SYLLABUS

ALLIED COURSE – I - FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER – 7BSOA1

Unit I
Computer: Definition, Characteristics of Computers, Basic Applications of Computer, Generations of
computers. Components of Computer System: Central Processing Unit (CPU), input/output Devices, computer
Memory: primary and secondary memory, magnetic and optical storage devices, Concepts of Hardware and
Software.

Unit II
Data processing: concepts of data processing, Definition of Information and data, Basic data types, Storage of
data/Information as files, Representation of data/Information.

Unit III
Operating system-MS-Windows
Operating system-Definition & functions, basics of Windows. Basic components of windows, icons,
types of icons, taskbar, activating windows, using desktop, title bar, running applications, exploring
computer, managing files and folders, copying and moving files and folders.
Control panel – display properties, adding and removing software and hardware, setting date and
time, screensaver and appearance.

Unit IV
Word Processing-MS Word
Word Processing Basic: An Introduction to Word Processing and MS-Word, Working with documents,
using tables, pictures, and charts, using mail merge and sending a letter to a group of people, creating
form letters and labels, collaborating with workgroups, modifying a report, macros.

Unit V
Presentation software-MS Power Point
Creating and enhancing a presentation, creating and publishing a web presentation, modifying a
presentation, working with visual elements, delivering a presentation and designing a template.

Text Book:

1. Fundamentals of Computers, -V.Raja Raman – Fifth Edition, PHI, 2010.

2. Windows 98, 6 in 1, Jane Calabria et al, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, 1998.
3. Microsoft Word for Windows 95 Made Easy, Alan R.Neibauer, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company
Limited, New Delhi, 1997.
4. Microsoft Office user Specialist, Power Point 97 Exam Guide, Jane Calabria and Dorothy Burke, PHI
New Delhi, 1998.

Book for Reference:

1. PC software for windows made simple – R.K.Taxali – TMH – 1998

Department of Computer Science and BCA Fundamentals of Computer

UNIT I
1.1 DEFINITION OF COMPUTER
Computer is an electronic data processing device which
=
 Accepts and stores data input,
 Processes the data input, and
 Generates the output in a required format.

1.2 Characteristics or Benefits of computer (Advantages)

Following list demonstrates the advantages of computers in today's arena.

1.2.1 High Speed

 Computer is a very fast device.
 It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.
 The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the picosecond.
 It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man.

1.2.2 Accuracy
 In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.
 The calculations are 100% error free.
 Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that correct input has beengiven.

1.2.3 Storage Capability

 Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.
 A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
 It can store large amount of data.
 It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio and many others.

1.2.4 Diligence
 Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness and lack of
concentration.
 It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
 It can do repeated work with same speed and accuracy.

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1.2.5 Versatility
 A computer is a very versatile machine.
 This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
 At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next moment
it may be playing a card game.

1.2.6 Reliability
 A computer is a reliable machine.
 Modern electronic components have long lives.
 Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.

1.2.7 Automation
 Computer is an automatic machine.
 Automation means ability to perform the given task automatically.
 Once a program is given to computer i.e. stored in computer memory, the program and
instruction can control the program execution without human interaction.

1.2.8 Reduction in Paper Work

 Data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper work and results in speeding
up a process.
 As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required
 The problem of maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced.

1.3 Functions of the Computer:

All types of computers perform the following five basic operations for converting raw input data into
information useful to their users

S.
Operation Description
No
1 Take Input The process of entering data and instructions into the computer system.
2 Saving data and instructions so that they are available for processing as
Store Data
and when required.
3 Performing arithmetic, and logical operations on data in order to
Processing Data
convert them into useful information.
4 Output The process of producing useful information or results for the user,
Information such as a printed report or visual display.
5 Control the Directs the manner and sequence in which all of the above operations
workflow are performed

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1.5 Basic Components of the computer:

All types of computers follow a same basic logical structure and perform the following five
basic operations for converting raw input data into information useful to their users

Fig : Components of computer

1.5.1 Input Devices

The Input devices are used to give the inputs to the computer from user Following are few of the
important input devices which are used in a computer:

1. Keyboard
2. Mouse
3. Joy Stick
4. Light pen
5. Track Ball
6. Scanner
7. Graphic Tablet
8. Microphone
9. Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
10. Optical Character Reader(OCR)
11. Bar Code Reader
12. Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

1. Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps in inputting data to
the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are some
additional keys provided for performing additional functions.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108
keys are also available for Windows and Internet.

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The keys on the keyboard are as follows:

Sr. Keys Description

No
1 Typing Keys These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (0-9) which generally give
same layout as that of typewriters.
2 Numeric Keypad It is used to enter numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a set
of 17 keys.
3 Function Keys The 12 function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged in a row at the
top of the keyboard. Each function key has unique meaning and is used for some
specific purpose.
4 Control keys These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow
keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down,
Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).
5 Special Purpose Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock,
Keys Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

2. Mouse

Mouse is most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small
palm size box with a round ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse and sends
corresponding signals to CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
Generally it has two buttons called left and right button and a wheel is present between the buttons.
Mouse can be used to control the position of cursor on screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into
the computer.

Advantages:

 Easy to use
 Not very expensive

Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.

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3. Joystick

Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a monitor screen. It is a
stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a
socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.
The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing(CAD) and playing computer games.

4. Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or
draw pictures on the monitor screen. When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and
pen button is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the
corresponding signal to the CPU.

5. Track Ball

Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a
mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on ball, pointer can be moved. Since
the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball comes in
various shapes like a ball, a button and a square.

6. Scanner

Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disc of the computer for
further manipulation. Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into the
digital form that can be stored on the disc. These images can be edited before they are printed.

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7. Microphone

Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital form. The microphone is
used for various applications like adding sound to a multimedia presentation or for mixing music.

8. Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)

In this method, human readable characters are printed on documents using a special magnetic ink.
MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large number of cheques to be processed
every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques with a special type
of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable. This reading process is
called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR).
The main advantages of MICR are that it is fast (saving time) and ensures accuracy of data entry.

9. Optical Character Reader(OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text optically character by
character, converts them into a machine readable code and stores the text on the system memory.

10. Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light and dark lines).
Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books etc. It may be a hand held
scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner. Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image,
converts it into an alphanumeric value which is then fed to the computer to which bar code reader is
connected.

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11. Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or
pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked.
It is specially used for
 Checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice questions in which
large number of candidates appeared.
 Market survey, population survey etc., where responses can be restricted to one or more
out of a few possibilities.
 Order forms containing a small choice of items.

1.5.2 CPU –Central Processing Unit

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU consists of the following features:
CPU performs all types of data processing operations. It stores data, intermediate results and
instructions(program). It controls the operation of all parts of computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

 Memory or Storage Unit:
 Control Unit
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

CPU

Arithmetic Logic
Memory Unit Control Unit
Unit

Memory or Storage Unit:

This unit can store instructions, data and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to
the other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or main

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memory or primary storage or Random Access Memory (RAM). Its size affects speed, power and
capability.
Types of memory
1. Primary memory
2. secondary memory

Functions of memory unit are:

 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through main memory.

1.5.3 Control Unit

This unit controls the operations of all parts of computer but does not carry out any actual data
processing operations.
Functions of this unit are:
 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a
computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of the
computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.

ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely

1. Arithmetic section
2. Logic Section

Arithmetic Section:
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of above
operations.

Logic Section:
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching
and merging of data.

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1.5.4 Output Devices

Following are few of the important output devices which are used in a computer

1. Monitors
2. Graphic Plotter
3. Printer
Monitors:
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The
sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.

There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

1. Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

2. Flat- Panel Display

Printers :

Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper. There are two types of
printers
 Impact Printers
 Non-Impact Printers
Printer

Impact Printer Non-Impact

Printer

Character Printer Line Printer

Daisy Wheel Dot Matrix Chain Printer Drum Printer

Printer Printer

Laser Printer Inkjet Printer

Impact Printers:

The impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon which is then pressed on
the paper.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following :

 Very low consumable costs

 Very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

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These printers are of two types:

 Character printers
 Line printers

Character Printers:
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.

These are further divided into two types

 Daisy Wheel
 Dot Matrix Printer

Daisy Wheel Printer Dot Matrix Pinter

Line Printers:

Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time. These are of further two types

 Drum Printer
 Chain Printer

Non-impact Printers:

Non-impact printers print the characters without using ribbon. These printers print a complete
page at a time so they are also called as Page Printers.

These printers are of two types

 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

 Faster than impact printers.
 They are not noisy.
 High quality.
 Support many fonts and different character size.

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Laser Printers:
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form
the characters to be printed on a page. It has very high speed and good graphics quality. It supports
many fonts and different character size.
It is very expensive. It cannot be used to produce multiple copies of document in a single
printing

Inkjet Printers:
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They
print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output
with presentable features.
They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing
modes available. Colour printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple
copies of printing also.

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1.6 Generations Of Computer

The history of computer development is referred to in reference to the different generations of
computing device. There are totally five computer generations known till date. Each generation has
been discussed in detail along with their time period, characteristics.

Following are the main five generations of computers

S.
No Generation & Description
.
1 First Generation period: 1940-1956. Vacuum tube based.

2 Second Generation period: 1956-1963. Transistor based.

3 Third Generation period: 1964-1971. Integrated Circuit based.

4 Fourth Generation period: 1971-1990. VLSI microprocessor based.

5 Fifth Generation period : 1990-onwards.ULSI microprocessor based

First Generations(1940 – 1956):

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, taking
up entire rooms. In this generation mainly Batch processing operating system were used. In this
generation Punched cards, Paper tape, Magnetic tape was used as Input device and Output was
displayed on printouts. There were Machine code and electric wired board languages used.

Vacuum Tube

Vacuum Tube Circuiting

Magnetic drum

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The main features of First Generation are:

 Vacuum tube technology

 Unreliable
 Supported Machine language only which was understood by computers
 Very costly
 They could only solve one problem at a time
 Generate lot of heat which was often the cause of malfunctions.
 Slow Input/Output device
 Huge size
 Need of A.C.
 Non portable
 Consumed lot of electricity

Some computer of this generation were:

1. ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)

30 tons,18,000 vacuumTubes(little powerful ENIAC Wiring

than themodernCalculator)

2. EDVAC
3. UNIVAC
4. IBM-701
5. IBM-650

Second Generation(1956-1963):

This generation using the transistor were cheaper, more reliable and faster than the first
generation machines made of vacuum tubes.In this generation, magnetic cores were used as primary
memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage devices.
Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or
assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words and also high level
programming language like FORTRAN, COBOL were used.

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The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

Transistors

Second Generation Computer

The main features of Second Generation are:

 Use of transistors
 Reliable as compared to First generation computers
 Smaller size as compared to First generation computers
 Generate less heat as compared to First generation computers
 Consumed less electricity as compared to First generation computers
 Faster than first generation computers
 Still very costly
 A.C. needed
 Support machine Language and Assembly languages
 Batch processing and Multiprogramming operating system were used

Some computer of this generation were:

1. IBM 1620
2. IBM 7094
3. CDC 1604
4. CDC 3600
5. UNIVAC 1108

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Third Generation (1964-1971):

The third generation of computer is marked by the use of Integrated Circuits (IC's) in place of
transistors.A single I.C has many transistors, resistors and capacitors along with the associated
circuitry.The I.C was invented by Jack Kilby.
Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which
drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.

