that are not in C 1 (I), but

possess “derivatives” in some sense (to be described later). However,
when we are dealing with such functions we can make use of the fact
that they are the limits in H of functions in C 1 (I). This usually suffices
for our purposes. Here we make use of the fact that C 1 (I) is dense in H,
but H is a Hilbert space while C 1 (I) is not. This advantage will make
itself clear as we proceed.

1.3 The Hilbert space H

1
Let C (I) denote the set of continuously differentiable functions on I
satisfying (1.2). For u ∈ C 1 (I) the norm of H is given by

u2H = u2 + u
2 . (1.38)

However, if {uk } is a Cauchy sequence in H of functions in C 1 (I), then

uj − uk  → 0, u
j − u
k  → 0.

This means that there are functions u, h ∈ L2 (I) such that

uk → u, u
k → h in L2 (I). (1.39)

If H is to be complete, we must allow u to be a member of H. But it is

unclear what role the function h plays. In particular, is it unique? Does
it have any relationship to u? To help us understand this process, note
that

(uk , v
) = −(u
k , v), v ∈ C 1 (I), (1.40)

by integration by parts. Thus in the limit,

(u, v
) = −(h, v), v ∈ C 1 (I). (1.41)

 1.3 The Hilbert space H 11
Now, if u ∈ C 1 (I), h ∈ L2 (I), and (1.41) holds, then h = u
a.e. This
follows from
Lemma 1.4. C 1 (I) is dense in L2 (I).
We shall prove Lemma 1.4 a bit later. To show that h = u
a.e., we
note that by applying integration by parts to (1.41), we have
(u
− h, v) = 0, v ∈ C 1 (I).
Since C 1 (I) is dense in L2 (I), there is a sequence {vn } ⊂ C 1 (I) such
that
vn − (u
− h) → 0.
Consequently,
0 = (u
− h, vn ) → u
− h2 .
This shows that h = u
a.e.
Now, suppose that u ∈ L2 (I) and there is an h ∈ L2 (I) such that
(1.41) holds. Then I claim that h is unique. For, if (1.41) also holds with
h replaced by g, then
(h − g, v) = 0, v ∈ C 1 (I).
Again, by Lemma 1.4 we see that g = h a.e. Even though u is not in
C 1 (I) and we do not know whether or not it has a derivative at any
point, we define the “weak” derivative of u to be h and denote it by u
.
We define it this way because it behaves like a derivative with respect
to integration by parts. We have
Lemma 1.5. If H is the completion of C 1 (I) with respect to the norm
given by (1.38), then every function in H has a weak derivative in L2 (I).
Proof. If {uk } is a Cauchy sequence in H of functions in C 1 (I), then
there are functions u, h satisfying (1.39). By (1.40), we see that (1.41)
holds. Thus, h is the weak derivative of u. If {uk } is a Cauchy sequence
in H of functions in H, then there are functions u, h satisfying (1.39).
By (1.40), we see that (1.41) holds. Thus, h is the weak derivative of u.

Actually, we have
Theorem 1.6. If H has the norm given by (1.38) and consists of those
functions u in L2 (I) which have a weak derivative in L2 (I), then H is
complete.
12 Extrema
Proof. Let {uk } be a Cauchy sequence in H. Then there are functions
u, h ∈ L2 (I) such that (1.39) holds. Since u
k is the weak derivative of
uk , (1.40) holds. By (1.39), this implies (1.41). Consequently, u has a
weak derivative u
in L2 (I) and h = u
a.e. This means that u ∈ H, and

uk − uH → 0. (1.42)

This “completes” the proof.

Since we want H to be complete, we are well advised to define it to

be the set described in Theorem 1.6. We state this as

Definition 1.7. We define H to be the set of those periodic functions

u ∈ L2 (I) which have weak derivatives in L2 (I). By Theorem 1.6, H is
a Hilbert space with norm given by (1.38).

We started off by defining the norm of H on functions in C 1 (I).

