Addis Ababa Science and Technology University

College of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Engineering Measurement and Metrology

(MEng5411)

Belete Sirahbizu (Ph.D)

Associate Professor of Manufacturing & Materials Engineering
October 2024
 Course Outline

• Chapter 1: Basic Concepts of Measurements

• Chapter 2: Limits, Fits and Tolerances
• Chapter 3: Surface Measurement
• Chapter 4: Screw Thread and Gear Measurement
• Chapter 5: Miscellaneous Measurements
• Chapter 6: Interferometry and Comparator
• Chapter 7: Computer Aided Metrology
 Course Learning Outcome ( CLO)

At the end of the course, the student will be able to:

• Identify the appropriate measuring equipment for
purpose specific analysis.
• Measure the dimensions, tolerance, forms and profile of
objects.
• Calibrates and manipulate the different types of
measuring instruments.
• Apply the knowledge of engineering measurement and
metrology used for manufacturing application.
 CHAPTER ONE
Basic Concepts of Measurements
 Basic Concepts of Measurements
1. What is Measurement?
• Measurement is defined as the process of obtaining a quantitative
comparison between predefined standard & an unknown magnitude.
• Mechanical Measurement refers to the process of determining the
mechanical properties of materials and devices at micro- and nano-
scales using appropriate testing techniques.
• The basic aim of measurement in industries is to check whether a
component has been manufactured to the requirement of a
specification or not.
• Metrology is a science of measurement and it is concerned with the
industrial inspection and its various techniques.
 Basic Concepts of Measurements
2. What is the Importance of Measurement?
• To ensure that the part to be measured conforms to the established
standard.
• To determine the true dimensions of a part.
• To test if the elements that constitute the system function as per the design.
• To provide customer satisfaction by ensuring that no faulty product reaches
the customers.
• To ensure interchangeability with a view to promoting mass production.
• To coordinate the functions of quality control, production, procurement &
other departments of the organization.
• To judge the possibility of making some of the defective parts acceptable
after minor repairs.
 Basic Concepts of Measurements

3. What is Standard?
• Standard is a value of some quantity which is set up and
established by authority as a rule for measurement of a quantity.
• The system of measurement must be related to a known standard
or else the standard has no meaning.
• Two main requirements must be met in the act of measurement:
1. The standard used for comparison must be accurately defined
and commonly accepted.
2. The procedure employed for the measurement & the apparatus
used for comparison must be provable.
 Basic Concepts of Measurements
4. Classification of Standards:
• Basic clasification of standards includes: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary &
Working Standards.
ü Primary standard: It is only one material standard and is preserved under
the most careful conditions and is used only for comparison with secondary
standard.
ü Secondary standard: It is similar to primary standard as nearly as possible
and is distributed to a number of places for safe custody and is used for
occasional comparison with tertiary standards.
ü Tertiary standard: It is used for reference purposes in laboratories and
workshops and is used for comparison with working standard.
ü Working standard: It is used daily in laboratories and workshops. Low
grades of materials may be used.
 Basic Concepts of Measurements

5. Methods of Measurement:
a) Direct Measurement:
• The value of the quantity to be measured is obtained directly
without the necessity of carrying out supplementary calculations.
Ex.: Vernier Caliper, Scales.
 Basic Concepts of Measurements

b) Indirect Measurement:
• The value of the quantity is obtained from measurements
carried out by direct method of measurement of other
quantities, connected with the quantity to be measured by
a known relationship.
• E x a m p l e : We i g h t o f a s u b s t a n c e i s m e a s u r e d b y
measuring the length, breadth & height of the substance
directly and then by using the relation Weight = Length x
Breadth x Height x Density.
 Basic Concepts of Measurements

c) Measurement With Contact:

• The sensor/measuring tip touch the object whose characteristics
are being measured. Ex: Dial indicator.
d) Mesurement Without Contact:
• There is no direct contact with the surface to be measured. Ex.
measurement by optical instruments.
e) Fundamental Measurement:
• Measuring a quantity directly in related with the definition of that
quantity.
 Basic Concepts of Measurements

f) Measurement by Direct Comparison:

