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Chapter 7
IoT Connectivity Technologies

Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, the reader will be able to:
• List common connectivity protocols in IoT
• Identify the salient features and application scope of each connectivity protocol
• Understand the terminologies and technologies associated with IoT connectivity
• Determine the requirements associated with each of these connectivity protocols
in real-world solutions
• Determine the most appropriate connectivity protocol for each segment of their
IoT implementation

7.1 Introduction
This chapter outlines the main features of fifteen identified commonly used
and upcoming IoT connectivity enablers. These connectivity technologies can be
integrated with existing sensing, actuation, and processing solutions for extending
connectivity to them. Some of these solutions necessarily require integration with a
minimal form of processing infrastructure, such as Wi-Fi. In contrast, others, such
as Zigbee, can work in a standalone mode altogether, without the need for external
processing and hardware support. These solutions are outlined in the subsequent
sections in this chapter.

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7.2 IEEE 802.15.4

The IEEE 802.15.4 standard represents the most popular standard for low data rate
wireless personal area networks (WPAN) [1]. This standard was developed to enable
monitoring and control applications with lower data rate and extend the operational
life for uses with low-power consumption. This standard uses only the first two
layers—physical and data link—for operation along with two new layers above it:
1) logical link control (LLC) and 2) service-specific convergence sublayer (SSCS). The
additional layers help in the communication of the lower layers with the upper layers.
Figure 7.1 shows the IEEE 802.15.4 operational layers. The IEEE 802.15.4 standard was
curated to operate in the ISM (industrial, scientific, and medical) band.

Application

Presentation
Host layers

Session
Network

Transport
LLC

Network
SSCS
Media layers

Data link
Data link
IEEE 802.15.4
Physical
Physical

Figure 7.1 The operational part of IEEE 802.15.4’s protocol stack in comparison to the OSI
stack

The direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) modulation technique is used in IEEE
802.15.4 for communication purposes, enabling a wider bandwidth of operation with
enhanced security by the modulating pseudo-random noise signal. This standard
exhibits high tolerance to noise and interference and offers better measures for
improving link reliability. Typically, the low-speed versions of the IEEE 802.15.4
standard use binary phase shift keying (BPSK), whereas the versions with high data
rate implement offset quadrature phase shift keying (O-QPSK) for encoding the
message to be communicated. Carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance
(CSMA-CA) is the channel access method used for maintaining the sequence of
transmitted signals and preventing deadlocks due to multiple sources trying to access
the same channel. Temporal multiplexing enables access to the same channel by
multiple users or nodes at different times in a maximally interference-free manner.

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The IEEE 802.15.4 standard [2] utilizes infrequently occurring and very short
packet transmissions with a low duty cycle (typically, < 1%) to minimize the power
consumption. The minimum power level defined is –3 dBm or 0.5 mW for the radios
utilizing this standard. The transmission, for most cases, is line of sight (LOS),
with the standard transmission range varying between 10 m to 75 m. The best-case
transmission range achieved outdoors can be up to 1000 m.
This standard typically defines two networking topologies: 1) Star and 2) mesh.
There are seven variants identified with in IEEE 802.15.4—A, B. C, D, E, F, and G.
Variants A/B are the base versions, C is assigned for China, and D for Japan. Variants
E, F, and G are assigned respectively for industrial applications, active RFID (radio
frequency identification) uses, and smart utility systems.
The IEEE 802.15.4 standard supports two types of devices: 1) reduced function
device (RFD) and 2) full function devices (FFD). FFDs can talk to all types of devices
and support full protocol stacks. However, these devices are costly and energy-
consuming due to increased requirements for support of full stacks. In contrast, RFDs
can only talk to an FFD and have lower power consumption requirements due to
minimal CPU/RAM requirements. Figure 7.2 shows the device types and network
types supported by the IEEE 802.15.4 standard.

Beacon-Enabled

Network
Non-Beacon-
Enabled
IEEE 802.15.4

Coordinator

FFD Router

Device Device

RFD Device

Figure 7.2 The various device and network types supported in the IEEE 802.15.4 standard

The IEEE 802.15.4 standard supports two network types: 1) Beacon-enabled

networks and 2) non-beacon-enabled networks. The periodic transmission of beacon
messages characterizes beacon-enabled networks. Here, the data frames sent via
slotted CSMA/CA with a superframe structure managed by a personal area network
(PAN) coordinator. These beacons are used for synchronization and association of
other nodes with the coordinator. The scope of operation of this network type spans
the whole network.
In contrast, for non-beacon-enabled networks, unslotted CSMA/CA (contention-
based) is used for transmission of data frames, and beacons are used only for link

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layer discovery. This network typically requires both source and destination IDs of the
communicating nodes. As the IEEE 802.15.4 is primarily a mesh protocol, all protocol
addressing must adhere to mesh configurations such that there is a decentralized
communication amongst nodes.
Figure 7.3 shows the frame types associated with the IEEE 802.15.4 standard.
Beacon frames are used for signaling and synchronization; data transmission is
done through the data frames; and message reception is confirmed using the
acknowledgment frames. MAC and command frames are used for association
requests/responses, dissociation requests, data requests, beacon requests, coordinator
realignment, and orphan notifications.