However, the space C 1 (I) is not complete with respect to this norm.
To make H complete we added periodic functions in L2 (I) which have
weak derivatives in L2 (I). The norm of H makes sense for such func-
tions. Then we showed that H now becomes complete. We might ask if
we made H too large, that is, did we have to add all functions having
weak derivatives in order to make H complete. Perhaps we could have
started with a set smaller than C 1 (I) such as C ∞ (I), the set of infinitely
differentiable periodic functions on I, and completed it with the norm
given by (1.38). Perhaps we could have got by without adding so much.
The answer is negative as we see from

Theorem 1.8. The space C ∞ (I) is dense in H.

Thus, if u is any element of H, then there is a sequence {ϕk } ⊂ C ∞ (I)

converging to u in H. If we remove u from H, the Cauchy sequence {ϕk }
will not have a limit in H, and H will not be complete.

In proving Theorem 1.8 we shall make use of

Lemma 1.9. For u ∈ L2 (I), define

αk = (u, ϕ̄k ), k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . , (1.43)

where
1
ϕk (x) = √ eikx , k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . (1.44)
2π
 1.3 The Hilbert space H 13
Then

u − αk ϕk  → 0 as n → ∞. (1.45)
|k|≤n

Remark 1.10. The constants αk and the functions ϕk are complex val-
ued. However, they satisfy
α−k = ᾱk , ϕ−k = ϕ̄k .
Consequently, any sum of the form

αk ϕk
|k|≤n

is real valued. Recall that

2π
(u, v) = u(x)v(x) dx.
0

Note that Lemma 1.4 is a consequence of Lemma 1.9. We shall prove

Lemma 1.9 in the next section. Now we show how it implies Theorem 1.8.
Proof. Let u be any function in H. It has a weak derivative u
∈ L2 (I).
Define αk , ϕk by (1.43) and (1.44). Then (1.45) holds by Lemma 1.9.
Let
βk = (u
, ϕ̄k ), k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
By (1.41),
βk = −(u, ϕ̄
k ) = −(u, −ik ϕ̄k ) = ik(u, ϕ̄k ) = ikαk .
Consequently,
βk ϕk = ikαk ϕk = αk ϕ
k , k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
Thus,
 
u
− αk ϕ
k  = u
− βk ϕk  → 0 as n → ∞
|k|≤n |k|≤n

by Lemma 1.9. If we define


un (x) = αk ϕk , n = 0, 1, 2, . . .,
|k|≤n

we see that un (x) is a real valued periodic function in C ∞ (I) for each
n, and it satisfies
u − un  → 0, u
− u
n  → 0.
14 Extrema
Thus,

u − un H → 0 as n → ∞.

Hence, C ∞ (I) is dense in H.

Although functions in H need not be in C 1 (I), we shall show that they

are in C(I), the set of continuous functions on I. In fact we have

Lemma 1.11. All functions in H are in C(I), and there is a constant

K such that

|u(x)| ≤ KuH , x ∈ I, u ∈ H. (1.46)

Moreover,

u(0) = u(2π). (1.47)

More precisely, every function u ∈ H is almost everywhere equal to a

function in C(I). Inequality (1.46) holds for the continuous function
equal to u a.e. It holds for u if we adjust it on a set of measure zero to
make it continuous. The same is true of (1.47). Moreover, if the sequence
{uk } converges in H, then it converges uniformly on I.

Proof. First we prove inequality (1.46) for u ∈ C 1 (I). We note that


 
x 
   x
  
u(x)2 − u(x
)2  =  2u (y)u(y) dy ≤ |2u

(y)u(y)| dy 
   
x
x



≤ (|u
(y)|2 + |u(y)|2 ) dy = u2H , x, x
∈ I.
I

We pick x
∈ I so that


2πu(x
)2 = u(y)2 dy.
I

This can be done by the mean value theorem for integrals. Hence,
 
1 1
u(x)2 ≤ u2 + u2H ≤ 1 + u2H .
2π 2π
This gives inequality (1.46) for u ∈ C 1 (I). Now, I claim that it holds
for any u ∈ H. To see this, let u be any function in H. Then there is a
sequence {uk (x)} of functions in C 1 (I) such that

uk − uH → 0.
 1.3 The Hilbert space H 15
By the inequality (1.46) for functions in C 1 (I),

|uj (x) − uk (x)| ≤ Kuj − uk H → 0, j, k → ∞.