• Based on the comparison of the value of

a quantity to be measured with a known
value of the same quantity.

g) Measurement by Indirect Comparison:

• Based on the comparison of a known

value of another quantity which is a
function of the quantity to be measured .
 Basic Concepts of Measurements

h) Measurement by Transposition:
• Quantity to be measured is first
balanced by a known value and then
balanced by an other new known value.
• Ex: Determination of mass by
balancing methods.
 Basic Concepts of Measurements

i) Measurement by Complement:
• The value of the quantity to be
measured is complemented by a
known value of the same quantity,
selected in such a way that the
sum of these two values is equal
to a certain value of comparison
fixed in advance.
• Ex: Determination of the volume
of a solid by liquid displacement
Volume.
 Basic Concepts of Measurements
j) Measurement by Interpolation:
• It consists of determining value of the quantity measured
on the basis of the law of correspondence & known values
of the same quantity, the value to be determined lying
between two known values.
k) Measurement by Extrapolation:
• It consists of determining the value of the quantity
measured on the basis of the law of correspondence &
known values of the same quantity, the value to be
determined lying outside the known values.
Basic Concepts of Measurements

6. Generalized Measuring System

Basic Concepts of Measurements

Figure 1: Block diagram for Generalized Measuring System:

 Basic Concepts of Measurements

The generalized measuring systems consist of the following

common elements:
i. Primary sensing element
ii. Variable conversion element
iii. Variable manipulation element
iv. Data transmission element
v. Data processing element
vi. Data presentation element
 Basic Concepts of Measurements
i. Primary Sensing Element:
• The primary sensing element receives signal of the physical
quantity to be measured as input.
• It converts the signal to a suitable form (electrical, mechanical or
other form), so that it becomes easier for other elements of the
measurement system, to either convert or manipulate it.
ii. Variable Conversion Element:
• Variable conversion element converts the output of the primary
sensing element to a more suitable form.
• It is used only if necessary
 Basic Concepts of Measurements
iii. Variable Manipulation Element:
• Variable manipulation element manipulates and amplifies the output of
the variable conversion element.
• It also removes noise (if present) in the signal.
iv. Data Processing Element:
• It processes the data signal received from the variable manipulation
element and produces suitable output.
v. Data Transmission System:
• Data transmission system is simply used for transmitting data from one
element to another.
• It acts as a communication link between different elements of the
measurement system.
 Basic Concepts of Measurements

vi. Data Presentation Element:

• It is used to present the measured physical quantity in a
human readable form to the observer.
• LED displays are most commonly used as data
presentation elements in many measurement systems.
 Basic Concepts of Measurements
Example 1. Pressure Actuated Thermometer:
• This device is used as a thermometer for measurement of
temperature.
 Basic Concepts of Measurements
Example 2. Digital Revolution Counter:
• This device is used for indicating rotation of shaft.
 Basic Concepts of Measurements

7. Measuring Instruments:
• A broad classification of the instruments based on the application,
mode of operation, manner of energy conversion and the nature of
energy conversion and the nature of output signal is given below
i. Deflection and null type instruments
ii. Analog and digital instruments
iii. Active and passive instruments
iv. Automatic and manually operated instruments
v. Contacting and non contacting instruments
vi. Absolute and secondary instruments
vii. Intelligent instruments.
 Basic Concepts of Measurements
i. Deflection and Null Type Instruments
• The weight of the object is indicated by the
def lect ion or movement of a p o i n t e r o n a
graduated scale.
• Ex. Spring Balance
ii. Analog and Digital Instruments
• Analog instruments show the output by the
deflection of a pointer on a dial or scale.
• Digital instrument shows the output on a digital
display screen as a text or number.
 Basic Concepts of Measurements
iii. Active and Passive Type Instruments
• In active instruments, the quantity being
measured just activates the magnitude of
some, external power input source, which in
turn produces the measurement.
• In this type of instruments, another external
energy input source is present apart from the
quantity to be measured.
• In passive type instruments, output is
produced entirely by the quantity being
measured.
 Basic Concepts of Measurements
iv. Manual and Automatic Instruments
• Manual instruments require the services of a human operator.
• When the process of null balance is automated, it is known termed
as automatic instruments.
 Basic Concepts of Measurements
v. Contacting and Non-Contacting Instruments

vi. Intelligent Instrument

• Microprocessor are incorporated with
measuring instrument
 Basic Concepts of Measurements