IEEE 802.15.4 Frames

Command

Beacon
Date

Mac
Ack

Figure 7.3 Various frame types supported in the IEEE 802.15.4 standard

Check yourself

CSMA/CD versus CSMS/CA, transmission power, DSSS, BPSK, OQPSK

7.3 Zigbee
The Zigbee radio communication is designed for enabling wireless personal area
networks (WPANs). It uses the IEEE 802.15.4 standard for defining its physical and
medium access control (layers 1 and 2 of the OSI stack). Zigbee finds common usage
in sensor and control networks [4]. It was designed for low-powered mesh networks
at low cost, which can be broadly implemented for controlling and monitoring
applications, typically in the range of 10–100 meters [3]. The PHY and MAC layers in
this communication are designed to handle multiple low data rate operating devices.
The frequencies of 2.4 GHz, 902–928 MHz or 868 MHz are commonly associated with
Zigbee WPAN operations. The Zigbee commonly uses 250 kbps data rate which is
optimal for both periodic and intermittent full-duplex data transmission between two
Zigbee entities.

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Zigbee supports various network configurations such as master-to-master

communication or master-to-slave communication. Several network topologies are
supported in Zigbee, namely the star (Figure 7.4(a)), mesh (Figure 7.4(b)), and cluster
tree (Figure 7.4(c)). Any of the supported topologies may consist of a single or multiple
coordinators. In star topology, a coordinator initiates and manages the other devices
in the Zigbee network. The other devices which communicate with the coordinator
are called end devices. As the star topology is easy to maintain and deploy, it finds
widespread usage in applications where a single central controller manages multiple
devices.

(a) Star (b) Mesh

(c) Cluster tree

Figure 7.4 Various communication topologies in Zigbee

A network can be significantly extended in the Zigbee mesh and tree topologies
by using multiple routers where the root of the topology is the coordinator. These
configurations allow any Zigbee device or node to communicate with any other

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adjacent node. In case of the failure of one or more nodes, the information is
automatically forwarded to other devices through other functional devices. In a
Zigbee cluster tree network, a coordinator is placed in the leaf node position of the
cluster, which is, in turn, connected to a parent coordinator who initiates the entire
network.
A typical Zigbee network structure can consist of three different device types,
namely the Zigbee coordinator, router, and end device, as shown in Figure 7.4. Every
Zigbee network has a minimum of one coordinator device type who acts as the root;
it also functions as the network bridge. The coordinator performs data handling and
storing operations. The Zigbee routers play the role of intermediate nodes that connect
two or more Zigbee devices, which may be of the same or different types. Finally,
the end devices have restricted functionality; communication is limited to the parent
nodes. This reduced functionality enables them to have a lower power consumption
requirement, allowing them to operate for an extended duration. There are provisions
to operate Zigbee in different modes to save power and prolong the deployed network
lifetime.
The PHY and MAC layers of the IEEE 802.15.4 standard are used to build the
protocol for Zigbee architecture; the protocol is then accentuated by network and
application layers designed especially for Zigbee. Figure 7.5 shows the Zigbee protocol
stack. The various layer of the Zigbee stack are as follows.

OSI stack Zigbee stack IEEE 802.15.4 stack

Application

Presentation
Host layers

Session Zigbee
Network

Transport
LLC

Network
SSCS
Media layers

Data link
Data link
IEEE 802.15.4
Physical
Physical

Figure 7.5 The Zigbee protocol stack in comparison to the OSI stack

• Physical Layer: This layer is tasked with transmitting and receiving signals, and
performing modulation and demodulation operations on them, respectively. The

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Zigbee physical layer consists of 3 bands made up of 27 channels: the 2.4 GHz
band has 16 channels at 250 kbps the 868.3 MHz has one channel at 20 kbps; and
the 902-928 MHz has ten channels at 40 kbps.
• MAC Layer: This layer ensures channel access and reliability of data
transmission. CSMA-CA is used for channel access and intra-channel
interference avoidance. This layer handles communication synchronization
using beacon frames.
• Network Layer: This layer handles operations such as setting up the network,
connecting and disconnecting the devices, configuring the devices, and routing.
• Application Support Sub-Layer: This layer handles the interfacing services,
control services, bridge between network and other layers, and enables the
necessary services to interface with the lower layers for Zigbee device object
(ZDO) and Zigbee application objects (ZAO). This layer is primarily tasked with
data management services and is responsible for service-based device matching.
• Application Framework: Two types of data services are provided by the
application framework: provision of a key-value pair and generation of generic
messages. A key-value pair is used for getting attributes within the application
objects, whereas a generic message is a developer-defined structure.