This shows that {uk } is a Cauchy sequence of functions in C 1 (I) con-

verging uniformly in I to a function ũ. Since they converge to u in H
(and consequently in L2 (I)), they converge to both u and ũ in L2 (I).
Thus, we must have u = ũ a.e. Since

|uk (x)| ≤ Kuk H ,

we see in the limit that (1.46) holds. To prove (1.47), note that uk (0) =
uk (2π). Since the sequence converges uniformly, we obtain (1.47) in the
limit.

Remark 1.12. Note that functions in L2 (I) need not be defined on a

set of measure zero. Thus two functions in L2 (I) are considered equal if
they differ only on such a set. We shall consider a function u ∈ L2 (I) to
be in C(I) if it is equal a.e. to a function in C(I). In particular, it can
be made continuous by changing its definition on a set of measure zero.
Any inequality it will be reputed to satisfy will be valid after this change
has been made.

What if u has a weak derivative which is continuous in I? That u is

continuously differentiable and u
is its derivative in the usual sense
follow from

Lemma 1.13. If u has a weak derivative h which is continuous on I,

then u is differentiable at each point of I and h is the derivative of u in
the usual sense.

Proof. Since u ∈ H and C ∞ (I) is dense in H (Theorem 1.8), there is a

sequence {un } ⊂ C ∞ (I) such that

un − u → 0, u
n − h → 0.

Thus,

x
un (x) − un (0) = u
n (t)dt.
0

By Lemma 1.11, un converges to u uniformly in I. Taking the limit, we

have

x
u(x) − u(0) = h(t)dt.
0
16 Extrema
This shows that u is differentiable at each point and its derivative
equals h.
We also have
Theorem 1.14. If f ∈ L2 (I), u ∈ H and
(u, v)H = (f, v), v ∈ C 1 (I), (1.48)
then u
∈ H and u

= (u
)
= u − f. In particular, u
is continuous in I
and is the derivative of u in the usual sense.
Proof. By (1.3), u satisfies
(u
, v
) = −(u − f, v), v ∈ C 1 (I). (1.49)
This means that u
has a weak derivative equal to u − f. Hence, u
∈ H.
Thus u
is continuous in I (Lemma 1.11). Apply Lemma 1.13.
We also have
Theorem 1.15. If, in addition, f is in C(I), then u

is continuous in
I, and u

= u − f in the usual sense.
Proof. By Theorem 1.14, u
has a weak derivative equal to u−f. Since u
is in H ⊂ C(I), and it is now assumed that f ∈ C(I), we see by Lemma
1.13 that u

is the derivative of u
in the usual sense.
Theorem 1.16. If, in addition, f is in H, then u

∈ H, u

is contin-
uous in I, u

= u − f in the usual sense and (u

)
= u
− f
.
Proof. Suppose v ∈ C 2 (I). By (1.49),
(u
, v

) = −(u − f, v
).
Since u
∈ H and u − f ∈ H, this equals
(u

, v
) = −(u
− f
, v). (1.50)
Thus, (1.50) holds for all v ∈ C 2 (I). Now suppose v is only in C 1 (I).
Then there is a sequence {vk } ⊂ C ∞ (I) such that
vk − vH → 0
(Theorem 1.8). Thus,
vk − v → 0, vk
− v
 → 0.
Since
(u

, vk
) = −(u
− f
, vk )
 1.4 Fourier series 17
for each k, we see that (1.50) holds in the limit. Thus (1.50) holds for
all v ∈ C 1 (I). This means that u

∈ H, that u

is continuous, that
u

= u − f in the usual sense, and that (u

)
= u
− f
.