8. Basic Units in SI System:

1) For Length: Metre (m) which is equal to 1650763.73 wavelengths
in vacuum of the red-orange radiation corresponding to the
transition between the levels 2p10 & 5d5 of the krypton-86 atom.
(Definition by wavelength standard).
2) F o r Mass: K i l o g r a m (k g ) w h i c h i s e q u a l t o t h e m a s s o f
International prototype of the kilogram.
3) For Time : Second (s) which is equal to the duration of
9192631770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition
between the hyper fine levels of the ground state of the Caesium
133 atom.
 Basic Concepts of Measurements
4) For Current : Ampere (A) is that constant current which, if maintained
in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length of negligible circular
cross section & placed one metre apart in vacuum would produce
between these conductors, a force equal to 2 x 10 -7 Newton per unit
length.
5) For Temperature: Kelvin (K) is the fraction 1/273 of thermodynamic
temperature of the triple point of water.
6) For Luminous intensity: Candela (cd) is the luminous intensity in the
perpendicular direction of a surface of 1/6,00,000 m2 of a black body at
the temperature of freezing platinum under a pressure of 101325 N/m2
7) For amount of substance: Mole (mol) is the amount of substance of a
system which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms
in 0.012 kg of Carbon-12
 Basic Concepts of Measurements

• Supplementary SI units:
1) For Plane angle: Radian (rad)
2) For Solid angle: Steradian (sr)
• Derived SI units:
1) For Frequency: Hertz (1 Hz = 1 cycle per second)
2) For Force: Newton (1 N = 1 kg-m/s2)
3) For Energy: Joule (1 J = 1 N-m)
4) For Power: Watt (1 W = 1 J/s)
 Basic Concepts of Measurements

9. Definitions of Basic Terms in Measurement:

Sensitivity:
• Sensitivity of the instrument is defined as the ratio of the
magnitude of the output signal to the magnitude of the
input signal.
• It denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to
which the instruments responds.
• Sensitivity has no unique unit. It has wide range of the
units which dependent up on the instrument or measuring
system.
 Basic Concepts of Measurements

Readability:
• This term indicates the closeness with which the scale of the
instrument may be read. For example, an instrument with 30 cm
scale has a higher readability than that of a 15 cm scale.
Least count:
• It is the smallest difference between two indications that can be
detected on the instrument scale.
Range:
• It represents the highest possible value that can be measured by
an instrument or it is the difference between the largest & the
smallest results of measurement.
 Basic Concepts of Measurements

Accuracy:
• Accuracy may be defined as the ability of instruments to respond to
a true value of a measured variable under the reference conditions.
• It refers to how closely the measured value agrees with the true
value.
Precision:
• Precision is defined as the degrees of exactness for which an
instrument is designed or intended to perform.
• It refers to repeatability or consistency of measurement when the
instruments are carried out under identical conditions at a short
interval of time.
Basic Concepts of Measurements
 Basic Concepts of Measurements
True Size:
• It is the theoretical size of a dimension which is free from errors.
Actual Size:
• It is the size obtained through measurement with permissible error.
Discrepancy:
• The difference between two indicated values or results determined
from a supposedly fixed time value.
Error:
• It is the difference between the true value and the actual value.
Correction:
• Correction is defined as a value which is added algebraically to the
uncorrected result of the measurement to compensate to an assumed
systematic error.
 Basic Concepts of Measurements