Zigbee handles two-way data transfer using two operational modes: 1) Non-
beacon mode and 2) beacon mode. As the coordinators and routers monitor the active
state of the received data continuously in the non-beacon mode, it is more power-
intensive. In this mode, there is no provision for the routers and coordinators to sleep.
In contrast, a beacon mode allows the coordinators and routers to launch into a very
low-power sleep state in the absence of data communication from end devices. The
Zigbee coordinator is designed to periodically wake up and transmit beacons to the
available routers in the network. These beacon networks are used when there is a need
for lower duty cycles and more extended battery power consumption.

Check yourself

Ad-hoc networks, WASN, Zigbee ZDO, Zigbee APS

7.4 Thread
Thread is built upon the IEEE 802.15.4 radio standard; it is used for extremely
low power consumption and low latency deployments [5]. Unlike Zigbee, Thread
can extend direct Internet connectivity to the devices it is connected with. Thread
removes the need for a mobile phone or a proprietary gateway to be in the range
of devices for accessing the Internet. It is specially designed for IoT with the need for
interoperability, security, power, and architecture addressed in a single radio platform.

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Figure 7.6 shows the comparison of the Thread stack against the standard ISO-OSI
stack. Thread is built on open standards to achieve a low-power wireless mesh

OSI stack Thread stack

Application
Application
Presentation

Session Zigbee
UDP+DTLS

Security
Transport IP routing

Network Ipv6

Data link
IEEE 802.15.4
Physical

Figure 7.6 The functional protocol stack of Thread in comparison to the OSI stack

networking protocol with universal Internet Protocol (IP) support. The standard is
easy to set up and simple to use; it can reliably connect thousands of devices to the
Internet or a cloud with no single point of failure. It has the distinctive feature of self-
healing and reconfiguration in the event of the addition or removal of a device. Figure
7.7 shows the Thread network architecture.
Thread enables IoT interoperability by utilizing a certification application that
validates a device’s conformance to the specification as well as its interoperability
against multiple certified stacks. This feature ensures the resilience of connectivity,
even with diverse networks, in turn enabling its users to have consistent operational
experience.
Empowering low-power wireless devices with IP connectivity enables Thread
to seamlessly accommodate itself with larger IP-based networks and be a robust
option for most IoT applications such as smart homes/buildings, connected vehicles,
and others. This feature of Thread devices removes the need for Internet-enabled
proprietary gateways and cross-stack translators for connection between other
technologies. The additional benefits of this feature include better resilience to single
point of failures, highly economical deployments, less complex infrastructure, and
enhanced IoT end-to-end device security on the Internet.

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136 Introduction to Internet of Things

E E
E
E
R R Cloud
R L Cloud
Border
E router
R
E R E

Smartphone
E E E

E End device R Thread router C Leader Thread links

Figure 7.7 Outline of the Thread network architecture (from end devices to the cloud)

Thread devices can use common infrastructure similar to Wi-Fi networks and can
connect directly to smartphones or computers if they are on the same IP network,
without any additional setup for Thread.

Check yourself

IP-networks versus non-IP-networks, types of interoperability

7.5 ISA100.11A
The ISA100.11A is a very low power communication standard and has been developed
and managed by ISA (International Society of Automation) [7]. Similar to the previous
protocols, it uses the IEEE 802.15.4 standard as a base for building its protocol.
The standard was mainly proposed for industrial plant automation systems. The
ISA100.11A is characterized by an IoT compliant protocol stack, which can also be
integrated with wired networks using Ethernet, support for open access protocols
and device-level interoperability; it boasts of a 128-bit AES (Advanced Encryption
Standard) encryption securing all communications. The security in ISA100.11A is
in two layers: Transport layer and data link layer. ISA100.11A provides extensive
support for IPv6 and UDP and uses TDMA (time-division multiple access)-based
resource sharing with CSMA-CA. Both IPv6 and UDP as well as star topologies
are supported by this standard. The utilization of IPv6 provides certain distinct
benefits to ISA100.11A, such as increased address sizes, enhanced IPSec-based security
measures, savings in network bandwidth by virtue of multicasting and auto address
configuration.