Integrated Chip Third Generation Computer

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers
through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to
run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory.
In this generation Remote processing, Time-sharing, Real-time, Multi-programming Operating
System were used. High level language (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC,
ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation.

The main features of Third Generation are:

 IC used
 More reliable
 Smaller size
 Generate less heat
 Faster
 Lesser maintenance
 Still costly
 A.C needed
 Consumed lesser electricity
 Support high level language

Some computer of this generation were:

1. IBM-360 series
2. Honeywell-6000 series
3. PDP(Personal Data Processor)
4. IBM-370/168
5. TDC-316

Fourth Generation (1971 - 1990):

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The fourth generation of computers is marked by the use of Very Large Scale Integrated
(VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other circuit elements and their
associated circuits on a single chip. Fourth Generation computers became more powerful, compact,
reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave rise to personal computer (PC) revolution.

Micro-circuits (Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits)

The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer. In 1981 IBM
introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. As these
small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which eventually
led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the
mouse and handheld devices.

In this generation Time sharing, Real time, Networks, Distributed Operating System were
used.All the Higher level languages like C and C++, DBASE etc. were used in this generation.

The main features of Fourth Generation are:

 VLSI technology used
 Very cheap
 Portable and reliable
 Use of PC's
 Very small size
 Pipeline processing
 No A.C. needed
 Concept of internet was introduced
 Great developments in the fields of networks
 Computers became easily available

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Some computer of this generation were:

1. DEC 10
2. STAR 1000
3. PDP 11
4. CRAY-1(Super Computer)
5. CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)

Fifth Generation (1990 - Till date):

In the fifth generation, the VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration)
technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor chips having ten million electronic
components. All the Higher level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc. are used in this generation.
This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence)
software. AI is an emerging branch in computer science, which interprets means and method of
making computers think like human beings.
The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language
input and are capable of learning and self-organization.

Fifth Generation Computer

The Main features of Fifth Generation Computer:

 Robotics
 Neural networks
 Game Playing
 Development of expert systems to make decisions in real life situations.
 Natural language understanding and generation.
 ULSI technology
 Development of true artificial intelligence
 Development of Natural language processing
 Advancement in Parallel Processing
 Advancement in Superconductor technology
 More user friendly interfaces with multimedia features
 Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates

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Some computer types of this generation are:

1. Desktop
2. Laptop
3. NoteBook
4. Ultra Book

1.7 Types Of Computers

Digital Age:
Digital computer converts data into digits (binary digit 0 and 1) all operations are carried out on
these digits at extremely fast rates. Digital computer much faster than analogue computer and far more
accurate. This type of computer is used for scientific applications and business.

Digital computer can be divided into two ways.theybare ,

1. Purpose wise
2. Size and performance

Purpose wise Digital Computer:

It can be divided into two types

i. Special purpose
ii. General purpose

Special Purpose Digital Computer:

Designed to perform special task.Instructions (programs) to carry out the task are permanently
stored in machine.This type of computer work efficiently and not versatile.

General Purpose Digital Computer:

It can work on different types of programs input to it and be used in countless applications.The
programs are not permanently stored but are input at the time of execution.Size and performance wise
digital computer.

It can be divided into the following types,

1. Embedded Computers:
 The instructions are embedded withincircuitry of applications ances . Such as
televisions, washing machine and wrist watch.
 These computers are typically pre-programmed for a specific task.

2. Micro Computer:
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 Micro computer is a computer whose cpu is microprocessor. In microprocessor all

components are in a single integrate circuit chip.
 These computer are used in offices, homes, schools, shops, stores, etc..,
 Some of the popular micro computers are ,

IBM PC’S
APPLE MAC
IBM PS/2
 Three major categories of micro computer’s are
1. PDA
2. Desktop Computers
3. Workstation

Programmable Computer (PDA):

 It is very enormously in their computational power, speed, memory, and physical size.
 Smallest computer held in one hand and are called personal digital assistants (PDA).
 They are used as note book, scheduling system and address book. If equipped with cellular
phone they can connect to worldwide computer network to exchange information regardless of
location.

Desktop Computers:

 Typically used in business and at home to communications on computer networks.

 Used for word processing to track finances and to play games.
 It has large amount of programs and documents.
 It is equipped with keyboard, mouse, trackball, or other pointing devices video display monitor
or liquid crystal display (LCD) to display information.

Laptop Computers:
 It has hardware and software as pcs .They are micro compact and have fact ,light weight LCD
instead of video monitor .
 It is also called note books carried out in briefcase.

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Work Stations:

 It is similar to personal computer.Greater memory and more expensive mathematical abilities.

 They are connected to other computer to exchange to data.Used in scientific industrial and
business environment.
 It has high level of computationalabilities.

Mini Computers:

 Also called midrange servers.More powerful than microcomputer in terms of processing power
and capabilities.
 It is multi user systems where many users simultaneously work on the systems.
 It has greater processing speeds and very large storage capacities and memory as compared to
mini computers.
 More than one processor multi-processor system –multiuser system.
 Capable of handling more input and output devices.
 Examples:
PDP ,VAX,7500,MAGNUM .

Mainframe Computers:

 Designed to handle huge volumes of data and information technology.

 This is can support hundred users at save time.
 Very expensive and very large greater processing speed and very large storage capacity.
 It is also multiuser system / multiprocessor system.
 Example:

ICL 39 ,CDC 6600 , VAX 8842 , IBM 3090 / 600 ,IBM 4381

Super computers:
 More powerful computer. Consists of several processors. It Can perform billions of instructions
per second. Computing capability equal to that of 49000 micro computers
 These computers cost several lacks. Used in weather Forecasting unclear science research
aerodynamic modeling, seismology metrology ,etc.
 Example :
CRAY,X-MP-14 ,CDC-205,ETA GF -10,FUJITSV VP-400 ,NECSX-2 ,PARAM, PACE2

Analog Computers
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 In this computers, continuous quantities are used .

 Computations are carried out with physical quantities such as voltage length current,
temperature etc.
 Device that measure such quantities are analog devices.
 Example :
Volt meter, ammeter.

Advantage:
 A calculation take place in parallel and hence these are faster.
 Used in engineering and scientific applications
 Example of analog computer electronic weighting machine.
 Accuracy is poor compared to digital counterparts.

Hybrid Computers :
 Utilize the best qualities of both the digital and analog computer
 Some calculation take place in analog manner and rest of them take place in digital manner.
 Used in hospital where analog part is responsible for measurement of patient’s heart beat blood
pressure, temperature and the operation is carried out in digital fashion monitor patient’s
vitalsigns .Used in weather forecasting.

1.8 Storage Device of Media:

Introduction
 Computer memory is used to store the data. Computer memory can be divided into two
broad categories:
 Primary storage (also called main memory), and
 Secondary storage.
1.8.1 Primary Memory:
 Primary storage is closely connected to the CPU and is used for temporary storage of data and
instructions during processing.Primary storage is fast; secondary storage is slow (relatively).
 Primary storage is volatile (i.e. contents are lost when power is removed); secondary storage
is non-volatile.
 Primary storage is based on electronic technology; secondary storage is usually based on
magnetic (or optical) and mechanical technologies.

Types of Primary Storage

 RAM (``Random Access Memory''): Called ``RAM'' because any location in the memory can be
directly accessed in the same amount of time as any other location.

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 ROM (``Read Only Memory''): contains programs and/or data ``burned in'' at the time of
manufacture.Commonly used to contain programs to ``boot up'' the computer when it is
switched on.

 PROM (``Programmable Read Only Memory''):ROM which is ``blank'' and into which
programs and/or data can be written, but only once.

 EPROM (``Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory''): PROM which can be erased, usually
by exposure to UV light through a transparent window above the chip.
1.8.2 Secondary Storage
 Secondary storage is relatively permanent but ``further away'' from the CPU.
 Secondary storage for computers is non-volatile (i.e. does not require electrical power to
retain its contents.
 The basic types of secondary storage are:

 Magnetic tape
 Magnetic disk (``hard'' and ``floppy'')
 Optical disk (CD-ROM, WORM, MO).
Magnetic Tape
 This is oldest, and originally the only, form of secondary storage.It is still used, mostly for
backup or archival storage, and for batch processing.
 Data is stored on tracks on the tape - most tapes have9 tracks.
 There are several varieties of magnetic tape:
 14" reels of 1/2" wide tape (2400' long)
 Cartridges of 1/4" tape
 Cassettes (very similar to audio cassettes)
 Digital Audio Tape (DAT).

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 Bytes of data (i.e. 8 bits) are stored across the width of the tape.
 The 9th bit is a parity bit. It helps to detect storage errors. Two types of parity can be used.
 With even parity, the parity bit is set so that the group of 9 bits has an even number of `1' bits.
 With odd parity, the parity bit is set so that the group of 9 bits has an odd number of `1' bits.
 Data is stored at different densities (e.g. 1600 and 6250 bpi, where ``bpi'' means ``bytes per
inch'').

Magnetic tape has the following advantages:

 It is very inexpensive
 It can store large amounts of data
 It is relatively robust
 And the following disadvantages: 1. It only allows access to data sequentially and is therefore
very slow compared to other secondary storage technologies; 2. May need manual
intervention to mount/dismount.

Magnetic Disks

This is the most common form of secondary storage used today. Magnetic disks come in two
forms:
 hard disks
 floppy disks

Hard disks are (usually but not always) permanently mounted inside the computer. All
magnetic disks have a magnetisable iron oxide coating and read/write heads that can move over
the surface of the disk, which is spinning underneath it.
The disk head works in a similar way to the head in an audio tape recorder. The read/write
head in a floppy disk drive actually contacts the magnetic disk, but that in a hard disk ``flies'' a few
thousandths of an inch above it.

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Magnetic Hard Disks

 Data on the disk surface is recorded on tracks (magnetic, not physical grooves!) which form
concentric circles on the disk.
 Each disk has a set number of tracks. Depending on type of disk drive, there may be from 100
to over 10,000 tracks on the disk.
 Tracks with the same number on each disk (recording) surface form a cylinder.
 The disks spin at a fixed speed, typically at 3600 rpm (IDE) or 7500 -15,000 rpm (SCSI).
 Tracks on a disk are organized into sectors.
 To get to a particular piece of data on the disk a track number and a sector number are
needed.
 Data is read/written when the required sector on the track rotates into position under the
read/write head (note that data can be accessed from any track of the cylinder).
 The time taken to position the head over the correct track/cylinder is called the seek time.
 The time needed for the sector to arrive (once the head is in position over the correct
track/cylinder) is called the latency time.
 Creating the magnetic tracks on a previously blank disk is called formatting the disk.
 Formatting destroys any data that might have been on the disk previously.
 Typical data access times for modern hard disks (i.e. latency + seek) are about 10-15
milliseconds
 Typical storage capacities today are:
o Microcomputer: 20 Mb - 240 Gb
o Mainframe: 240 - 800 Gb
 Magnetic hard disks are, in a mainframe environment, often referred to as DASD's - ``Direct
Access Storage Devices''.

