 A steel structure is an assemblage of a group of

members (elements) expected to sustain their

share of applied forces and to transfer them safely
to the ground.
 Depending on the orientation of the member in the
structure and its structural use, the member is
subjected to forces, either axial, bending, or
torsion, or a combination thereof.
 A significant difference between steel and concrete
constructions is that the designer has more control over
the shape of reinforced cement concrete elements.
 For building a steel structure, the designer is normally
compelled to use standard rolled sections.
 Fortunately, the variety of steel sections available is so
great that any desired structural effect can be achieved
in steel.
 The main advantages of steel structures are their
smaller weight-to-strength ratio, speed of erection and
dismantling, and its scrap value.
 However, the faster degradation of their strength in the
events of fire, requirement of skilled, personnel and the
accuracy desired in fabrication are the major drawbacks.
 The design of steel structures involves the planning of the
structure for specific purposes, proportioning of members
to carry loads in the most economical manner, and
considerations for erection at site.
 First, the structure should serve the purpose for which it
is intended and this is achieved by proper functional
planning.
 Secondly, it should have adequate strength to withstand
direct and induced forces to which it may be subjected
during its lifespan. An inadequate assessment of forces
and their effects on the structure may lead to excessive
deformation and its failure.
 Therefore, the design of structures includes functional
planning, acknowledgement of the various forces,
strength of materials and the design methods. In addition,
the structure should be economical and easy to erect.
 To facilitate safe and economical design specifications, standards and
codes are prepared on the basis of past design practice, experience based
on behavior of existing structures, knowledge gained from failures, and
from research data. The information thus gathered is critically examined,
assessed and approved by a body of experts and published in the form of
codes and standards. For this purpose, the Bureau of Indian Standards has
published a number of codes, standards and handbooks, some of which
will be referred to frequently and are listed below.
1. IS Handbook No. 1 Properties of Structural Steel Rolled Sections
2. IS: 875–1987 Code of Practice for Design Loads for Building and
Structures
3. IS: 800–2007 Code of Practice for use of Structural Steel in General
Building Construction
Structural Steel and Classification of Steel
Sections
 Structural steel has been classified by the
Bureau of Indian Standards based on its
ultimate or yield strength.
 For example, Fe-410 steel has minimum tensile
strength of 410 N/mm2.
 Fe stands for the
steel followed with
the number the
characteristic
ultimate tensile
stress in
MegaPascals. The
letters A, B and C
indicate the grade
of steel.

Grade A Steel: used in structures subject to normal conditions.