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An ISA100.11A wireless network utilizes the 2.4 GHz frequency band for
communication, similar to Wi-Fi and Bluetooth. To avoid interference over wireless
channels in the same band, it uses frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) over a
total of 16 channels. A definitive feature of this protocol is channel blacklisting, which
blacklists the channels already in use by other protocols. This enables the protocol
to perform even better by further achieving immunity from interference. Figure 7.8

Industrial backbone network

B Security
R manager
R
R

B System
R manager
R

Control
system
I/O Handheld Routing Backbone
Device device
R device
B
device

Figure 7.8 A typical ISA100.11A network architecture

shows the ISA100.11A network architecture. The ISA100.11A architecture consists of

the following: 1) field devices and 2) backbone devices. Field devices may be non-
routing I/O devices, handheld devices, routing devices, which may or may not be
fixed or mobile. For industrial usage, the inclusion of portable and mobile devices is
highly desirable as it allows floor supervisors and workers to keep checking various
parts of the plant without the need for dedicated devices for each part. In contrast,
backbone devices include backbone routers, gateways, the system manager, and the
security manager, which are kept fixed and not portable. The ISA100.11A architecture
provides support for mesh, star, and star–mesh topologies. The connected devices
in ISA100.11A are collectively referred to as the downLink (DL) subnet. A wireless
industrial sensor network (WISN) gateway connects the ISA100.11A network to the
plant network.
The average ISA100.11A protocol stack consists of five different layers:
1) Application layer, 2) transport layer, 3) network layer, 4) data link layer, and
5) physical layer. Figure 7.9 compares the ISA100.11A stack with the standard
ISO-OSI stack. A central system manager handles network routing by scheduling
communication. The functionalities of the ISA100.11A protocol stack can be outlined
as follows:

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OSI stack ISA100.11A stack

Application

Presentation
Host layers

Tunneling

Session
UDP

Transport
ISA100.11A Ipv6

Network
Data link control
Media layers

Data link
Data link
IEEE 802.15.4
Physical
Physical

Figure 7.9 The ISA100.11A protocol stack in comparison to the OSI stack

• Physical Layer: It is built upon the IEEE 802.15.4-2006 standard. The physical
layer communicates on the 2.4 GHz frequency band using a DSSS (direct
sequence spread spectrum) modulation.
• Data Link Layer: It handles the creation, maintenance, and forwarding
packet functionalities in addition to typical MAC functionalities. Additionally,
it is responsible for operations dealing with the structure of the data packet,
formation of the frame, detecting the error, and bus arbitration. A data link
control (DLC) layer in ISA100.11A, which uses a graph-based routing, is
responsible for specific distinctive functions such as adaptive channel hopping,
detection and recovery of message loss, and clock synchronization.
• Network Layer: The ISA100.11A network layer is 6LoWPAN-compliant and
uses IPv6 addressing for an end-to-end routing. Protocol conversion from IPv6
to 6LoWPAN and 6LoWPAN to IPv6 is executed at this layer by a router.
• Transport Layer: The ISA100.11A transport layer supports UDP-based
connectionless services.
• Application Layer: The ISA100.11A stack only specifies system management
application in this layer.

Check yourself

Wireless Industrial Sensor Networks (WISN), 6LoWPAN, field devices, routing

and non-routing devices

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7.6 WirelessHART
WirelessHART can be considered as the wireless evolution of the highway addressable
remote transducer (HART) protocol [7]. It is a license-free protocol, which was
developed for networking smart field devices in industrial environments. The lack
of wires makes the adaptability of this protocol significantly advantageous over
its predecessor, HART, in industrial settings. By virtue of its highly encrypted
communication, wireless HART is very secure and has several advantages over
traditional communication protocols. Similar to Zigbee, wirelessHART uses the IEEE
802.15.4 standard for its protocols designing.
Figure 7.10 shows the WirelessHART network architecture. WirelessHART can
communicate with a central control system in any of the two ways: 1) Direct and
2) indirect. Direct communication is achieved when the devices transmit data directly
to the gateway in a clear LOS (typically 250 m). Indirect communication is achieved
between devices in a mesh and a gateway when messages jump from device to
device until it reaches the gateway. WirelessHART communication is 99.999% reliable
due to the maintenance of a tight schedule between message transmissions. All
wirelessHART devices are back-compatible and allow for the integration of legacy
devices as well as new ones.