Magnetic Floppy Disks

 Current size is 3.5" diameter (older floppy disks were 5.25" and 8" in diameter).
 Organized into tracks and sectors, like their hard disk cousins.

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 Typically rotate at about 400 rpm, and only when access

to them is needed (unlike hard disks which rotate all the
time the computer is on).

 Like magnetic hard disks, floppy disks must also be

formatted before they can be used.

 Typical storage capacity: 1.4 Mb

 Typical data access time: 200-400 msec.

Optical Disks

 Optical disks are becoming more common. They come in several varieties:
 CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory)
 CD-R (Compact Disk Recordable)
 CD-RW (compact Disk Re-Writable)
 DVD (Digital Versatile/Video Disk)
 DVD-R (Digital Versatile Disk Recordable)
 DVD-RW (Digital Versatile Disk Re-Writable)
 MO (magneto-optical).

CD-ROM

 Stands for ``Compact Disk - Read Only Memory''.

 Comes with data already stored on it - like a music compact disk.
 Useful for distributing information that should not be changed (e.g. encyclopaedias) and
programs (e.g. new versions of software) and, inevitably, games.
 Typical storage capacity: 650 Mb.
 New technology, known as DVD, will store up to 4G per disk. DVD disk drives are required to
read these disks.
 Typical data access time: 30-50 msec, although this is steadily improving and should shortly be
comparable with magnetic hard disks.Easy to handle, and relatively robust.

WORM

 Stands for ``Write Once, Read Many''.

 Data can be written onto the initially blank optical disk.
 Once written, the data cannot be erased.
 Useful for storing data that needs to be permanently retained.
 Similar in other respects to CD-ROM disks.

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Magneto-Optical Disks (CD-Rewriteable)

 These are the optical version of magnetic hard disks - that is, data can be written to them and
erased from them.
 Similar in storage capacity and access time to the other types of optical disks.
 Data is written by heating a spot on the disk with a laser beam, in the presence of a magnetic
field, the direction of which determines whether a `0' or `1' is written.
 Data is read by shining a lower power laser beam onto the disk spot (without the magnetic
field) and detecting the polarization of the light that is reflected.

1.9 SOFTWARE
 A collection (or) A set of programs that govern the operations of a computer system and make
the hardware run .
 Software can be classified broadly into two categories.
 System software.
 Application software.

1.9.1 System Software :

 Software that controls internal computer operation is called system software.

Internal computer operations

 Reading data from input device .
 Transmitting processed information to the output device .
 Checking system components.
 Converting data /instruction to computers understandable form etc.
 System software can be classified in to two categories .
1. Operating system
2. Language processor.

Fig : Systems software serves as intermediary between

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hardware and functional applications.

Operating System :
It is a program which acts as an interface between user and the hardware call computer
resource.
Goal:
 To make computer system convenient to use.
 To use computer hardware in a efficient manner .
 It is an important compound of a computer systems which controls all other compounds of
the computer system.

Language Processors:
 Programmer writes their programme in one of the high level language.
 The computer does not understand the high level language .
 The programme4s are use to convert high level language program in to machine language.
1. Assembler:
Convert the program return in assembly language in to machine language,
2. Interpreter :
Convert a high level language program in to machine language by converting and
executing it line by line.
3. Compiler :
Converts high level language program in to machine language.Convert the entire HLL
program in one go and reports all the error of a program along with the line number.

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Fig : Language translation process

1.9.2 Application Software :

 These programs are return by programmer

 It enable the computer to perform a specific task such as

 Processing words
 Inventory control
 Handling calculations
 Medical accounting
 Financial accounting
 Result preparation
 Railway reservation

 It can be sub divided in to three categories

 Package
 Utilities
 Customized software

Package:
 General software are designed and used by users for their needs and requirements such
application software are known as packages.

It packages are
 Word processing software .
 Spread sheet
 Database management system
 Desktop publishing software
 Graphics, multimedia and presentation software.

Word Processing Package:

 This Package Processes Textual Matter and Creates Organised Documents.
 Popular Word Processing Package are Word Star, MS Word, Word Perfect.

Electronic Spread Sheet :

 It Is A Program That Accept Data In The Tabular Form (In Row Columns) And Allows Uses To
Manipulate / Calculate,Analyse Data In The Designed Manner.
 Popular Electronic Spread Sheet are Lotus 1-2-3 , MS – Excel , Quattro Pro.

Database Management System (DBMS) :

It is a package that canhandle and manage bulk of stored data. Examples are Fox Pro MS
Access Oracle

Desktop Publishing Software (DTP) :

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 The software that handles page layout by combining the function of a traditional type settler
and a layout artist is known as desktop publishing software .
 Example : Photoshop

Graphics, Multimedia And Presentation Application:

 Manipulate images is known as graphics software .
 Software incorporates images text ,sound computer animation and video sequences is known
as multimedia.
 Software can create professional looking visual aids is called presentation graphics software .
 Examples are MS power point, macromedia directors.

Benefits :
 Create professionals looking visual aids for as guidance.
 Create lecture demonstrations programs

Utilities :
 Programs assist the computer by performing housekeeping functions like backing up disk or
scanning cleaning viruses or arranging information etc..

Important Utilities :
1) TEXT EDITOR :
 Used for creating ,editing textiles.
 Using this program any text can be typed and save on a disk file.
 Special command for text editing (i.e) insert , delete, find replace characters
lines ,paragraphs .

2) PACKUP UTILITIES :
 Backup means duplication disk information
 Any backup data may be used

3) COMPRESSION UTILITIES :
 Used for compression of files
 Using compression take less storage area
 Example : Winzip

4) DISK FRAGMENTATION :
 When using large programe , computer spliks the file and store it in pieces

5) ANTIVIRUSES SOFTWARE :
 Ensure viruses free work environment .
 Used for scanning our disk for viruses and remove it
 Example : K7, Avast.

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Files and Directories:

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UNIT II
2.Definition of Communication:
The transmission of data from one computer to another, or from one device to another. A
communications device, therefore, is any machine that assists data transmission.

Example: modems, cables, and ports are all communications devices. Communications software refers
to programs that make it possible to transmit data.

2.1 Types of Medium:

Medium can be classified into 2 categories.

1. Guided Media or Wired Communication Media:

Guided media means that signals is guided by the presence of physical media i.e. Signals are
under control and remains in the physical wire. For eg. Copper wire.

2. Unguided Media or Wireless Communication Media:

Unguided Media means that there is no physical path for the signal to propagate. Unguided
media are essentially electro-magnetic waves. There is no control on flow of signal. For eg.
Radio waves.

2.2 Communication Links

In a network computers are connected through links. The communication through links can be
classified as
1. Simplex: Communication can take place only in one direction. eg. T.V broadcasting.

2. Half-duplex: Communication can take place in one direction at a time. Suppose node A and B
are connected then half-duplex communication means that at a time data can flow from A to B
or from B to A but not simultaneously. eg. Two persons talking to each other such that when
speaks the other listens and vice versa.

3. Full-duplex: Communication can take place simultaneously in both directions. eg. A

discussion in a group without discipline.

Links can be further classified as

1. Point to Point: In this communication only two nodes are connected to each other. When a
node sends a packet then it can be received only by the node on the other side and none else.

2. Multipoint: It is a kind of sharing communication, in which signal can be received by all

nodes. This is also called broadcast.

Generally two kind of problems are associated in transmission of signals.

1. Attenuation: When a signal transmits in a network then the quality of signal degrades as the
signal travels longer distances in the wire. This is called attenuation. To improve quality of
signal amplifiers are used at regular distances.

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2. Noise: In a communication channel many signals transmit simultaneously, certain random

signals are also present in the medium. Due to interference of these signals our signal gets
disrupted a bit.

Bandwidth
Bandwidth simply means how many bits can be transmitted per second in the communication
channel. In technical terms it indicates the width of frequency spectrum.

2.3 Transmission Media

2.3.1 Guided Transmission Media or wired Communication:

In Guided transmission media generally two kind of materials are used.

1. Copper
 Coaxial Cable
 Twisted Pair

2. Optical Fiber

1. Coaxial Cable:
Coaxial cable consists of an inner conductor and an outer conductor which are
separated by an insulator. The inner conductor is usually copper. The outer conductor is
covered by a plastic jacket.
It is named coaxial because the two conductors are coaxial. Typical diameter of coaxial
cable lies between 0.4 inch and 1 inch.
The most application of coaxial cable is cable T.V. The coaxial cable has high
bandwidth, attenuation is less.

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2. Twisted Pair:
A Twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires, typically 1mm thick. The wires
are twisted together in a helical form the purpose of twisting is to reduce cross talk interference
between several pairs.
Twisted Pair is much cheaper than coaxial cable but it is susceptible to noise and electromagnetic
interference and attenuation is large.

Twisted Pair can be further classified in two categories:

 Unshielded twisted pair: In this no insulation is provided, hence they are susceptible to
interference.

 Shielded twisted pair:

 In this a protective thick insulation is provided but shielded twisted pair is expensive
and not commonly used. The most common application of twisted pair is the telephone
system. Nearly all telephones are connected to the telephone company office by a
twisted pair.
 Twisted pair can run several kilometres without amplification, but for longer distances
repeaters are needed. Twisted pairs can be used for both analog and digital
transmission.
 The bandwidth depends on the thickness of wire and the distance travelled. Twisted
pairs are generally limited in distance, bandwidth and data rate.

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3. Optical Fiber:
 In optical fiber light is used to send data. In general terms presence of light is taken as bit 1
and its absence as bit 0. Optical fiber consists of inner core of either glass or plastic.
 Core is surrounded by cladding of the same material but of different refractive index. This
cladding is surrounded by a plastic jacket which prevents optical fiber from electromagnetic
interference and harshly environments.
 It uses the principle of total internal reflection to transfer data over optical fibers. Optical
fiber is much better in bandwidth as compared to copper wire, since there is hardly any
attenuation or electromagnetic interference in optical wires.
 Hence there is fewer requirements to improve quality of signal, in long distance
transmission. Disadvantage of optical fiber is that end points are fairly expensive. (eg.
switches)

Differences between different kinds of optical fibers:

1. Depending on material
 Made of glass
 Made of plastic.

2. Depending on radius
 Thin optical fiber
 Thick optical fiber

3. Depending on light source

 LED (for low bandwidth)
 Injection lased diode (for high bandwidth)

2.3.2 Unguided Transmission Media or Wireless Transmission:

The wireless transmission are classified into the following

1. Radio
2. Terrestrial
3. Satellite Communication

1. Radio:
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 Radio is a general term that is used for any kind of frequency. But higher frequencies are
usually termed as microwave and the lower frequency band comes under radio frequency.
 There are many application of radio. For eg. Cordless keyboard, wireless LAN, wireless
Ethernet but it is limited in range to only a few hundred meters.
 Depending on frequency radio offers different bandwidths.