1.4 Fourier series

In this section we give the proof of Lemma 1.9. In order to prove it, we
shall need

Lemma 1.17. If f (x) is continuous in I and

(f, ϕ̄k ) = 0, k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . , (1.51)

then f (x) = 0 in I.

Before we prove Lemma 1.17, we note that a consequence is

Corollary 1.18. If f (x) is continuous in I and

(f, ϕ̄k ) = 0, k = 0, (1.52)

then f (x) is constant in I.

Proof. Let

2π
1
α0 = √ f (x) dx,
2π 0
√
and take g(x) = f (x) − (α0 / 2π). Then
√
2π
βk = (g, ϕ̄k ) = (f, ϕ̄k ) − (α0 2π) ϕ̄k dx = 0
0

for k = 0. Moreover,
√
β0 = (g, 1)/ 2π = α0 − α0 = 0.
√
Thus, g(x) ≡ 0 by Lemma 1.17. Hence, f (x) ≡ α0 / 2π.

Another consequence is

Theorem 1.19. If f ∈ L2 (I) satisfies (1.51), then f (x) = 0 a.e. in I.

Proof. Define

x
F (x) = f (t) dt. (1.53)
0
18 Extrema
√
Then F (x) is continuous in I (Theorem B.36), and F (2π) = 2πα0 =
0 = F (0). Hence F is periodic in I. Let

γk = (F, ϕ̄k ), k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .

Then
√ √
γk = (F, e−ikx / 2π) = (F, (e−ikx / 2π)
/(−ik))
= − (F
, ϕ̄k )/(−ik) = (f, ϕ̄k )/ik = 0

for k = 0. Hence, F (x) ≡ constant by Corollary 1.18. Consequently,

f (x) = F
(x) ≡ 0.

We can now give the proof of Lemma 1.9.

Proof. Let

un (x) = αk ϕk .
|k|≤n

Since

2π 
1 i(j−k)x 0, j= k,
(ϕj , ϕ̄k ) = e dx = δjk =
2π 0 1, j = k,

we have
 
u − un 2 = u2 − 2(u, un ) + un 2 = u2 − 2 |αk |2 + |αk |2
|k|≤n |k|≤n

= u −
2
|αk | .2

|k|≤n

Consequently,

|αk |2 ≤ u2 .
|k|≤n

Since this is true for every n, we have

∞

|αk |2 ≤ u2 . (1.54)
k=−∞

Moreover, if m < n, then


un − um 2 = |αk |2 → 0 as n → ∞.
m<|k|≤n
 1.4 Fourier series 19
Hence, {un } is a Cauchy sequence in L2 (I). It converges in L2 (I) to a
function ũ. Let

α̃k = (ũ, ϕ̄k ), k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .

Then,
 
α̃k = ( lim un , ϕ̄k ) = lim ( αj ϕj , ϕ̄k ) = lim αj (ϕj , ϕ̄k ) = αk .
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
|j|≤n |j|≤n

Let f = ũ − u. Then f satisfies (1.51). It follows from Theorem 1.19 that

f ≡ 0. Thus u = ũ a.e., and (1.45) holds.

It remains to give the proof of Lemma 1.17.

Proof. Assume that there is a point x0 ∈ I such that f (x0 ) > 0. (If
f (x0 ) < 0, replace f with −f ). Thus, there are positive constants ε, δ
such that

f (x) > ε, |x − x0 | < δ. (1.55)

Let
sin2n (x/2)
wn (x) =  . (1.56)
I
sin2n (x/2) dx
We note that

wn (x) ≥ 0, x ∈ I, (1.57)

and


wn (x) dx = 1. (1.58)
I

Moreover,

wn (x) = cn (1 − cos x)n = c
n (2 − eix − e−ix )n .