Industrial backbone network

AP Security
R manager Host
R application
Interface

AP Network
R manager
R

Process
control
Gateway automation

Field device Handheld device AP Access point

Figure 7.10 The WirelessHART network architecture

The HART encompasses the most number of field devices incorporated in any field
network. WirelessHART makes device placements more accessible and cheaper, such
as the top of a reaction tank, inside a pipe, or widely separated warehouses. The wired
and unwired versions differ mainly in the network, data link, and physical layer. The
wired HART lacks a network layer. HART ensures congestion control in the 2.4 Ghz
ISM band by eliminating channel 26 because of its restricted usage in certain areas. The

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use of interference-prone channels is avoided by using channel switching after every

transmission. The transmissions are synchronized using 10 ms time-slots. During each
time-slot, all available channels can be utilized by the various nodes in the network,
allowing for the simultaneous propagation of 15 packets through the network, which
also minimizes the risk of collisions between channels.
A network manager supervises each node in the network and guides them on when
and where to send packets. This network manager allows for collision-free and timely
delivery of packets between a source and the destination. It updates information
regarding neighbors, signal strength, and information needing a delivery receipt. This
network manager also decides which nodes transmit, which nodes listen, and the
frequency to be utilized in each time-slot. It also handles code-based network security
and prevents unauthorized nodes from joining the network.
Figure 7.11 shows the comparison of the wirelessHART protocol stack against the
standard ISO-OSI stack. The various layers of the wirelessHART stack are outlined as
follows:
OSI stack Wireless HART stack

Application Application

Presentation

Session Wireless HART

Transport
Transport
Network layer services

Network Network

Logical link control

Data link
IEEE 802.15.4 Media access control
Physical
Physical

Figure 7.11 The WirelessHART protocol stack in comparison to the OSI stack
• Physical Layer: The IEEE 802.15.4 standard specification is used for designing
the physical layer of this protocol. Its operation is limited to the use of the
2.4 GHz frequency band. The channel reliability is significantly increased by
utilizing only 15 channels of the 2.4 GHz band.
• Data Link Layer: The data link layer avoids collisions by the use of TDMA.
The communication is also made deterministic by the use of superframes.

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WirelessHART superframes consist of 10 ms wide time-slots that are grouped

together. The use of superframes ensures better controllability of the
transmission timing, collision avoidance, and communication reliability. This
layer incorporates channel hopping and channel blacklisting to increase
reliability and security. A characteristic feature of the wirelessHART is channel
blacklisting. This feature identifies channels consistently affected by interference
and removes them from use.
• Network and Transport Layers: The network and the transport layer
work in tandem to address issues of network traffic, security, session
initiation/termination, and routing. WirelessHART is primarily a mesh-based
network, where each node can accept data from other nodes in range and
forward them to the next node. All the devices in its network have an updated
network graph, which defines the routing paths to be taken. Functionally, the
OSI stack’s network, transport, and session layers constitute the WirelessHART’s
network layer.
• Application Layer: The application layer connects gateways and devices
through various command and response messages. This layer enables back-
compatibility with legacy HART devices as it does not differentiate between the
wired and wireless versions of HART.

Check yourself

Graph-based routing, superframes, co-channel interference

7.7 RFID
RFID stands for radio frequency identification. This technology uses tags and readers
for communication. RFID tags have data encoded onto them digitally [8]. The RFID
readers can read the values encoded in these tags without physically touching them.
RFIDs are functionally similar to barcodes as the data read from tags are stored in
a database. However, RFID does not have to rely on line of sight operation, unlike
barcodes.
The automatic identification and data capture (AIDC) technology can be
considered as the precursor of RFID. Similar to AIDC techniques, RFID systems are
capable of automatically categorizing objects. Categorization tasks such as identifying
tags, reading data, and feeding the read data directly into computer systems through
radio waves outline the operation of RFID systems. Typically, RFID systems are made
up of three components: 1) RFID tag or smart label, 2) RFID reader, and 3) an antenna.
Figure 7.12 shows the various RFID components.
In RFID, the tags consist of an integrated circuit and an antenna, enclosed in a
protective casing to protect from wear and tear and environmental effects. These

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RFID Antenna
Interrogator
Tagged item

RFID tag
Database

Figure 7.12 An outline of the RFID operation and communication

tags can be either active or passive. Passive tags find common usage in a variety of
applications due to its low cost; however, it has to be powered using an RFID reader
before data transmission. Active tags have their own power sources and do not need
external activation by readers. Tags are used for transmitting the data to an RFID
interrogator or an RFID reader. The radio waves are then converted to a more usable
form of data by this reader. A host computer system accesses the collected data on
the reader by a communication technology such as Wi-Fi or Ethernet. The data on the
host system is finally updated onto a database. RFID applications span across domains
such as inventory management, asset tracking, personnel tracking, and supply chain
management.