2. Terrestrial microwave:
 In terrestrial microwave two antennas are used for communication. A focused beam emerges
from an antenna and is received by the other antenna, provided that antennas should be
facing each other with no obstacle in between.
 For this reason antennas are situated on high towers. Due to curvature of earth terrestrial
microwave can be used for long distance communication with high bandwidth.
 Telecom department is also using this for long distance communication.
 An advantage of wireless communication is that it is not required to lay down wires in the
city hence no permissions are required.
3. Satellite communication:
 Satellite acts as a switch in sky. On earth VSAT(Very Small Aperture Terminal) are used
to transmit and receive data from satellite.
 Generally one station on earth transmits signal to satellite and it is received by many
stations on earth. Satellite communication is generally used in those places where it is very
difficult to obtain line of sight i.e. in highly irregular terrestrial regions.
 In terms of noise wireless media is not as good as the wired media.
 There are frequency band in wireless communication and two stations should not be
allowed to transmit simultaneously in a frequency band.
 The most promising advantage of satellite is broadcasting. If satellites are used for point to
point communication then they are expensive as compared to wired media.

2.4 Network Topology

 A network topology is the basic design of a computer network.
 It details about how network components such as nodes and links are interconnected.

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 The word “Topology” was taken from the Greek word "Topos" meaning "Place," Topology, in
relation to networking, describes the configuration of the network; including the location of the
workstations and wiring connections.
 There are five primary types of network topologies which refer to the physical and logical layout
of the Network cabling. They are:
1. Star Topology
2. Bus Topology
3. Ring Topology
4. Tree Topology

2.4.1 Star Topology:

 All devices connected with a Star setup communicate through a central Hub by cable segments.
Signals are transmitted and received through the Hub.
 It is the simplest and the oldest and all the telephone switches are based on this.
 In a star topology, there can be multiple connections in parallel.

Advantages:
 It is much easier to modify or add new computers to a star network without disturbing the rest
of the network.
 The centre of a star network is a good place to diagnose network faults. Intelligent hub (hub
with microprocessors that implement features in addition to repeating network signals) also
provide for centralized monitoring and management of the network.
 Network administration and error detection is easier because problem is isolated to central node
 Networks runs even if one host fails
 Expansion becomes easier and scalability of the network increases
 More suited for larger networks
 You can use several cable types in the same network with a hub that can accommodate multiple
cable types
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Disadvantages
 Broadcasting and multicasting is not easy because some extra functionality needs to be
provided to the central hub
 If the central node fails, the whole network goes down; thus making the switch some kind of a
bottleneck
 Installation costs are high because each node needs to be connected to the central switch

2.4.2 Bus Topology:

 The simplest and one of the most common of all topologies, Bus consists of a single cable,
called a Backbone that connects all workstations on the network using a single line.
 All transmissions must pass through each of the connected devices to complete the desired
request.
 Each workstation has its own individual signal that identifies it and allows for the requested
data to be returned to the correct originator.
 In the Bus Network, messages are sent in both directions from a single point and are read by
the node (computer or peripheral on the network) identified by the code with the message.
 Most Local Area Networks (LANs) are Bus Networks because the network will continue to
function even if one computer is down.
 This topology works equally well for either peer to peer or client server.

 The purpose of the terminators at either end of the network is to stop the signal being reflected
back.

Advantages

 Broadcasting and multicasting is much simpler

 Network is redundant in the sense that failure of one node doesn't affect the network. The other
part may still function properly
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 Least expensive since less amount of cabling is required and no network switches are required
 Good for smaller networks not requiring higher speeds

Disadvantages:
 Trouble shooting and error detection becomes a problem because, logically, all nodes are equal
 Less secure because sniffing is easier
 Limited in size and speed

2.4.3 Ring Topology:

 All the nodes in a Ring Network are connected in a closed circle of cable.
 Messages that are transmitted travel around the ring until they reach the computer that they are
addressed to, the signal being refreshed by each node.
 In a ring topology, the network signal is passed through each network card of each device and
passed on to the next device.
 Each device processes and retransmits the signal, so it is capable of supporting many devices in
a somewhat slow but very orderly fashion.
 There is a very nice feature that everybody gets a chance to send a packet and it is guaranteed
that every node gets to send a packet in a finite amount of time.

Advantages:
 Broadcasting and multicasting is simple since you just need to send out one message
 Less expensive since less cable footage is required
 It is guaranteed that each host will be able to transmit within a finite time interval
 Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the opportunity to
transmit
 Performs better than a star network under heavy network load

Disadvantages
 Failure of one node brings the whole network down
 Error detection (trouble shoot) and network administration becomes difficult
 Moves, adds and changes of devices can affect the network
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 It is slower than star topology under normal load

 Generally, a BUS architecture is preferred over the other topologies - of course, this is a very
subjective opinion and the final design depends on the requirements of the network more than
anything else.
 Lately, most networks are shifting towards the STAR topology. Ideally we would like to design
networks, which physically resemble the STAR topology, but behave like BUS or RING topology.

2.4 Tree Topology:

There are certain special cases where tree topology is more effective:

 Communication between two networks

 A network structure which requires a root node, intermediate parents node and leaf nodes (just
like we see in an n-tree) or a network structure which exhibits three level of hierarchy because
two level of hierarchy is already displayed in the star topology.

Advantages of tree topology:

 Scalable as leaf nodes can accommodate more nodes in the hierarchical chain.
 A point to point wiring to the central hub as each intermediate node of a tree topology represents a
node in the bus topology
 Other hierarchical networks are not affected if one of them gets damaged
 Easier maintenance and fault finding

Disadvantages of tree topology:

 Huge cabling is needed

 A lot of maintenance is needed
 Backbone forms the point of failure.

2.5 Protocol:
 A set of rules and regulations are called protocol.
 If computers wish to communicate with one another, they have to know in advance exactly how
information is to be exchanged and precisely what the format will be.
 Therefore, standard methods of transmitting and processing various kinds of information are used
and these methods are called "protocols".
 Protocols are established by international agreement and ensure that computers everywhere can
talk to one another. There are a variety of protocols for different kinds of information and
functions. They are as follows
1. Aloha Protocol

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2. UDP Protocol
3. Mail Protocols and SMTP
4. Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTP)
5. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
6. TCP / IP Protocol

2.5.1 Aloha Protocols

The Aloha protocol was designed as part of a project at the University of Hawaii. It provided
data transmission between computers on several of the Hawaiian Islands using radio transmissions.

Pure Aloha

 Pure Aloha is an unslotted, fully-decentralized protocol. It is extremely simple and trivial to

implement.
 A node which wants to transmit will go ahead and send the packet on its broadcast channel, with
no consideration whatsoever as to anybody else is transmitting or not.
 Drawback of aloha protocol is, we don’t know whether what we are sending has been received
properly or not.
 To resolve this, in Pure Aloha, when one node finishes speaking, it expects an acknowledgement
in a finite amount of time - otherwise it simply retransmits the data.
 This scheme works well in small networks where the load is not high.

2.5.2 UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

We need UDP for multiplexing/demultiplexing of addresses. UDP's main purpose is to abstract
network traffic in the form of datagrams.

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A datagram comprises one single "unit" of binary data; the first eight (8) bytes of a datagram
contain the header information and the remaining bytes contain the data itself.
The UDP header consists of four(4) fields of two bytes each.

Source Port Destination port

Length Checksum

Source port number

Support multiple applications sending and receiving data concurrently. The sending application
(that could be a client or a server) sends UDP datagrams through the source port

Destination port number

The recipient of the packet accepts this datagram through the destination port

Datagram size
The datagram size is a simple count of the number of bytes contained in the header and data
sections. Because the header length is a fixed size, this field essentially refers to the length of the variable-
sized data portion (sometimes called the payload).

Checksum:

UDP checksums work as a safety feature. The checksum value represents an encoding of the
datagram data that is calculated first by the sender and later by the receiver. Should an individual datagram
be tampered with (due to a hacker) or get corrupted during transmission (due to line noise, for example),
the calculations of the sender and receiver will not match, and the UDP protocol will detect this error.

2.5.3 Mail Protocols: - SMTP :

Email is the most widely used application service which is used by users. It differs from other
uses of the networks as network protocols send packets directly to destinations using timeout and
retransmission for individual segments if no ack returns.Email applications involve two aspects -
 User-agent( pine, elm etc.)
 Transfer agent( sendmail daemon etc.)

When an email is sent it is the mail transfer agent (MTA) of the source that contacts the MTA of
the destination. The protocol used by the MTA 's on the source and destination side is called SMTP.

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol(SMTP) TCP/IP protocol suite specifies a standard for the
exchange of mail between machines. It deals with how the underlying mail delivery system passes
messages across a link from one machine to another.
The mail is enclosed in what is called an envelope. . The mail consists of two parts namely the
Header and the Data. The Header has the To and From fields. In SMTP data portion can contain only
printable ASCII characters.

Problems with SMTP

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1. There is no convenient way to send nonprintable characters

2. There is no way to know if one has received mail or not or has read it or not.
3. Someone else can send a mail on my behalf.

2.5.4 FTP (File Transfer Protocol):

Given a reliable end-to-end transport protocol like TCP, File Transfer might seem trivial. But,
the details like authorization, representation among heterogeneous machines make the protocol
complex.

FTP offers many facilities:

 Interactive Access: Most implementations provide an interactive interface that allows humans
to easily interact with remote servers.
 Format (representation) specification: FTP allows the client to specify the type and format of
stored data.
 Authentication Control: FTP requires client to authorize themselves by sending a login name
and password to the server before requesting file transfers.

2.5.5 Transmission Control Protocol:

What is Transmission Control Protocol?
 TCP was specifically designed to provide a reliable end to end byte stream over an unreliable
internetwork.
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 A TCP entity accepts user data streams from local processes, breaks them up into pieces not
exceeding 64KB and sends each piece as a separate IP datagram.

TCP segment header:

Source and destination port:

These fields identify the local endpoint of the connection.

Sequence and ACK number:

This field is used to give a sequence number to each and every byte transferred. This has an
advantage over giving the sequence numbers to every packet because data of many small packets can
be combined into one at the time of retransmission, if needed.. Sequence number space is as large as
32-bit although 17 bits would have been enough if the packets were delivered in order.

Header length:
This field tells how many 32-bit words are contained in the TCP header.

Window Size:
Flow control in TCP is handled using a variable-size sliding window. The Window Size field
tells how many bytes may be sent starting at the byte acknowledged.

Checksum:
This is provided for extreme reliability. It checksums the header, the data, and the conceptual
pseudoheader. Including the pseudoheader in TCP checksum computation helps detect undelivered
packets
Urgent Pointer:

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Indicates a byte offset from the current sequence number at which urgent data are to be found.
Urgent data continues till the end of the segment. This is not used in practice. The same effect can be
had by using two TCP connections, one for transferring urgent data.