Grade B Steel: used in structures subject to non-critical applications, where service
temperature does not fall bellow 0°C. Usually, specified for structural parts prone
to brittle fracture or subject to severe fluctuation of stresses.
Grade C Steel: has guaranteed low temperature (up to – 40°C) and impact
properties.
Some of the other mechanical properties of
structural steel are as follows:
1. Modulus of elasticity (E) = 2 × 10^5 N/mm2
2. Shear modulus (G) = 0.769 × 10^5 N/mm2
3. Poisson’s ratio (μ)
(i) elastic range = 0.3
(ii) plastic range = 0.5
4. Coefficient of thermal expansion = 12×10^–6/ ºC
5. Unit mass (r) = 7.85 × 10^3 kg/m3
Products of structural steel
 In the design process of steel elements one of the
objectives is the selection of the appropriate cross
sections for the individual members of the structure
being designed.
 This selection will entail choosing a standard cross-
sectional shape that is widely available rather than
requiring the fabrication of a shape with unique
dimensions and properties.
 Depending upon the manufacturing process, these
sections are classified as :
 Hot rolled and
 Cold rolled section
Hot rolled steel
 Hot rolled steel is heated to over 1700 degrees
Fahrenheit. At this temperature it is to shape
and form the steel.
 The steel shrinks when cooled meaning there is
less control over the final size and shape. So it is
cheaper.
 Used when precise shape and tolerances are
required.
 Scaly surface finish, rounded edges, non oily
surface
Hot Rolled Sections
 In this manufacturing process, which takes place in a rolling
mill, molten steel is taken from the furnace and poured into a
continuous casting system where the steel solidifies but is
never allowed to cool completely. The hot steel passes
through a series of rollers that squeeze the material into the
desired cross-sectional shapes.
 Rolling the steel while it is still hot allows it to be deformed
without any loss of ductility
 While cooling, the variation in the cooling rates for the
different thicknesses of various elements of the rolled section,
residual stresses, are introduced which may be removed by
subsequent strengthening processes.
 During the rolling process, the member increases in length
and is cut to standard lengths, which are subsequently cut (in
fabricating shop) to the length required for particular
structure.
 The types of steel shapes rolled are described as
follows:
1. Rolled steel I-Sections
2. Rolled steel channel sections
3. Rolled steel angle sections
4. Rolled steel T-Sections
5. Rolled steel tube sections
6. Rolled steel bars
7. Rolled steel flats
8. Rolled steel plates
9. Rolled steel sheets
10. Rolled steel strips
Cold rolled steel
 Hot rolled steel is processed further
 Cold rolled steel is heated, cooled at room
temperature, followed by annealing and tempering
 These additional processes allows for a wider range
of finishes
 Greasy or oily finish
 Smooth surface
 Very sharp edges
 Mostly used for machine parts
Stress-strain characteristics of mild steel

OAB— represents a straight line,

(obeys Hooke’s law.)
A —limit of proportionality
B —elastic limit
C’/C— represents the
upper/lower yield point
CD — plastic yielding
DE — strain hardening
E — ultimate stress
EF — necking
F — breaking stress
A— represents the limit of proportionality—the
stress beyond which linear variation ceases.
B— represents the elastic limit—the maximum stress
up to which a specimen regains its original length on
removal of the applied load. This stress, in general, is
not measured and B is assumed to coincide with A.
Actually, it is difficult to determine the actual stress–
strain relation in the elastic range near the yield
point; proportional and elastic limit are therefore
considered to be coincident.
 C’/C— represents the upper/lower yield point—the
magnitude of stress corresponding to the upper yield point C’
depends on the cross sectional shape of the specimen and the
type of equipment used to perform the test. The upper yield
point is observed if load is applied rapidly whereas the lower
yield point is observed if the rate of loading is slow. In many of
the structural steel hot-rolled sections, the upper yield point is
not obtained due to residual stresses from the hot rolling
process. Hence, it has no practical significance. Point C
represents the yield point at which there is a definite increase
in strain without any further increase in stress. The stress
corresponding to the lower yield point C is thus yield stress
with a typical magnitude of 250 N/mm2 for mild steel.
 For the region OC, the material is elastic, and the slope E, is the Young’s
modulus. On average E is 2 × 10^5 N/mm2. The strain at the yield stress is
about 0.00125.
 CD— represents plastic yielding—it is the strain which occurs after the yield
point, with no increase in stress.
 The point D of plastic yield range is somewhat variable but a typical strain is
0.015. The strain in the range CD lies between ten to fifteen times the strains
at the yield point.
 DE—represents strain hardening—it is a range where additional stress
produces additional strain. Strain increases fast with stress till ultimate load is
reached. The slope of the stress–strain curve in the strain hardening range, is
typically 5 to 15% of the Young’s modulus for structural steels.
 E—represents the ultimate stress—the stress corresponding to the ultimate
load. The initial slope of this region is about 4 per cent of Young’s modulus. At
a strain of at least 0.2, the stress reaches its maximum value, the ultimate
strength of steel. It is also known as minimum ultimate tensile strength.
 METHODS OF DESIGN
 Simple design: In this method it is assumed that end
connections between the members will not develop restraint
moments adversely affecting the members and the structures
as a whole be assumed to be pin jointed for the purpose of
design.
 Semi – rigid design: This method permits a reduction in the
maximum bending moment in beams suitably connected to
their supports, so as to provide a degree of direction fixity, and
in case of triangulated frames, it permits in account being
taken of the rigidity of the connections and the moment of
interaction of the members.
 Fully – rigid design: The end connections are considered with
sufficient rigidity to hold the original angle between such
members and the members they connect virtually unchanged.
Analysis and design
Structural design is the methodical investigation of the stability, strength and
rigidity of structures. The basic objective in structural analysis and design is to
produce a structure capable of resisting all applied loads without failure during its
intended life.