Check yourself

How does RFID tackle various services, such as asset tracking and inventory
management?

7.8 NFC
Near field communication (NFC) was jointly developed by Philips and Sony as a
short-range wireless connectivity standard, enabling peer-to-peer (P2P) data exchange
network. Communication between NFC devices is achieved by the principle of
magnetic induction, whenever the devices are brought close to one another [9]. NFC
can also be used with other wireless technologies such as Wi-Fi after establishing
and configuring the P2P network. The communication between compatible devices
requires a pair of transmitting and receiving devices. The typical NFC operating

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frequency for data is 13.56 MHz, which supports data rates of 106, 212, or 424 kbps.
NFC devices can be grouped into two types: 1) passive NFC and 2) active NFC. Figure
7.13 shows the various NFC types, components, and its usage.
A small electric current is emitted by the NFC reader, which creates a magnetic field
that acts as a bridge in the physical space between two NFC devices. The generated
EM (electromagnetic) field is converted back into electrical impulses through another
coil on the client device. Data such as identifiers, messages, currency, status, and
others can be transmitted using NFCs. NFC communication and pairing are speedy
due to the use of inductive coupling and the absence of manual pairing.

Passive NFC

Credit cards Finance

Public network
Local network

Maintenance
NFC Reader
Tags
Active NFC Transport

NFC reader Secure

Smartphones database Utility bills

Figure 7.13 An outline of the NFC operation and communication

Passive NFC devices do not need a power source for communicating with the NFC
reader. Tags and other small transmitters can act as passive NFC devices. However,
passive devices cannot process information; they simply store information, which is
read by an NFC reader. In contrast, active NFC devices can communicate with active
as well as passive NFC devices. Active devices are capable of reading as well as
writing data to other NFC terminals or devices. Some of the most commonly used
NFC platforms are smartphones, public transport card readers, and commercial touch
payment terminals.
NFC currently supports three information exchange modes: 1) peer-to-peer,
2) read/write, and 3) card emulation. The peer-to-peer mode is commonly used in
NFC modes; it enables two NFC devices to exchange information. In the peer-to-peer
mode of information exchange, the transmitting device goes active while the receiving
device becomes passive. During the reverse transfer, both devices change roles. The
read/write mode of information exchange allows only one-way data transmission. An
active NFC device connects to a passive device to read information from it. Finally,

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the card emulation mode enables an NFC device (generally, smartphones) to act as a
contactless credit card and make payments using just a simple tap on an NFC reader.

Check yourself

Magnetic induction, inductive coupling, peer-to-peer data exchange

7.9 DASH7
The DASH7 protocol is based on an active RFID standard [10]. It operates in the 433
MHz frequency band and is being rapidly accepted in agriculture, vehicles, mobiles,
and other consumer electronics-related applications. The messages in DASH7 are
modulated using FSK (frequency shift keying) modulation before transmission over
the 433 MHz frequency band. A very crucial aspect of DASH7 is its capability to use its
433.92 MHz operational band to enable communications with NFC devices. Recall, as
the NFCs operate in the 13.56 MHz band, they can communicate with DASH7 radios
by temporarily modifying/altering their antenna to access the higher-order harmonics
of the DASH7 band (433.92/13.56 = 32 or 25 ). Figure 7.14 shows the DASH7 network
architecture.

Internet
Dash7
Tags
Gateway

Smart
devices NFC

Figure 7.14 The DASH7 communication architecture

Compared to the IEEE 802.15.4 and its dependent technologies, the DASH7
protocol has a fully defined and complete OSI stack. This enables the DASH7 stack to
be made adaptable to the physical layers of technologies such as Sigfox or LoRa. The

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DASH7 stack includes support for cheap processing systems by virtue of its integrated
file system. Figure 7.15 shows the protocol stack of DASH 7 in comparison to the ISO-
OSI stack. DASH7 gateways can query devices in proximity to it without waiting for
pre-defined time-slots to listen to end-device beacons.

OSI stack DASH7 stack

Application Application

Presentation Presentation

Session Session

Transport Transport

Network layer services

Network
Network

Data link Logical link control

Media access control

Physical
Physical

Figure 7.15 The DASH7 protocol stack in comparison to the OSI stack

DASH7 is capable of very dense deployments, has a low memory footprint,

consumes minuscule power, and considered by many as a bridge between NFC and
IoT communication systems. It can also be used to enable tag-to-tag communication
without needing the tags to pass their information through a base station or a tag
reader. This feature of DASH7 is quite synonymous with the multinode hopping mesh
networks found in Zigbee and Z-wave. The reported range of DASH7 is between 1 to
10 km and a typical querying latency of 1 to 10 seconds.