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UNIT -III
3. Operating system
3.1 Definition of Operating System:
An Operating System is a program which acts as an interface between user and the hardware call computer
resource.
Goal:
 To make computer system convenient to use.
 To use computer hardware in an efficient manner.
 Coordinates all the activities among computer hardware devices
 It is an important compound of a computer systems which controls all other compounds of the
computer system.

All operating systems support Multi User feature

It is designed to work with a specific type of computer such as a PC or a Macintosh.

Popular Operating Systems are:-

 Microsoft -Disk Operating System (MS-DOS)

 Microsoft - Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows NT, Windows 2000,Windows XP, Windows7, Windows8,
Windows 10
 BELL Lab Research Center - Unix
 Linux
 AppleInc - Mac OS X
 IBM - OS/2
 Sun microsystem - JavaOS

Fig:Woking Of operating System

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Operating system can be divided into two Process:

 Single process
 Multi process.

Single process

Single process operating systems are capable of working on only one task at a time

Multi process

Multi process operating systems can work on several processes But Executed Only One task at a time
by breaking the tasks into threads.

Thread: Smallest part of programs that can be scheduled(divided) and Ready For execution.

3.2 Multiprogramming or Multitasking:

The management of two or more tasks, or programs, running on the computer system at the
same time is called multitasking, or multiprogramming. The first program is executed until an
interruption occurs, such as a request for input. While the input request is handled, the execution of a
second program begins. Because switching among these programs occurs so rapidly, they appear to be
executing at the same time. However, because there is only one processor, only one program is
actually in execution mode at any one time

Two types of multitasking:

 Co-operative Multitasking
 Pre-emptive multitasking.

Co-operative Multitasking:
Applications can control the system resource until they are finished. If a task caused faults or
other problems, it would cause the system to become unstable and force a reboot(restart).

Pre-emptive Multitasking:
Applications are allowed to run for a specified period of time depending priority basis. If a
particular task is causing problems or faults, that application can be stopped(can Not Restarted)
without the system becoming unstable. Used inWindows 9.x, Windows XP, Vista and Windows 7 and
all network operatingsystems.

Multi user:
This is similar to multitasking and is the ability for multiple users toaccess at the same time.
The OS switches back and forth between users.
Example :

 Windows server 2003,

 Windows server 2008,
 Linux,
 Unix etc.

Multiprocessor:

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Having multiple processors installed in a system such that tasks are divided between them.
Now all latest operating systems uses symmetricmultiprocessing.

3.3 General terms in Operating System

Multithreading:
Thread is a smallest part of a program that can be scheduled forexecution.

CPU Utilization:
Keep CPU utilization as high as possible. (What is utilization, by the way?).
Throughput:
Number of processes completed per unit time.
Turnaround Time:
Mean time from submission to completion of process.
Waiting Time:
Amount of time spent ready to run but not running.
Response Time:
Time between submission of requests and first response to the request.
Scheduler Efficiency:
The scheduler doesn't perform any useful work, so any time it takes is pure overhead.
So, need to make the scheduler very efficient.

3.4 Functions of an operating System

Common Operating Systems Tasks
 Starting (“booting”) the computer
 Monitoring performance
 Formatting diskettes
 Correcting errors
 Controlling the computer monitor
 Providing and maintaining the user interface
 Sending jobs to the printer
 Maintaining security and limiting access
 Reading programs into memory
 Locating files
 Managing memory allocation to those programs
 Detecting viruses
 Placing files and programs in secondary storage
 Compressing data

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Fig:Functions of an operating System

3.4.1 Starting the computer

The first function of an operating system is to start the computer.When we start a computer, it
loads the operating system into thecomputer's memory. This process is called booting. Booting
meansto load and initialize the operating system on a computer machine.

It can happen in two ways: warm bootor cold boot.

Warm Boot
A warm boot means restarting a computer that is already on.Itnormally happens after installing
a new software or hardware or after an application crashes or stops working.

Cold Boot
A cold boot means starting a computer that is already off. It happens when we turn on.

3.4.2 Providing a user interface

From the user's perspective, the most important function of an operating system, is providing
the user interface. This function controls how the user enters data and instruction and how information
is displayed.

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The user interface typically enables users:

 To start an application program

 To manage disks and files such as formatting, copying and renaming
 To shut down the computer safely by following the correct procedures
 The three type of user interface are Command-Line, Menu-Driven and Graphical User Interface
(GUI).

3.4.3 Managing data and programs:

The next function of an operating system is to manage data andprograms. When we start an
application, the CPU loads the applicationfrom storage into memory.
In the early days of personal computing, single-taskingoperating systems could run only one
application at a time.Multitasking operating systems enable users to work with two or more application
programs at the same time.

3.4.4 Managing memory

The computer's operating system is responsible for managing memorysuch as:
 Optimizing the use of random access memory (RAM) allocating data and instruction to
an area of memory while being processed
 Monitoring the contents of memory
 Releasing data and instructions from being monitored in memory when the process is
done

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3.4.5 Configuring devices

Another function of an operating system is handling input and output,as well as enabling
communication with input and output devices. Most operating systems come with drivers for popular
input and outputdevices.These drivers install new devices and check whenever there is conflictwith
these devices.

3.5 Types of Operating Systems (or) Classification of Operating System

Operating systems are there from the very first computer generation.Operating systems keep
evolving over the period of time. Following are few of the important types of operating system which
are most commonly used.

 Batch operating system

 Distributed operating system
 Time sharing operating system
 Network Operating System
 Real time system

3.5.1 Batch operating system

The users of batch operating system do not interact with the computer directly. Each user
prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to the computer operator. To
speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched together and run as a group. Thus, the
programmers left their programs with the operator. The operator then sorts programs into batches with
similar requirements.
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The problems with Batch Systems are following.

 Lack of interaction between the user and job.
 CPU is often idle, because the speeds of the mechanical I/O devices are slower than CPU.

3.5.2 Distributed operating system:

Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real time application and
multiple users. Data processing jobs are distributed among the processors accordingly to which one
can perform each job most efficiently.
The processors communicate with one another through various communication lines (such as
high-speed buses or telephone lines). These are referred as loosely coupled systems or distributed
systems. Processors in a distributed system may vary in size and function. These processors are
referred as sites, nodes, and computers and so on.

The advantages of distributed systems are following.

With resource sharing facility user at one site may be able to use the resources available at
another. Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail. If one site fails in a
distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially continue operating.

 Better service to the customers.

 Reduction of the load on the host computer.
 Reduction of delays in data processing

3.5.3 Time sharing operating system

Difficult to provide the desired priority Time sharing is a technique which enables many
people, located at various terminals, to use a particular computer system at the same time. Time-
sharing or multitasking is a logical extension of multiprogramming. Processor's time which is shared
among multiple users simultaneously is termed as time-sharing.
The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time-Sharing Systems is
that in case of multiprogrammed batch systems, objective is to maximize processor use, whereas in
Time-Sharing Systems objective is to minimize response time.
Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the switches occur so
frequently. Thus, the user can receive an immediate response. For example, in a transaction
processing, processor execute each user program in a short burst or quantum of computation. That is if
n users are present, each user can get time quantum. When the user submits the command, the response
time is in few seconds at most.
Operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each user with a
small portion of a time. Computer systems that were designed primarily as batch systems have been
modified to time-sharing systems.
Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are following
 Provide advantage of quick response.
 Avoids duplication of software.
 Reduces CPU idle time.

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Disadvantages of Timesharing operating systems are following.

 Problem of reliability.
 Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
 Problem of data communication.

3.5.4 Network Operating System

It is a multiuser operating system.It is also called as server operating system.It can support
Multitasking, Multiprogramming, Multiprocessing andMultithreading and Multi User.
User interface can be Command Line or GUI. Generally server grade computers are used for
installation of network operating system. Cost of network operating system is very high as compared
to desktop operating system.
It provides high security that includes user level, share level as well as file level.It provides
backup tools to take the backup of important data. Backup can be scheduled in non-working hours
also. It can be configured as a server to provide various types of network services
Ex:
Windows Server 2000, Windows Server 2003, WindowsServer 2008.

3.5.5 Real time system:

Real time system is defines as a data processing system in which the time interval required to
process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the environment. Real time processing is
always on line whereas on line system need not be real time. The time taken by the system to respond
to an input and display of required updated information is termed as response time. So in this method
response time is very less as compared to the online processing.

Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the operation of a
processor or the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as a control device in a dedicated
application. Real-time operating system has well-defined, fixed time constraints otherwise system will
fail. For example Scientific experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial control systems, weapon
systems, robots, and home-appliance controllers, Air traffic control system etc.

There are two types of real-time operating systems.

Hard real-time systems
Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard real-time systems
secondary storage is limited or missing with data stored in ROM. In these systems virtual memory is
almost never found.

Soft real-time systems

Soft real time systems are less restrictive. Critical real-time task gets priority over other tasks
and retains the priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems have limited utility than hard real-
time systems. For example, Multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced Scientific Projects like undersea
exploration and planetary rovers etc.

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3.6 Introduction to MS–DOS

Disk Operating System (DOS)
In the 1980s or early 1990s, the operating system that shipped with most PCs was a version of
the Disk Operating System (DOS) created by Microsoft: MS-DOS.
MS-DOS is a disk-based, single-user, single-task and character based user interface (CUI)
operating system
Disk Operating System (DOS) is a single user singleprocess. Operating system that uses a
command line interface knownas a DOS prompt. Files with .COM, .BAT and .EXE can be
executedfrom the prompt.

Goto MSDOS from Windows Operating System:

Way 1:

ClicStart Button ----Program----Accessories----Click Command Prompt

Way 2:
ClicStart---- Button Choose-----Run Type cmd

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Command Prompt will get displayed as shown

Rules for naming files in DOS

 Alphabets A to Z (both capital and small). Digits 0 to 9 are allowed .
 Special characters like spaces ' ! A 0 $ο & # @ % '-{}[]+-=-- .
 Some special characters which cannot be used are? / \ : 1<> II *.
 There are some words specifically reserved for special files and are not allowed if used singly.
They are CON, COM1, COM2, COM3. COM4, AVX, LPT1, LPT2, LPT3, PRN, NUL.
These words can be used in combination such as ASCon, deltacom1, Panamavx. etc.
 Files with extension names like .EXE, .COM and .BAT are called executable files and are
given a special status by DOS.
 Dot (.) is allowed only once.

3.7 DOS commands

3.7.1 MD (Make Directory) Command

MD command allows to create directories in MS-DOS.
Examples:
1. md flower
Creates the "prem" directory in the directory in the currently directory.
2. md c:\flower
Creates the "prem" directory in the c:\ directory

3.7.2 CD (Change Directory) Command

CD (Change Directory) is a command used to switch directories in MS-DOS.

Examples:
1. cd\
Goes to the highest level, the root of the drive.

Folder: C ->TC ->BIN

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2. cd..
Goes back one directory

3. cd
Typing cd alone will print the working directory.