Analysis
Structural analysis deals with a calculation of load coming on the members and
analyze them i.e. finding axial force, shear force, bending moment and/or
deflection in the member.

Design
Structural design decides the dimension (shape and size) of
the structural members on the basis of calculated load from structural analysis.
DESIGN PROCESS
 Functional planning and structural planning.
 Preliminary design.
 Idealization and analysis of the structure.
 Design and detailing of the structure.
 Preparation of structural drawing.
 Construction
Mobilization of personnel
Procurement of materials and equipments
Redesign may be required.
WORKING STRESS DESIGN METHOD
 Traditional method of designing steel structures,
 Based on elastic theory
 Attainment of the initial yielding forms the design
criteria for the members in this approach

The working stress in the

member should
be less than the permissible
stress.
Basic assumptions in working stress
method

 Material is homogeneous and isotropic

 Material behaves on a linear elastic manner
 Factor of safety is applied only for material.
 Adequate safety can be ensured by suitably
restricting the stresses in the material induced by
the expected working loads (service loads) on the
structure.
 The permissible stresses are some fraction of
the yield stress of the material and may be
defined as the ratio of the yield stress to the
factor of safety.
The concept of introducing a factor of safety is to make
the structure safe. It accounts for the following:

 The analysis methods are based on assumptions and do not give the exact
stresses.
 Structural members may temporarily be overloaded under certain
circumstances.
 Underestimation of the future live loads.
 The stresses due to fabrication and erection are not considered in the
design of ordinary structures.
 The secondary stresses may be appreciable.
 Stress concentrations.
 Unpredictable natural calamities.
Disadvantages of WSM
1. Stress–strain behavior of the material is considered
to be linear and the
Structure is assumed to behave linearly in an elastic
manner.
(Structures designed based on these assumptions possess considerable
reserve of strength beyond elastic limit until they reach their ultimate
strength, and lead to uneconomic design. This reserve strength is
derived from ductility (the ability of steel member to deform inelastically
without major loss of strength) of steel and redundancy. One of the
major drawbacks of designing steel structure by WSD approach is that
the reserve strength beyond elastic limit is neither quantified nor
utilized.)
Disadvantages of WSM
2. Steel is assumed to be stressed well below its elastic
limit under the working loads which result in over
design of the steel members.
3. Design parameters such as loads, material properties,
strength, etc., are assumed to have unique values,
though they are variable. The design parameters are
predicted on experience or on field data. The design
of structural elements therefore depends upon how
closely the prediction is made. This uncertainty is
non-deterministic.
Disadvantages of WSM
4. Many of the sources of loading vary with time.
However, since all the sources of loads were
considered to act simultaneously with their
maximum value, while maintaining the same
factor of safety, would lead to unconservative
design.
Disadvantages of WSM
5. Redistribution of moment during yielding is not known.
It does not consider the redistribution of forces and
moments in statically indeterminate structures. Factor
of safety x Working load is the failure load which is not
true. Actually it is much more because a material can
resist the load after the yield appears at a fibre. In
indeterminate structures just formation of a plastic
hinge is not the failure criteria, since it can resist load
till some more hinges are formed resulting into collapse
mechanism. Thus, the redistribution of moments give
rise to the additional load carrying capacity.
SERVICE LOAD & PERMISSIBLE STRESSES

