A general formula for matter waves Lecture 4

How fast do de Broglie waves travel? Since de Broglie wave is associated with
a moving body, we expect that this wave has the same velocity as that of the
body. Let us see if this is true.

If we call the de Broglie wave velocity vp, we can apply the usual formula vp =
υ . The wavelength  is simply the de Broglie wavelength  = h/mv. To find
the frequency, we equate the quantum expression E =hυ with the relativistic
formula for total energy E =  mc2 to obtain  =  mc2/h.

The de Broglie wave velocity is therefore

vp = υ = ( mc2/h) (h/mv) = c2/v (1)

Because the particle velocity must be less than the velocity of light c, the de
Broglie waves always travel faster than light! In order to understand this
unexpected result, we must look into the distinction between phase velocity
and group velocity. (Phase velocity is what we have been calling wave
velocity.) 1
Let us begin by reviewing how waves are described mathematically.
𝑥
Wave equation y= 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝜈(𝑡 − 𝑣 )
𝑝

𝑥
y= 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋 (𝜈𝑡 − 𝜆)

y= 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) (2)

The unit of  = 2υ is the radian per second and that of k = 2/ is the
radian per meter. Angular frequency gets its name from uniform circular
motion, where a particle that moves around a circle υ times per second
sweeps out 2υ rad/s. The wave number is equal to the number of radians
corresponding to a wave train 1 m long, since there are 2 rad in one
complete wave.

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 Phase velocity and group velocity
The amplitude of the de Broglie waves that correspond to a moving body
reflects the probability that it will be found at a particular place at a
particular time. It is clear that de Broglie waves cannot be represented
simply by a formula resembling Eq. (2), which describes an indefinite
series of waves all with the same amplitude A. Instead, we expect the
wave representation of a moving body to correspond to a wave packet, or
wave group, like that shown in Fig. 1, whose waves have amplitudes upon
which the likelihood of detecting the body depends.

A wave group is the superposition of individual waves of

different wavelengths whose interference with one another
results in the variation in amplitude that defines the group
shape. If the velocities of the waves are the same, the velocity
with which the wave group travels is the common phase
velocity. However, if the phase velocity varies with wavelength,
the different individual waves do not proceed together. This Fig. 1 A wave group
situation is called dispersion. As a result the wave group has a
velocity different from the phase velocities of the waves that
make it up. This is the case with de Broglie waves. 3
A familiar example of how wave groups come into being is the case of beats.

Fig. 2 Beats are produced by the

superposition of two waves with
different frequencies.

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 (3)

Eq (3) represents a wave of angular frequency  and wave number k that has
superimposed upon it a modulation of angular frequency /2 and of wave
number k/2.

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The effect of the modulation is to produce successive wave groups, as in Fig. 2.
The phase velocity vp is

(4)

(5)

When  and k have continuous spreads instead of the two values in the
preceding discussion, the group velocity is instead given by

(6)

Depending on how phase velocity varies with wave number in a particular

situation, the group velocity may be less or greater than the phase velocities of
its member waves. If the phase velocity is the same for all wavelengths, as is
true for light waves in empty space, the group and phase velocities are the
same. The angular frequency and wave number of the de Broglie waves
associated with a body of mass m moving with the velocity are
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(7)

(8)

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 (9)

The de Broglie wave group associated with a moving body travels with the same
velocity as the body.

(10)

This exceeds both the velocity of the body and the velocity of light c, since v < c.
However, vp has no physical significance because the motion of the wave group,
not the motion of the individual waves that make up the group, corresponds to
the motion of the body, and vp<c as it should be. The fact that vp>c for de Broglie
waves therefore does not violate special relativity.

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9
 Wave function and its probability
According to the consideration of electron diffraction (Davisson Germer
experiment proved the de Broglie hypothesis), electrons also have wavelike
properties; let wave be  (x, t). the motion of an electron of momentum p; must
be described by means of a plane wave,

 𝑟, Ԧ
Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖(𝑘∙𝑟−𝜔𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖(𝑝∙Ԧ 𝑟−𝐸𝑡)/
Ԧ ℏ (11)

If the functions 1(r, t) and 2(r, t) , which denote the waves reaching the screen
emitted respectively by slits 1 and 2, represent two physically possible states of
the system, then any linear superposition
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Fig. 3 The double-slit experiment: S is a source of electrons, I1 and I2 are the
intensities recorded on the screen when only S1 is open, and then when only S2
is open, respectively. When both slits are open, the total intensity is equal to the
sum of I1, I2 and an oscillating term.

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 (12)

(13)

where the asterisk denotes the complex conjugate. Parameter  is the phase shift
between 1(r, t) and 2(r, t); and 𝟐 𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 is an oscillating term, which is responsible
for the interference pattern. Note that (13) is not equal to the sum of

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 Probabilistic Interpretation

(14)

(15)

The main question now is, how does one determine the wave function  of
a particle? The answer to this question is given by the theory of quantum
mechanics, where  is determined by the Schrödinger equation.
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