Change Drive
The (:) is used to change Drive from one Drive to Another Drive.
Ex:
D:

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3.7.3 COPY Command

COPY command allows to copy one or more files to an alternate location.

Examples:
1. copy *.* a:
Copy all files in the current directory to thea disk drive.
2. copy file1.txt file2.txt
Copy the contents of file1.txt to file2.txt
3. copy myfile1.txt+myfile2.txt
Copy the contents in myfile2.txt and combines it with the contents in myfile1.txt.
Copy con Command

The COPY command can be used to create text files by copying from device CON: to a file.
The procedure is outlined in the text of the example below.
C:\>COPY CON: TEXTFILE
This is the text to go into the text file being created. Each line is typed to the screen and it
isbeing saved into a buffer for later transfer to the file TEXTFILE. Each line may be corrected as it is
typed, but cannot be changed after it is terminated by the carriage return. Also, if you happen totype
beyond column 80 on the screen, you cannot correct anything on the line above. Each linemust be
terminated by a carriage return (the enter key). You signal you are finished by typing aControl-Z, the
symbol for end-of-file, followed by Return. ^Z

1 File(s) copied

3.7.4 DEL Command

DEL command is used to delete files from the computer. Deleting files from MS-DOS does not
send files to the recycle bin.

Examples:
1. del test.tmp
Deletes the test.tmp in the directory that you currently are in, if the file exists.
2. del c:\windows\test.tmp
Delete the c:\windows\test.tmp in the windows directory if it exists.

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3.7.4 DIR Command

The dir command allows you to see the available files in the current and/or parent directories.

Examples:
1. DIR
Lists all files and directories in the directory that you are currently in.

2. dir /w

If information on the date / time and other information on the files are not needed, then this
command can be used to list just the files and directories going horizontally, taking as little as space
needed
.

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4. dir /on
List the files in alphabetical order by the names of the files.

5. dir /o-n
List the files in reverse alphabetical order by the names of the files.

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6. Cls Command (clear):

The cls Command used to “clear” the Screen.

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UNIT IV

4.Overview of UNIX Operating System

Unix was originally developed in 1969 by a group of AT&T employees at Bell Labs, including
Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, and Joe Ossanna

The UNIX operating system is a set of programs that act as a link between the computer and the
user. The UNIX operating system is capable of handling activities from multiple users at the same time
that is called multiuser system.

A user can also run multiple programs at the same time; hence UNIX is called multitasking.UNIX
systems also have a graphical user interface (GUI) similar to MicrosoftWindows, which provides an easy
to use environment.In 1969 Ken Thompson wrote the first version of UNIX, called UNICS.

UNICSstood for Uniplexed Operating and Computing System. Although the operating systemhas
changed, the name stuck and was eventually shortened to UNIX.

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4.1 Why Use UNIX?

One of the biggest reasons for using UNIX is networking capability. With other
operatingsystems, additional software must be purchased for networking. With UNIX,
networkingcapability is simply part of the operating system.
UNIX is ideal for such things as worldwide e-mail and connecting to the Internet. UNIX was
founded on what could be called a "small is good" philosophy. The idea is thateach program is
designed to do one job well. Because UNIX was developed differentpeople with different needs it has
grown to an operating system that is both flexible andeasy to adapt for specific needs. UNIX was
written in a machine independent language.
So UNIX and UNIX-like operatingsystems can run on a variety of hardware. These systems are
available from manydifferent sources, some of them at no cost. Because of this diversity and the ability
toutilize the same "user-interface" on many different systems, UNIX is said to be an opensystem.

4.2 Components of UNIX operating system

The UNIX operating system is made up of three parts;
The kernel
The shell
Theprograms.
4.2.1 The kernel

The kernel of UNIX is the core of the operating system: it allocates time and memory
to programs and handles the file store and communications in response to systemcalls.

As an illustration of the way that the shell and the kernel work together, suppose auser types rm
myfile (which has the effect of removing the file myfile). The shellsearches the file store for the file
containing the program rm, and then requests thekernel, through system calls, to execute the program
rm on myfile.

When the processrm myfile has finished running, the shell then returns the UNIX prompt % to
theuser, indicating that it is waiting for further commands.

4.2.2 The shell

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The shell acts as an interface between the user and the kernel. When a user logs in,the login
program checks the username and password, and then starts anotherprogram called the shell. The shell
is a command line interpreter (CLI).
It interpretsthe commands the user types in and arranges for them to be carried out.
Thecommands are themselves programs: when they terminate, the shell gives the useranother prompt
(% on our systems).

The adept user can customize his/her own shell, and users can use different shells on
the same machine. Staff and students in the school have the tcsh shell by default.The tcsh shell has
certain features to help the user inputting commands.
Filename Completion - By typing part of the name of a command, filename ordirectory and pressing
the [Tab] key, the tcsh shell will complete the rest of the nameautomatically. If the shell finds more
than one name beginning with those letters youhave typed, it will beep, prompting you to type a few
more letters before pressing thetab key again.
History - The shell keeps a list of the commands you have typed in. If you need torepeat a command,
use the cursor keys to scroll up and down the list or type historyfor a list of previous commands.

4.2.3 Program
A unified file system to represent data, programs, and any input or outputports used to transfer
data as files, nested in directories, in a hierarchical treestructure.
A process is the flow of execution of a set of program instructions and owns, as a
system entity, the necessary resources

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4.3 Files and processes

Everything in UNIX is either a file or a process.A process is an executing program identified by a
unique PID (process identifier).
A file is a collection of data. They are created by users using text editors, runningcompilers etc.
Examples of files:
 A document (report, essay etc.)
 The text of a program written in some high-level programming language
 Instructions comprehensible directly to the machine and incomprehensible to acasual user, for
example, a collection of binary digits (an executable or binaryfile);
 A directory, containing information about its contents, which may be a mixture ofother
directories (subdirectories) and ordinary files.

4.4 The Directory Structure

All the files are grouped together in the directory structure. The file-system isarranged in a
hierarchical structure, like an inverted tree.
The top of the hierarchy istraditionally called root (written as a slash / )

In the diagram above, we see that the home directory of the undergraduate student"ee51vn"
contains two sub-directories (docs and pics) and a file called report.doc.The full path to the file
report.doc is "/home/its/ug1/ee51vn/report.doc"

4.5 Basic Characteristics of Unix

UNIX is, at its base level, a multi-user, multitasking, virtual memory operating systemthat runs on a
wide variety of hardware platforms. Let's look at each of the three characteristics of UNIX listed
above.

4.5.1 UNIX is a multi-user system.

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This means that inherent to UNIX is the idea thatthere are different users of the system, and
that different users may have different sorts ofprivileges and types of access to different parts of the
system.
It allows for the idea thatsome users may want to protect some of their data from being
accessed by other users onthe system. Likewise, there must be some way to identify one user from
another ina multi-user system. UNIX uses a system of login names to identify users and passwordsto
authenticate that a user is, in fact, who she claims to be.

4.5.2 UNIX is a multitasking system.

This means that UNIX has the ability to handlemore than one task at a time. These tasks might
be several programs that any particularuser wants to run, or they may be programs run by several users
at once.
4.5.3 UNIX is a virtual memory operating system.
In a virtual memory system, the system behaves as if it has muchmore memory than is
physically installed. Some portion of the disk is used to simulateextra memory. This idea makes it
possible to run large programs on a smaller system.
Ina multitasking environment, tasks that are not currently running can be moved out ofmemory
and onto disk to free up memory for tasks that more urgently need it. The overallresult is better use of
the system resources for all involved.

4.6 The Unix File System

4.6.1 What are Directories?
Directories are basically just files that contain other files. A directory can contain any sort of
file that you might want, includingother directories. It is same as in MSDOS. If you are a Macintosh
user, directories are verysimilar to folders.
This leads to a tree structured file system, with the top of the file systembeing a directory called
the root and labelled as / . The files in a directory are called thechildren. So, every file on the system
is either a child of the root, or adescendent at some level of the root.

When you create a new directory, it is not completely empty at its creation time.
Everydirectory has at least two children, . and.. . The directory labeled . refers to the directoryitself,
and .. refers to its immediate parent directory.

4.6.2 Current and Home Directories

Now, it is important to understand the idea of your current directory. At any time, you
will be positioned within some directory on the system. The directory where you
are sitting is known as your current directory.

The command pwd will display the current directory.

% pwd
/home/iris2/classIT

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When you first log into a UNIX machine, your current directory is set for you to yourhome directory.
This is the directory on the system that will hold your personal files. Inthis directory, you can create,
delete, and modify files, as well as controlling how othersaccess your files.

4.6.3 Naming Unix Files and Directories

Within the Unix directory structure, there are two ways to name any file: relative naming, and
absolute naming.

4.6.3.1 Absolute Naming

An absolute name, or absolute path as it is often called, specifies exactly where in thefilesystem the
particular file is. It tells the whole name of the file, starting at the root ofthe filesystem. An absolute
name starts with /, the root, and names each directory alongthe path to the file, separating the
directories with /. For example the absolute name for your file1 might be /home/iris2/classIT/file1.
The pwd command always reports an absolute pathname.

4.6.3.2 Relative Naming

The second way to name a file in UNIX is with a relative name. Whereas an absolutename
specifies exactly where in the filesystem a particular file exists, a relative namespecifies how to get to
it from your current directory. The look of a relative name mayvary a lot, since depending on your
starting directory, there are a number of paths to aparticular file.In the simplest case, just naming a file
in your current directory is a relative name.You are specifying how to get to this file from your current
directory, and the path is tojust open the contained in the current directory.When using relative paths,
the special directories . and .. that are contained in everydirectory are used quite a bit. Recall that .
specifies the directory itself, and .. specifies itsparent. So, if the file mbox is contained in your current
directory, naming the file with./mbox and mbox are equivalent. The special directory .. is used to name
a directory atthe same level in the tree as your current directory, that is, a sibling of your
currentdirectory. The following example illustrates using .. to look at a sibling directory.
% pwd
/home/iris2/classIT
% ls
NewBibligraphy.refer bibs mbox
ShortFile bin src
baby.1 ig.discography unix.refer
% cd bin
% ls
pwd
% ls ../src
helloworld.c pwgen.c

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4.6.4 Shortcuts for File Naming

UNIX provides someshortcuts for file naming. In particular, very many file accesses are either
to your ownhome directory or to the home directory of another user. To make it easier to point tothese
places, the ~ character is used. Alone, ~ refers to your home directory. So the file~/flow1 refers to the
file flow1in your home directory. Likewise ~username refers to the
home directory of that particular user. So, ~IT/students refers to the file students in theuser IT home
directory.

4.6.5 File Naming Limitations

UNIX allows you great flexibility in naming your files. Older System V Release 3systems
limited the length of a filename to 14 characters. Berkeley Unix systems, as wellas newer versions of
System V have substantially relaxed this limitation. Many systemsallow the name of individual files to
be up to 256 characters, and the maximum absolutepathname to be about 1023 characters. Also, since
UNIX is sensitive to the case of the filenames, you can usemixed case names to add clarity.