Service load:
 The service load (working load) refers to the
expected load to which the structure is subjected
to its normal use/ service.
 It does not include any possible overloading or any
safety factors.
Permissible stress
a) Direct tensile stress
The permissible stress in axial tension on the net effective
area of the section shall not exceed

b) Direct compressive stress

The direct stress in compression on the gross sectional area
of axially loaded compression members shall not exceed 0.6
fy nor the permissible stress calculated using the following
formula
 The limit state design (LSD) method was developed to take account of
all conditions that can make the structure unfit for use, considering
actual behaviour of materials and structures
 The structure shall be designed to withstand safely all loads likely to
act on it throughout its life.
 In limit state design, basically statistical methods have been used for
determination of loads and material properties with a small
probability of structure reaching the limit states of strength and
serviceability.
 The objective is to achieve a structure that will remain fit for use
during its lifetime with acceptable target reliability. In other words,
the probability of a limit state being reached during a lifetime should
be very low.
 Limit states are the states beyond which the structure no
longer satisfies performance requirements specified.
Two categories of limit states:
 Strength
 Serviceability
LIMIT STATE OF STRENGTH
 Associated with failures (or imminent failure), under the
action of probable and most unfavorable combination of
factored loads, which may endanger the safety of life and
property.
 The failure of ductile steel structure may either be due to
geometric nonlinearity associated with buckling or large
deflection, or due to material nonlinearity due to yielding, or
due to both.
Limit state of strength, also called
ultimate limit state, includes
 Loss of equilibrium of the structure as a whole or any of its parts
or components.
 Loss of stability of the structure (including the effect of sway,
where appropriate, and overturning) or any of its parts including
supports and foundations.
 Failure by excessive deformation/formation of mechanism, general
yielding, rupture of the structure or any of its parts or
components, or buckling.
 Fracture due to fatigue which occurs due to repeated fluctuation
of loading. Fatigue cracking can initiate and propagate in the stress
concentration areas of the structure.
 Brittle fracture which occurs below a certain temperature when
the ultimate tensile strength of steel diminishes sharply.
IS 800:2007 Clause 5.4
(page 29)
LIMIT STATE OF SERVICIABILITY
 Limit state beyond which service criteria—
 specified deflection,
 vibration (for example, wind-induced
oscillations),
 repairable damage due to fatigue, corrosion
durability, and fire resistance—are no longer
met.
• This limit state is related to the criteria governing
normal use of structure.
 DESIGN CRITERIA FOR LSM

The left-hand side of refers to the load effects on the structure,

while the right-hand side refers to the strength or capacity of the
structure.
IS 800:2007
page 29
IS 800:2007 page 30
LSM more popular than WSM:
 LSM uses multiple safety factor format, which attempts
to provide adequate safety at ultimate loads as well as
adequate serviceability at service loads.
 LSM involves separate consideration of different kinds
of failure, types of materials and types of loads.
 WSM considers design based on working loads and
bound by elastic theory but LSM considers design loads
and design strengths
 LSM gives more economical section than WSM.
 For each material and load, a partial safety factor is
assigned individually depending on the material
properties and load properties.
 The material strength can be utilized to its
maximum value during its lifespan
 Loads can be assessed with reasonable probability
of occurrence.
 This method is used because it ensures the
utilization if material strength with lowest
construction cost input.
Example:

Fe 410 grade steel fy = yield stress = 250 n/mm2

fu = ultimate stress = 410 N/mm2
WSM
Permissible stress = 0.6 fy = 0.6 x 250 = 150 N/mm2
Working stress < Permissible stress
Working load = 50 kN c/s area= 333 mm2
LSM
Design action(loads) < Design strength
Design load= factored load= 50x1.5 = 75 kN
Ultimate stress = 410 N/mm2
Partial factor of safety= 1.25
c/s area=228 mm2