Thus wn (x) is periodic in x and is a linear combination of the functions

ϕk , |k| ≤ n. Consequently (1.51) implies


f (x)wn (x + π − x0 ) dx = 0. (1.59)
I

Now, it follows from (1.56) that

sin2n [(π − δ)/2]
wn (x) ≤ , |x − π| > δ,
δ sin2n [(π − δ/2)/2]
20 Extrema
since

π+(δ/2)

sin2n (x/2) dx ≤ sin2n (x/2) dx.
π−(δ/2) I

Let
sin2 [(π − δ)/2]
θ= .
sin2 [(π − δ/2)/2]
Then θ < 1, and
wn (x) ≤ θn /δ, |x − π| > δ.
Hence,
wn (x + π − x0 ) ≤ θn /δ, |x − x0 | > δ. (1.60)
Thus,


x0 +δ

f (x)wn (x + π − x0 ) dx = +
I x0 −δ |x−x0 |>δ

x0 +δ
≥ε wn (x + π − x0 ) dx − 2πθ n M/δ
x0 −δ


≥ε wn (x + π − x0 ) dx − 2πθn (M + ε)/δ
I

= ε − 2πθ n (M + ε)/δ, (1.61)

where
M = max |f (x)|.
I

Since θ < 1, we can take n so large that the right-hand side of (1.61) is
positive. This contradicts (1.59), and the proof follows.

1.5 Finding a functional

At this point we want to weaken the assumptions on the function f (x, t).
We may have to add to these assumptions from time to time, but such
is life. To begin, we assume that f (x, t) is a “Carathéodory” function on
I × R. This means that f (x, t) is a measurable function of x in I for each
t ∈ R, and it is a continuous function of t in R for almost every x ∈ I.
We assume that for each R ∈ R there is a constant CR such that
|f (x, t)| ≤ CR , x ∈ I, t ∈ R, |t| ≤ R. (1.62)
 1.5 Finding a functional 21
This assumption is used to carry out step (a) in our procedure. Based
on our previous experience, we try

2π
1
G(u) = u2H − F (x, u(x)) dx (1.63)
2 0

as our first candidate, where

t
F (x, t) = f (x, s) ds. (1.64)
0

First we must check that G(u) is defined for each u ∈ H. For this
purpose, we use Lemma 1.11. Note that (1.62) implies

|F (x, t)| ≤ RCR , t ∈ R, |t| ≤ R. (1.65)

If u ∈ H, we have by (1.46) that

|F (x, u(x))| ≤ KuH ≤ C
.

Note that F (x, t) is also a “Carathéodory” function on I × R. We shall

show that F (x, u(x)) is measurable on I for each u ∈ C(I) (Theorem
B.38). Since it is majorized by a constant and I is a bounded interval,
we see that the integral in (1.63) exists (Theorem B.24). Thus, G(u) is
defined on H.
Next, we calculate the derivative of G. We have

1
G(u + v) − G(u) = (u + v2H − u2H )
2

2π
− [F (x, u + v) − F (x, u)] dx
0
1
= (u2H + 2(u, v)H + v2H − u2H )
2

2π
1
d
− F (x, u + θv) dθ dx
0 0 dθ

2π
1
1
= (u, v)H + v2H − f (x, u + θv)v dθ dx.
2 0 0
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
73. Why does the insect visit the flower?
74. Of what color are the flowers that need night-flying insects?
75. What can you say about the scattering of seeds?
76. How are some seeds blown about?
77. How do birds help in carrying seeds?
78. What is there about seeds to attract the birds?
79 What can you tell me of air-plants?
80. How do they get their nourishment?
81. Tell me something about water-plants.
82. What two shapes of leaves do some water-plants have?
83. Of what shape are most of the leaves that grow under water?
84. Why do they have these fringe-like shapes?
85. Of what shape are leaves that lie upon the water?
86. What kind of leaves have plants that grow in sand?
87. What use do these leaves serve?
88. Why are most plants that grow in sand prickly?
89. What can you tell me of a cactus-plant?
90. What long name have animal-eating plants?
91. What kind of living things do these plants catch and eat?
92. Tell me about the sun-dew.
93. Tell me about the Venus’s fly-trap.
94. Tell me about the pitcher-plant.
95. How do plants foretell changes in the weather?
96. What plants are the best weather prophets?
97. What is the reason of this closing before rain?
98. Of what use is this habit to the flower or seed?
99. Describe a flower clock.
100. Tell me about the hours when some plants open and close.
101. Will these hours of opening change with the time of year?
102. What is it that causes this opening and shutting?
103. Tell me about the sleep of leaves.
104. Of what use is this sleep to the plants?