Check yourself

File-system, node hopping mesh network, frequency harmonics

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7.10 Z-Wave
Z-Wave is an economical and less complicated alternative to Zigbee. It was developed
by Zensys, mainly for home automation solutions [11]. It boasts of a power
consumption much lower than Wi-Fi, but with ranges greater than Bluetooth. This
feature makes Z-Wave significantly useful for home IoT use by enabling inter-device
communication between Z-wave integrated sensors, locks, home power distribution
systems, appliances, and heating systems. Figure 7.16 shows the network architecture
of the Z-Wave protocol.

ID-H:1, ID-H:1, ID-H:2,

ID-H:5 ID-H:6 ID-H:6

ID-H:1, ID-H:1,
ID-H:1, ID-H:4 ID-H:3
ID-H:7
ID-H:1,
ID-H:8

ID-H:1,
Z- Wave device ID-H:2

ID-H:1,
ID-H:1 ID-H:1

Z-Wave controller Gateway Internet

Figure 7.16 A typical Z-Wave deployment and communication architecture

Figure 7.17 shows the stack for this protocol. The Z-Wave operational frequency
is in the range of 800–900 MHz, which makes it mostly immune to the interference
effects of Wi-Fi and other radios utilizing the 2.4 GHz frequency band. Z-wave
utilizes gaussian frequency shift keying (GFSK) modulation, where the baseband
pulses are passed through a Gaussian filter before modulation. The filtering operation
smoothens the pulses consisting of streams of –1 and 1 (known as pulse shaping),
which limits the modulated spectrum’s width. A Manchester channel encoding is
applied for preparing the data for transmission over the channel.

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Z-Wave stack

Application

Security

Network

Transport

Physical

Figure 7.17 The Z-Wave protocol stack

Z-wave devices are mostly configured to connect to home-based routers and

access points. These routers and access points are responsible for forwarding Z-
wave messages to a central hub. Z-wave devices can also be configured to connect
to the central hub directly if they are in range. Z-wave routing within the home
follows a source-routed mesh network topology. When the Z-wave devices are not
in range, messages are routed through different nodes to bypass obstructions created
by household appliances or layouts. This process of avoiding radio dead-spots is done
using a message called healing. Healing messages are a characteristic of Z-wave.
A central network controller device sets up and manages a Z-wave network (Figure
7.16), where each logical Z-wave network has one home (network) ID and multiple
node IDs for the devices in it. Each network ID is 4 bytes long, whereas the node
ID length is 1 byte. Z-Wave nodes with different home IDs cannot communicate
with one another. The central hub is designed to be connected to the Internet, but
their quantities are limited to one hub per home. Each home can have multiple
devices, which can talk to the hub using Z-Wave. However, the devices themselves
cannot connect to the Internet. The Z-wave can support 232 devices in a single
home deployment (a single hub). This technology has been designed to be backward
compatible. As Z-wave uses a source-routed static network, mobile devices are
excluded from the network; only static devices are considered.

Check yourself

GFSK, Manchester encoding, pulse shaping principle

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7.11 Weightless
Weightless is yet another emerging open standard for enabling networked
communication in IoT; it is especially useful for low-power wide area networks [12]. It
was designed for useful for low-power, low-throughput, and moderate to high latency
applications supporting either or both public and private networks. The operating
frequency of Weightless is restricted to sub-GHz bands, which are also exempted from
the requirements of licensing such as 138 MHz, 433 MHz, 470 MHz, 780 MHz, 868
MHz, 915 MHz, and 923 MHz. Initially, three standards were released for Weightless:
Weightless P, Weightless N, and Weightless W. Weightless P is the only currently
accepted and used standard as it has features for bi-directional communication over
both licensed as well as unlicensed ISM bands. Weightless N was designed as an
LWPAN uplink-only technology, whereas Weightless W was designed to make use of
the TV whitespace frequencies for communication.
As Weightless P was the most commonly adopted and accepted standard among
the three Weightless standards, it came to be referred to merely as Weightless.
Weightless provides a true bi-directional and reliable means of communication,
where each message transaction is validated using an acknowledgment message.
As it was designed initially for dense deployments of low-complexity IoT end
devices, its payload size was limited to less than 48 bytes. Weightless networks
can be optimized to attain ultra-low-power consumption status compared to cellular
networks. However, this is at the cost of network latency and throughput with data
rates in the range of 0.625 kbps to 100 kbps. Weightless has been identified with three
architectural components: end devices, base stations, and base station network (Figure
7.18). The end devices (ED) form the leaf nodes in the Weightless network. These
devices are typically low complexity and low cost. The duty cycle of EDs is also low,
with a nominal transmiting power of 14 dBm (which can be increased up to 30 dBm).