4.6.6 File Name Extensions

Applications programs often use it to add an extension to a filenamethat specifies something
about the contents of the file. These extensions sometimes tellwhat programs were used to create a file.
Typically, the extension will tell whatlanguage the data in the file is in. It assumesthat its input files
will have an extension of .c. Its executable output generally has no extension, unlike MSDOS which
uses a .EXE extension for executables. If we have aprogram called hello.c, its executable version is
likely to be called just hello. Table 1gives some of the more common file extensions and what they are
used for.

File Extension File Type

.c C language source
.f Fortran language source
.o Object code from a compiler
.pl Perl language source
.ps PostScript language source
.tex Text document
.gif CompuServ GIF image
.jpg JPEG image
.Z Compressed file, made with compress

Table 1: Standard UNIX Filename Extensions

4.6.7 Moving Around the File System

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Now that we have an understanding of how our files are laid out, it would be helpfulto know
how to move around the file system. Similar to MSDOS, the cd command isused to change from one
directory to another. Its use is simple; its one argument is thedirectory that you want to move to.
% pwd
/home/iris2/class9
% cd bin
% pwd
/home/iris2/class9/bin

4.6.8 Creating and Removing Directories

Also similar to MSDOS, the mkdir and rmdir commands are used to create andremove
directories. The arguments to mkdir are a list of directories to be created. Thearguments to rmdir are
a list of directories to be removed. In order to remove a directorywith rmdir, the directory must be
empty. If you want to remove a directory that containsfiles, use the rm r command, which recursively
removes all files and directories in thedirectory given as its argument.

4.7 Standard Filesystem Layout

Within the UNIX filesystem, there are some standard places to put different types offiles. This
makes it easy to find things, regardless of which UNIX system you are using.Some standard
conventions are used: bin is used for binaries or executable files, lib isused as the library, src is used
for source code, etc is used for miscellaneous system files.

Directories that are children of the directory /usr are used for things that users wouldencounter,
as opposed to system files. The following table lists some commonly founddirectories and their usual
contents.
/ Root of the filesystem
/bin Basic Unix commands
/dev Special device files
/etc System configuration files
/home Use home directories
/tmp Temporary files
/usr The bulk of the operating systemfiles
/usr/local Local additions and modificationsto UNIX
/var Log files and frequently changedfiles

4.8 Working with Files

4.8.1 Creating Files:
Create a file with the cat command

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Type the command

$ cat > name_of_file

Now type in your text. Press the <Return> key to start a new line.When you have finished typing in
your text, enter Ctrl-d (Press and hold down the Ctrlkey and type a "d").This stops the cat command
and returns you to the system prompt.
Create a file use vi Editor

You can use vi editor to create ordinary files on any Unix system. You simply need to give
following command:
$ vi filename

Above command would open a file with the given filename. You would need to press key i to come
into edit mode. Once you are in edit mode you can start writing your content in the file as below:

Once you are done, do the following steps:

This is key
 Press unix
esc to file....I created it for the first
come out of edit mode.
time.....
 Press two keys Shift + Z together to come out of the file completely.
I'm going to save this content in this file.
Now you would have a file created with filemame in the current directory.

4.8.2 Counting Words in a File:

You can use the wc command to get a count of the total number of lines, words, and characters
contained in a file. Following is the simple example to see the information about above created file:

$ wc filename
2 19 103 filename
$
Here is the detail of all the four columns:
First Column: represents total number of lines in the file.
Second Column: represents total number of words in the file.
Third Column: represents total number of bytes in the file. This is actual size of the file.

4.8.3 Copying Files:

To make a copy of a file use the cp command. The basic syntax of the command is:
Following is the example to create a copy of existing file filename.

$ cp source_file destination_file
Ex:
$ cp notes flow1.txt

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$ cp -i notes part2.txt

This makes a copy of the file notes in the file part2.txt. If this file exists, themessagepart2.txt: File
existsis displayed. The file is not copied.

You can use special "wildcard" characters whenever you want to copy several files thathave similar
filenames.Instead of entering the cp command followed by several filenames you can use a single
Examples of using cp with special characters:
To copy files that match on several characters:
cp *.txt chapt1
This copies all the files in the current working directory with the extension ".txt" to thesub-
directorychapt1.

4.8.4 Display Content of a File:

You can use cat command to see the content of a file. Following is the simple example to see
the content of above created file:

You can display line numbers by using -b option along with cat command as follows:

$ cat filename -b
$ catfilename
1 This is unix file....I created it for the first
This is unix file....I created it for the first
time.....
time.....
2 I'm
4.8.5 going
Deleting Files: to save this content in this file.
I'm going to save this content in this file.
$ To delete an existing file use the rm command. Its basic syntax is:
$
$ rmfilename
$ cat class -b
1 This is unix(eng) file....I created it for the best
time Forever.....
Following
2 I'mis the example
going towhich
savewouldthis
completely remove existing
content in this file filename
file.
$
You can remove multiple files at a tile as follows:

$ rm filename1 filename2 filename3

$

4.8.6 Moving Files:

To change the name of a file use the mv command. Its basic syntax is:

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Following is the example which would rename existing file filename to newfile:

$ mv old_file new_file

The mv command would move existing file completely into new file..
Ex:
$ mv flow(Old File Name) jai(New File Name)

4.9 File Permissions

The file permission grants the ability to do the following activities.

No Access Permission Description

Modes
A user who has read permission for a file may look
1 read [r] read permission
at its contents or make a copy of it. For a directory, read
permission enables a use to see the file names in that
directory.
A user who has write permission for a file can alter
2 write [w] Write permission
or remove the contents of that file. For a directory, the
user can create and delete files located in that directory

A user who has execute permission for a file can

3 execute [x] Execute
cause the contents of that file to be executed (provided
permission
that it is executable code). For a directory, execute
permission allows a user to traverse the directory to access
files or subdirectories.

The access permissions for all three types of user can be given as a string of nine characters
User group others
rwx rwx rwx
These permissions have different meanings for files and directories.
Examples of access permissions
ls -l file1
-rw------- 2 student 3287 Apr 8 12:10 file1
owner of the file has read and write permission.

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4.9.1 Changing permissions with chmod

The chmod (CHange MODe) command alters the accesspermissions to files. If we wanted to
remove the right of anyone else to read UNIX refer the command
chmod or unix.referwould do the trick.
The modifiers for chmod are fairly complex. In general, they can be summarized bysaying that
you specify whose permissions you are modifying (u for the user, g for thegroup, and o for others),
what you are doing to the permission (+ to add, - to remove, or =to set), and what permissions you plan
to modify (r for read, w for write, and x forexecute). See man chmod for the details.

If we then decided that we want to allow peoplewithin our group to modify this bibliography
(refer is the standard UNIX bibliographyprogram), we would use the following command:
chmod g+w unix.refer
The following shows this transaction and its output.
% chmod or unix.refer
% chmod g+w unix.refer
We can now see that the changes we wanted have been made to the file permissions.
% ls l unix.refer
rwrw 1 dickson 1311 Jan 30 18:03 unix.refer

4.10 Security:
Security refers to providing a protection system to computer system resources such as CPU,
memory, disk, software programs and most importantly data/information stored in the computer
system.
If a computer program is run by unauthorized user then he/she may cause severe damage to
computer or data stored in it. So a computer system must be protected against unauthorized access,
malicious access to system memory, viruses, worms etc

security (share permissions only)

NoSecurity Sets the security settings to No make converted files anddirectories accessible by
everyone

4.10.1 Authentication

Authentication refers to identifying the each user of the system and associating the executing
programs with those users. It is the responsibility of the Operating System to create a protection
system which ensures that a user who is running a particular program is authentic. Operating Systems
generally identifies/authenticates users using following three ways:

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Username / Password - User need to enter a registered username and password with Operating
system to login into the system.

User card/key - User need to punch card in card slot, or enter key generated by key generator in
option provided by operating system to login into the system.

User attribute - fingerprint/ eye pattern/ signature - User need to pass his/her attribute via designated
input device used by operating system to login into the system.

To log in:

1. Type your userid at the login prompt, then press ENTER. Your userid is case-sensitive, so be
sure you type it exactly as your system administrator instructed.
2. Type your password at the password prompt, then press ENTER. Your password is also case-
sensitive.
3. If you provided correct userid and password then you would be allowed to enter into the
system. Read the information and messages that come up on the screen something as below.

login : bsc
password: it
Last login: Sun Jun 14 09:32:32 2009 from 62.61.164.73

Change Password:

All UNIX systems require passwords to help ensure that your files and data remain your own
and that the system itself is secure from hackers and crackers. Here are the steps to change your
password:

1. To start, type passwd at command prompt as shown below.

2. Enter your old password the one you're currently using.
3. Type in your new password. Always keep your password complex enough so that nobody can
guess it. But make sure, you remember it.
4. You would need to verify the password by typing it again.

$ passwd
Changing password for bsc
(current) Unix password:**
New UNIX password:*******
Retype new UNIX password:*******
passwd: all authentication tokens updated successfully
$
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UNIT V
5. Introduction to Windows

Windows GUI

Older text-based interfaces like DOS (disk operating system) requiredtyping in cryptic
commands. In an effort to make computers more userfriendly,the graphical user interface was
developed.The graphical user interface (GUI) allows users to have direct control of visibleobjects
(such as icons) and actions that replace complex command syntax.The GUIwas developed by
researchers at Xerox PARC (Palo Alto Research Center), and thenpopularized by the Apple MacIntosh
computer.
Microsoft soon introduced its GUIbasedWindows operating system for IBM-style PCs. The
next generation of GUItechnology will incorporate features such as virtual reality, head-mounted
displays,sound and speech, pen and gesture recognition, animation, multimedia, artificial intelligence,
and cellular/wireless communication capabilities.
The next step in the evolution of GUIs is social interfaces. A social interface is auser interface
that guides the user through computer applications by using cartoonlikecharacters, graphics, animation,
and voice commands. The cartoonlike characters canbe cast as puppets, narrators, guides, inhabitants,
avatars (computer-generated humanlikefigures), or hosts.

GUI Interface
 A graphical approach to run a software or perform an action
 Related definitions:
 Desktop (on-screen work area)
 Button (to activate an action – START Button)
 Icon (representing a program, software, etc.)
 Pointer (I-beam, block arrow, pointing hand)
 Click!
 Menu (collection of commands)
 Dialog Box (Printer box)
 Command (We run a command to perform an action)
 Window (an area of the screen that displays a program,application, etc.)

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Multitasking format of window

Flexibility of Windows

A major feature of windows is the ability to be manipulated easily and intuitively (i.e., with
little or no instruction) even by inexperienced users. The ways in which they can be manipulated
usually include
1. opening (such as by clicking on an icon and starting an application program) and closing,
2. moving to any area of the screen by dragging (i.e., moving by placing the pointer over the
window and moving the mouse with a button held down),
3. repositioning so that they appear to be behind or in front of other windows or objects on the
screen,
4. adjusting size (i.e., horizontal and/or vertical dimensions)
5. scrolling to any section of the window contents (by using scroll bars along the bottom and right
edges, the mouse wheel or keyboard commands).