II.
1. Describe a grasshopper.
2. What is the meaning of his various names?
3. How does the grasshopper make his music?
4. What can you say of Mrs. Grasshopper’s sword?
5. Do all grasshoppers live in the grass?
6. Are the head and chest of an insect in the form of rings?
7. To what order does the grasshopper belong?
8. How many straight-wing families are there?
9. How are they sometimes divided?
10. Tell me about the grasshopper’s legs.
11. Describe his wings.
12. What do grasshoppers eat?
13. Where are the grasshopper’s eggs laid?
14. Tell me how the grasshopper changes from egg to full-grown
grasshopper.
15. Can you tell me of any of his queer ways?
16. Describe some grasshoppers to me.
17. Does the grasshopper migrate?
18. Does the grasshopper live alone?
19. What insect is the robber cousin of the grasshopper?
20. Tell me how a locust differs from a grasshopper.
21. What can you tell me of the numbers of locusts?
22. Tell me what harm locusts do.
23. What means are taken to destroy them?
24. What can you say about their size and color?
25. What insect is the grasshopper’s merry cousin?
26. Describe a cricket.
27. What three kinds of crickets are there?
28. What difference is there between the house and field cricket?
29. What will crickets eat and drink?
30. Tell me how the cricket plays his tunes.
31. Tell me about the life of a field cricket.
32. Describe a mole cricket.
33. Describe a mole cricket’s nest.
34. Tell me something of the mole cricket’s habits.
35. What is it that makes the mole cricket shine sometimes?
36. Why has the mole cricket been called the earth crab?
37. In what is the mole cricket like a mole?

III.
1. To what order of insects do the frog-hoppers belong?
2. What can you tell me about insects of this order?
3. Will you mention some of them?
4. What can you say about their wings?
5. How does the little frog-hopper make the ball of foam?
6. Of what use to him is this ball of foam, or froth?
7. What does the scale bug make for his covering, instead of froth?
8. Which is the largest insect of this order?
9. What name has he besides cicada?
10. Which of the insects of this order is the ant’s cow?
11. Which one carries a light?
12. On what food do all hoppers feed?
13. Where does the cicada lay her eggs?
14. Why does she not put them in a living branch?
15. How does she make the hole in which to put her eggs?
16. Where do the larvæ of the cicada live?
17. What kind of weather does the cicada like?