Calibration:
• Calibration is the process of determining and adjusting an instruments
accuracy to make sure its accuracy is with in manufacturing
specifications.
• It is the process of determining the values of the quantity being
measured corresponding to a pre-established arbitrary scale.
• It is the measurement of measuring instrument. The quantity to be
measured is the „input‟ to the measuring instrument.
• Before we can read any instrument, a „scale‟ must be framed for the
„output‟ by successive application of some already standardized
(inputs) signals. This process is known as „calibration‟.
 Basic Concepts of Measurements

10. Errors in Measurements:

• Error may be defined as the difference between the true
value of a measurement and the value obtained during the
measurement process.
• No measurement can be made without errors at all times
i.e. 100% accurate measurements cannot be made at all
times.
Types of Errors:
A) Error of Measurement:
 Basic Concepts of Measurements

A) Error of Measurement:
1) Systematic error:
• It is the error which during several measurements made under the
same conditions, of the same value of a certain quantity, remains
constant in absolute value and sign or varies in a predictable way in
accordance with a specified law when the conditions change.
• The causes of these errors may be known or unknown.
• The errors may be constant or variable.
• Systematic errors are regularly repetitive in nature.
 Basic Concepts of Measurements

A) Error of Measurement:
2) Random error:
• This error varies in an unpredictable manner in absolute value & in
sign when a large number of measurements of the same value of a
quantity are made under practically identical conditions.
• Random errors are non-consistent. Random errors are normally of
limited time duration.
3) Parasitic error:
• It is the error, often gross, which results from incorrect execution of
measurement.
 Basic Concepts of Measurements

B) Instrumental error:
1) Error of a physical measure:
• It is the difference between the nominal value and the conventional
true value reproduced by the physical measure.
2) Error of a measuring mechanism:
• It is the difference between the value indicated by the measuring
mechanism and the conventional true value of the measured
quantity.
3) Zero error:
• It is the indication of a measuring instrument for the zero value of
the quantity measured.
 Basic Concepts of Measurements

4) Calibration error of a physical measure:

• It is the difference between the conventional true value reproduced by
the physical measure and the nominal value of that measure.
5) Complementary error of a measuring instrument:
• It is the error of a measuring instrument arising from the fact that the
v a l u e s o f t h e i n f l u e n c e q u a n t i t i e s a r e d i ff e r e n t f r o m t h o s e
corresponding to the reference conditions.
6) Error of indication of a measuring instrument:
• It is the difference between the measured values of a quantity, when
an influence quantity takes successively two specified values, without
changing the quantity measured.
 Basic Concepts of Measurements

7) Error due to temperature:

• It is the error arising from the fact that the temperature of
instrument does not maintain its reference value.
8) Error due to friction:
• It is the error due to the friction between the moving parts of the
measuring instruments.
9) Error due to inertia:
• It is the error due to the inertia (mechanical, thermal or otherwise)
of the parts of the measuring instrument.
 Basic Concepts of Measurements
C) Error of observation:
1) Reading error:
• It is the error of observation resulting from incorrect reading of the
indication of a measuring instrument by the observer.
2) Parallax error:
• It is the reading error which is produced, when, with the index at a
certain distance from the surface of scale, the reading is not made in
the direction of observation provided for the instrument used.
3) Interpolation error:
• It is the reading error resulting from the inexact evaluation of the
position of the index with regard to two adjacent graduation marks
between which the index is located.
 Basic Concepts of Measurements
C) Error of observation:
1) Reading error:
• It is the error of observation resulting from incorrect reading of the
indication of a measuring instrument by the observer.
2) Parallax error:
• It is the reading error which is produced, when, with the index at a
certain distance from the surface of scale, the reading is not made in
the direction of observation provided for the instrument used.
3) Interpolation error:
• It is the reading error resulting from the inexact evaluation of the
position of the index with regard to two adjacent graduation marks
between which the index is located.
 Basic Concepts of Measurements

D) Based on control:
1) Controllable errors:
• The sources of error are known and it is possible to have a
control on these sources.
• These can be calibration errors, environmental errors and
errors due to non-similarity of condition while calibrating
and measuring.
2) Non-controllable errors:
• These are random errors which are not controllable.
END OF CHAPTER ONE