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The size of most windows can be adjusted over a wide range including full screen, a fraction of the
screen and more than the full screen. In the latter case, the desired section of the window can be
viewed by moving the window to expose it. Windows can also be minimized, which results in their
being replaced by an icon and/or their name, usually in a strip along the bottom of the screen, without
actually closing the underlying application program.

This flexibility is made possible by the various parts which can constitute a window. They
include frames, vertical and horizontal scrollbars, drag strips (usually along the top for dragging the
entire window and along the other edges and lower corners for changing window size), buttons (for
closing, maximizing and minimizing) and tabs (for moving among pages in a window).

Multiple Windows

Another major feature of windows is the ability for multiple windows to be open simultaneously. This
is particularly valuable in a multitasking environment, i.e., an operating system in which multiple
programs can run seemingly simultaneously and without interfering with each other. Each window can
display a different application, or it can display different files that have been opened or created with a
single application (e.g., text, image or spreadsheet files).

When most GUI programs are launched, they open in a single window. There are a
number of exceptions, among them The GIMP (an open source image manipulation program
comparable to Adobe PhotoShop), which opens in multiple windows, each for a different set of tools
or options.

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Fig:Multiple Windows(Multitasking)

Icons selection moving and sizing

Icon
Icons are little pictures that represent different programs or saved items. Double-clickingon the
icon accesses the information icons represent.

There are different ways to display information for files or folders. Occasionally you may want
to sort files in aspecific order, or to see more information for the files or folders.
Select the view options using one of thefollowing methods:
 Click the arrow of the button on the Command bar, or

 right-click in a blank area of the Contents pane and then View, oron the Command bar, click
the Views button to cycle through the different views

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Extra Large Icons

Shows files and folders as very large icons, which canbe helpful for visually impaired users;
file and foldernames display below the icon.

Large Icons
Displays files and folders as large icons with file or foldernames below the icon, and is helpful
when you want topreview picture files.

Medium Icons
Displays files and folders as medium-sized icons withthe names below the icons, and is helpful
when youwant an overview of folders or files in a certain location.

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Small Icons
Lists files and folders as smaller icons with the namesdisplayed to the right. The main
difference between thisview and the List view is how the contents are sorted. Inthis view, the contents
are sorted alphabetically inmultiple columns from left to right. In the List view, the contents are sorted
alphabetically in multiple columnsstarting with the first column.

Windows menu

Help menu

Windows explorer

Using Windows Explorer

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Windows Explorer is the file management tool that comes with Windows XP. It gives you
theability to rename, copy, move or delete the folders and files on your computer’s drives.Folders and
files are displayed hierarchically within Windows Explorer. Folders can containsubfolders as well as
files.
Opening Windows ExplorerTo start Windows Explorer, find the My Computer icon on your desktop
or the Start menu.
Right-click to display the pop-up menu, and choose Explore.

The window that opens will look similar to the example below. The title bar at the top of the
window shows “My Computer”. All the drives and other storage devices associated with this
computer are shown on in the right hand pane.

Note that when you are working on the UCT network, you must NOT store your files on the C:
drive. One of the network drives (usually the F: drive) will be identified by your studentnumber, and
has been allocated for your personal use. Because it is a network drive, it isaccessible to you from any
PC on the network.

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To navigate through the directory structure and locate files that you want to open, copy, move
or delete, you would do as follows:
1. Double-click on the required drive or removable device (floppy disk or flash drive) todisplay
its contents.
2. Within the selected drive or device, double-click on any folder to view the subfoldersand files
that it contains.

 The title bar at the top of the window will then display the name of the currently selectedfolder.
On the left side of the window is a list of all the drives and folders on your computer.
 On the right side of the window is a list of all the folders and files located inside the driveor
folder that is currently selected in the left pane.
In the left pane:
 A plus sign “+” next to a folder indicates that it contains subfolders that are not currentlyvisible
Clicking on the plus sign (or double-clicking on the folder name) will reveal thesubfolders.
 A minus sign “-“ next to a folder indicates that all its subfolders are currently visible. Clickon
the minus sign (or double-click on the folder name) to collapse the subfolders and hidethem
from view.
 Indentation levels in the left pane reflect the folder directory structure.You can drag the vertical
line between the left and right panes to make them wider ornarrower.
 If there are too many entries to be displayed in a pane, then you can use the vertical scroll barto
view the hidden entries.
Selecting folders or files
In the left pane, click on a drive or folder that you want to select. Its contents will be
displayedin the right pane. Similarly, you would click on a file in the right pane to select it.

To select a group of adjacent files or folders:

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 Click on the first file (or folder) in the group that you want to select. It will become
highlighted.
 Hold down the [SHIFT] key and click on the last file (or folder) in the group that you wantto
select. All the items between the first and the last file (or folder) selected will also
behighlighted.
 Release the [SHIFT] key.

To select separate files and folders:

 Click on the first file (or folder) that you want to select. It will become highlighted.
 Hold down the [CTRL] key and click on each of the other files (or folders) that you want
toselect. All the items that have been selected will be highlighted.
 Release the [CTRL] key.

Creating a new folder

To create a new folder in Windows Explorer:
 In the left pane, highlight the folder within which you want to create a new folder. Ifyou don’t
want the new folder to be a sub-folder of an existing folder, then select theDrive (such as F:)
that the new folder should be in.
 Select the File menu and hold the mouse pointer over the arrow on the right of theNew
command. Choose Folder from the sub-menu that appears. A highlighted foldericon called
[New Folder] will appear at the bottom of the right pane.

 Type the name that you want to give the new folder, and press [ENTER]. Your newfolder has
been created!

Saving a new file

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Whenever you start a new task using an application such as Word or Excel, you’ll need tosave
your work in a file. The process for saving a new file is basically the same for allWindows
applications; the examples used here are based on Word.

 At the top of the screen, click on the File menu, and then select theSave As option from the
drop-down menu. (If your window shows atask bar with buttons, then you can click instead on
the icon of a stiffy disk.)Note that in Office 2007, the File menu has been replaced by the
Office Button.A dialogue box will open.
 In the Save In field, use the drop-down arrow to select the drive and folder where youwant
your file to be stored.

 In the File Name field, type the name that you want to give your new file.

 Click the Save button.

Renaming folders or files

 Highlight the folder or file that you want to rename.
 Select the File menu and choose the Rename command. Alternatively, you can rightclickon the
current file name to get a pop-up menu, and then select Rename.
 The current folder or file name is highlighted. Type the new name and press[ENTER].

Copying folders or files

 Right-clicking:
1. In the right pane, select the folders or files you want to copy.
2. Right-click to display the pop-up menu, and select Copy.
3. Move the mouse pointer to the folder in the left pane that you want tocopy to.
4. Right-click and select Paste from the pop-up menu.

Toolbar icon:

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1. In the right pane, select the folders or files you want to copy.
2. Click the Copy To icon on the toolbar.
3. The Copy Items dialogue box will open.

Moving folders or files

Using Windows Explorer, you can move folders and files using similar methods to thoseshown
above for copying:
1. Right-click, and select Cut (instead of Copy) followed by Paste.
2. Use the Cut and Paste icons on the toolbar.
3. Use the Cut and Paste options on the Edit menu.
4. Use [CTRL]+[X] followed by [CTRL]+[V] on your keyboard
5. Drag your files to the new location. If the new location is on a different drive then holddown
the [SHIFT] key while dragging, otherwise Windows will make a copy, and you willstill need
to delete the original file.

What is the difference between copying and moving a file?

When you copy a file, theoriginal file remains in the source folder, so you end up with two
copies of the file, one in thesource folder and another in the destination folder. When you move a file,
the original disappears from the source folder, and you are left with only one copy of the file, in
thedestination folder.

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Deleting folders or files

1. Select the file or folder, and click the Delete icon on your toolbar.
2. Select the file or folder, and click the [DEL] key on your keyboard.
3. Click File on the menu bar and select Delete.
4. Right-click the file or folder and select Delete from the pop-up menu.
5. Select the file or folder and drag it to the Recycle bin on your desktop.
When you delete a file or folder, Windows will ask you to confirm the deletion. Make sure thatyou
have the right file before clicking Yes.

WINDOWS 95:
Windows 95, released in 1995, was the first of a series of products in the Windowsoperating
system that provided a streamlined GUI by using icons to provide instantaccess to common tasks.
Windows 95 is a 32-bit operating system that features multitasking,multithreading, networking, and
Internet integration capabilities, includingthe ability to integrate fax, e-mail, and scheduling programs.
Windows 95 also offers
Plug-and-play capabilities.Plug-and-play is a feature that can automate the installationof new
hardware by enabling the operating system to recognize new hardwareand install the necessary
software (called device drivers) automatically.
Subsequent products in the Microsoft Windows operating system are:
WINDOWS 98

 Windows 98 was not a major upgrade to Windows 95, but did offer minor refinements,bug
fixes, and enhancements to Windows 95.Windows 98 introduced the back and forward
navigation buttons(->,<-) and the address bar in Windows Explorer, among other things.
 One of the biggest changes was the introduction of the Windows Driver Model for computer
components and accessories – one driver to support all future versions of Windows.USB
support was much improved in Windows 98 and led to its widespread adoption, including USB
hubs and USB mice.

WINDOWS ME

 Windows Millennium Edition (Windows ME) is a major update to Windows 95,

offeringimprovements for home computing in the areas of PC reliability, digitalmedia, home
networking, and the online experience.

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WINDOWS NT
 Windows NT is an operating system for high-end desktops, workstations, andservers. It
provides the same GUI as Windows 95 and 98, and has more powerfulmultitasking,
multiprocessing, and memory-management capabilities. Windows NTsupports software written
for DOS and Windows, and it provides extensive computingpower for new applications with
large memory and file requirements. It is alsodesigned for easy and reliable connection with
networks and other computing machinery,and is proving popular in networked systems in
business organizations.

WINDOWS 2000
 Windows 2000is a renamed version of Windows NT 5.0. This operating system hasadded
security features, will run on multiple-processor computers, and offers addedInternet and
intranet functionality.

WINDOWS XP
 Windows XPis the first upgrade to Windows 2000 and has three versions: a 32-bitconsumer
version, a 32-bit business version, and a 64-bit business version. WindowsXP is the first
version of Windows to support Microsoft’s .NET platform
 Following Windows XP, Microsoft will release its first fully .NET-enabled Windowsoperating
system, code-named Blackcomb. Blackcomb will feature natural interfaces,including speech
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recognition and handwriting support.UNIX provides many sophisticated desktop features,

including multiprocessingand multitasking. UNIX is valuable to business organizations
because it can be usedon many different sizes of computers (or different platforms), can
support many differenthardware devices (e.g., printers, plotters, etc.), and has numerous
applicationswritten to run on it. “I haven’t the slightest idea

Emerging computing environments: client server, grid, ubiquitous and cloud computing

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