IV.
1. To what insect order do moths and butterflies belong?
2. How do the feelers of butterflies differ from those of moths?
3. How does the butterfly hold its wings, while at rest?
4. Which side of the butterfly’s wings is more gayly colored?
5. Why is this?
6. How does the moth hold its wings while resting?
7. What are the butterfly’s wings often called?
8. Which has the thicker body, a butterfly or a moth?
9. Which has the more furry coat?
10. Which usually flies by night?
11. Do butterflies ever fly by night?
12. What is the food of these insects?
13. How do bees get honey from flowers?
14. How do they carry this tube when it is not in use?
15. Will you describe this tube?
16. What can you say of the butterfly’s legs and feet?
17. Will you describe the wings of a butterfly?
18. Why is the butterfly the best partner of the flower?
19. Why have butterflies been so much studied?
20. Where are the eggs of butterflies laid?
21. Tell me about butterfly eggs.
22. What is the creature called that comes from a butterfly’s egg?
23. Describe a caterpillar.
24. What is the first act of a caterpillar, after leaving the egg?
25. What does the caterpillar eat?
26. What can you tell me of the horns of the caterpillar of the
swallow-tail butterfly?
27. Why is this butterfly called by this name?
28. What is a girdle caterpillar?
29. How does the caterpillar pass into the pupa state?
30. What, then, is a caterpillar? (It is a butterfly larva.)
31. What effect has the weather on the pupa state?
32. Tell me how the butterfly leaves the pupa case.
33. How does a butterfly spend its time?
34. What does it do in bad weather?
35. Do any butterflies live over winter?
36. How do some caterpillars make a house for the winter?
37. Where is the silk-spinner of a caterpillar?
38. Why does a caterpillar make that sidewise motion with his head?
39. How do some caterpillars build a home for summer?
40. How do some spin or weave a hammock?
41. What can you tell me of the colors of butterflies?
42. Why are these insects called scale-winged insects?
43. What can you tell me of the hawk-moth?
44. In what is it like a humming-bird?
45. Why is one moth called a death’s-head moth?
46. Tell me about the wasp moth.
47. Where does it stay in the pupa state?
48. What is the bombyx?
49. Tell me all you can about the silk-worm.
50. Does the silk-worm moth ever eat?
51. Tell me about its caterpillar and its cocoon.
52. Which moth destroys furs and woollen goods?
53. Tell me about the tinea.
54. What can you tell me of the beauty of moths?
55. How can you capture moths to study or to keep?

V.
1. What is a bird?
2. How are eggs hatched?
3. On what plan is a bird built?
4. What can you say of a bird’s bones?
5. What can you tell me about a bird’s neck?
6. How do the bird’s bones help to keep it up in the air?
7. What shape is the breast-bone of flying birds?
8. What is the shape of the breast-bone of birds that do not fly?
9. In which part of the bird’s wing is the chief length?
10. Which is the short bone of the leg?
11. How many toes have most birds?
12. What is a bird’s beak?
13. Have birds any teeth?
14. What have they instead of teeth, for grinding their food?
15. What are a bird’s short feathers called?
16. Are any places on the body bare of feathers, and why?
17. What can you say of the large feathers?
18. Can birds move their feathers?
19. What else can you tell me about feathers?
20. Why do birds preen or dress their feathers?
21. What can you tell me about the feet of water birds?
22. What can you say about wading birds?
23. What kind of a bill has a duck?
24. How and why does it differ from a hen’s bill?
25. How are the beaks of fish-eating birds formed?
26. What can you learn of a bird’s habits from examining its feet and
beak?
27. What can you tell me about the ostrich?
28. Why is the pigeon such a thirsty bird?
29. How does a swallow feed?
30. Tell me of the shrike, or butcher bird.
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32. What can you tell me of the woodpecker family?
33. Will you tell me how and why birds migrate?
34. Tell me the history of the bobolink.
35. Describe an oriole’s nest.
36. Tell me about a humming-bird’s nest.
37. How do some birds ornament their nests?
38. Do birds ever build a roof over their nests?
39. What are some of our best singing birds?
40. What can you tell me of the blue jay?
41. Tell me how birds care for and defend their young.
42. What birds lay eggs in other birds’ nests?
43. What are some of the enemies of birds?
44. What birds can be called street and field cleaners?
45. Tell me any curious things you have seen or heard about birds.
46. Mention some of the lost birds.
47. How did these birds become extinct?
48. What are the different families of the parrot tribe?
49. In what countries do parrots live?
50. What can you say of their food and habits?
51. Where do canaries come from?
52. Of what color are they in their wild state?

VI.
1. On what plan is a fish built?
2. In what element do fishes live?
3. Where do you suppose men got their first boat patterns?
4. What fish is usually described as a pattern fish?
5. Will you describe a perch?
6. What part answers to the boat’s prow?
7. What part serves for a rudder?
8. How many fins has a perch, and where are they?
9. Which fin is used chiefly for motion?
10. What can you tell me of the eyes of the fish?
11. What use do the gills of a fish serve?
12. What does a fish breathe?
13. Does the fish need oxygen or carbon?
14. How does it get oxygen from the water?
15. Why do fish pant and struggle when taken from the water?
16. What fishes will live longest out of water?
17. What causes the fish taken out of water to die?
18. Where and what is the bladder of the fish?
19. Tell me about the backbone of the fish.
20. What can you say of the other bones of a fish?
21. What do you know about the scales?
22. What senses have fish?
23. How many senses have you? Name them.
24. What kind of blood have fish?
25. Is a whale a fish? What is it?
26. What are some of the largest fishes?
27. What are some of the smallest?
28. Do fishes differ much in form?
29. How do they differ in regard to their eyes?
30. What fishes have no scales?
31. What do some fish have instead of scales?
32. Will you describe fish of the ray family?
33. Describe flat fish.
34. What other odd forms of fish do you remember?
35. Tell me about some queer forms of fish heads and noses.
36. What are some of the weapons of fish?
37. For what do they use these weapons?
38. What can you tell me about the breast fins of fish?
39. To what do the breast fins sometimes change?
40. How are fishes able to climb trees?
41. What do you know about flying fish?
42. What are barbels?
43. What fishes have barbels?
44. Where do the fin family live?
45. How are sea fishes divided?
46. Do fishes ever go from salt to fresh water?
47. For what reason do some fish leave the sea and ascend rivers?
48. Tell me how air is put into tanks of water for fish.
49. How do fish behave if they have not enough air?
50. How does air get into the water of seas, lakes, and rivers?
51. How do fish sometimes help themselves to surface air?
52. What do fishes eat?
53. What is the basking of fish?
54. How are fishes kept in glass tanks?
55. Tell me of some of the queer ways of fish.
56. What about the fighting of fish?
57. How does a fish act when he darts after his food?
58. What are fish eggs called before they are laid?
59. What are they called when first dropped in the water?
60. What are the little fish called soon after they hatch?
61. What do we mean by a school, or shoal, of fish?
62. What can you tell me about skate and dog-fish eggs?
63. How will you know the egg-sacs of a skate from those of a dog-
fish?
64. How do the mackerel and herring leave their eggs?
65. What can you say of the numbers of the eggs of fish?
66. What kind of a nest does the trout make for her eggs?
67. Where and when can you find perch eggs?
68. What can you tell me of the shape and colors of scales?
69. What can you tell me of the scales of the side line of the fish?
70. Of what use is this slipperiness to a fish?
71. Why is it hard for a bird or fish to get a partly swallowed fish from
its throat?
72. Tell me about some pretty fish.
73. Have all fishes teeth?
74. What can you say of the number of teeth in many fishes?
75. Where are these teeth set?
76. What do the French call “teeth in velvet”?
77. What can you tell me about the shape of fish teeth?
78. What kind of a fish is a stickleback?
79. How have some of his fins changed?
80. Tell me about the way sticklebacks can be caught.
81. Tell me something of their habits.
82. How does the stickleback build his home?
83. What do the eggs look like?
84. How does this little father take care of his family?
85. What is one of our largest river fish?
86. How are sturgeon often caught?
87. What do the Russians make from sturgeon?
88. What kind of candles do the Cossacks often have?
89. What are some of the things made from the shark?
90. What can you tell me about the shark?
91. Of what use are fish?
92. How can you learn more about fish?
93. Why in these Readers have you been told a little of many things?
94. Do you think you know a little about how to use your eyes as you
go about the world?
 Transcriber’s note
Minor punctuation errors have been changed
without notice. Inconsistencies in hyphenation have
been standardized. The following printer errors have
been changed.
CHANGED FROM TO
“convovulus had its “convolvulus had its
Page 84:
long” long”
“the star of “the Star of
Page 87:
Bethlehem” Bethlehem”
“leaf up all in a “leaves up all in a
Page 88:
bunch” bunch”
“see Miss “see Mrs.
Page 106:
Grasshopper’s” Grasshopper’s”
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