Weightless device Base-station Database Client-IT

Client specific Client specific
layer layer
Application specific Application specific
layer layer
Weightless interface Weightless frame Unpacked data
Weightless MAC Weightless MAC

Weightless PIIY Weightless PIIY

Figure 7.18 Typical components of the Weightless standard and its protocols

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The base stations (BS) act as the central coordinating node in each cell. A star topology
is deployed to connect the EDs to the BS. The transmit powers of a typical BS lie in the
range of 27 dBm to 30 dBm. Finally, the base station network (BSN) is responsible
for connecting all the BS of a single network. This enables the BSN to manage the
allocation and scheduling of radio resources across the network. Additional tasks of
the BSN include addressing authentication, roaming, and scheduling responsibilities.

Check yourself

Cellular architecture, base stations, whitespace bands

7.12 Sigfox
Sigfox is a low-power connectivity solution, which was developed for various
businesses such as building automation and security, smart metering, agriculture,
and others. It uses ultra-narrowband technology (192 kHz wide) for accessing and
communicating through the radio spectrum [13]. The typical data rates achieved in
Sigfox is in the range 100–600 bits per second. A binary phase shift keying (BPSK)
is used for encoding the message transmission by changing the phase of the carrier
waves, where each message is 100 Hz wide. Sigfox in Europe utilizes the 868 and 868.2
MHz spectrum, whereas it uses 902 and 928 MHz elsewhere. As the Sigfox receiver
has to access only a very tiny part of the spectrum for receiving messages, the effects of
noise are significantly reduced. It can even communicate in the presence of jamming
signals, making this standard quite resilient.
Figure 7.19 shows the network architecture of Sigfox. Sigfox has an exciting
message forwarding principle called random access, which ensures the high quality of
services in this standard. Each Sigfox device emits a message at an arbitrary frequency;

End-points Base-stations 4G/LTE Cloud backend

Sigfox protocol

Sigfox protocol

TCP/IP

Figure 7.19 The Sigfox communication architecture

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it simultaneously sends two replicas of the same message at different frequencies; it

time using a principle known as time frequency diversity. Although the Sigfox devices
are relatively less complicated, the base stations are very complicated as they monitor
the whole 192 kHz spectrum looking for UNB (ultra narrow band) transmissions for
demodulation. The base stations in Sigfox follow a cooperative reception principle.
The messages in Sigfox are not attached to any base station, and any base station in
the vicinity of the device can receive messages from it. This is called the principle of
spatial diversity in Sigfox. The time and frequency diversity, along with the spatial
diversity, ensures excellent quality of service for Sigfox.
Figure 7.20 shows the comparison of the Sigfox stack with the standard ISO-OSI
stack. The Sigfox communication is bi-directional and asynchronous with a significant
difference between the uplink and downlink speeds. As the devices are less complex
than the base stations, the uplink budget (device to base station) is high compared
to the downlink budget (base station to device). It is mainly due to this reason that
the Sigfox was designed to have small message lengths ranging from 0 to 12 bytes.
This 12-byte payload supports the simultaneous transfer of sensor data, the status
of an event/alerts, GPS coordinates, and even application data. Sigfox boasts of
excellent security features with support for authentication, integrity, and anti-replay
on messages transmitted through the network. AES is supported by this standard. All

OSI stack Sigfox stack

Application

Presentation Application
Host layers

Session

Transport
Frame

Network
Media layers

Medium access
Data link control

Physical Physical

Figure 7.20 The Sigfox protocol stack in comparison to the OSI stack

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these collective features of Sigfox enables it to be a low-power and resilient standard.

However, due to the low data rates and asynchronous links, it is better utilized
in applications requiring infrequent communication with small bursts of data. The
Sigfox architecture and range supports wide and dense deployments depending on
topologies and is better suited for indoor use; however, mobility is not an aspect
associated with it.

Check yourself

AES, asynchronous versus synchronous communication

7.13 LoRa
LoRa or long range is a patented wireless technology for communication developed
by Cycleo of Grenoble, France for cellular-type communications aimed at providing
connectivity to M2M and IoT solutions [14]. It is a sub-GHz wireless technology that
operationally uses the 169 MHz, 433 MHz, 868 MHz, and 915 MHz frequency bands
for communication. LoRa uses bi-directional communication links symmetrically and
a spread spectrum with a 125 kHz wideband for operating. Applications such as
electric grid monitoring are typically suited for utilizing LoRa for communications.
Typical communication of LoRa devices ranges from 15 to 20 km, with support for
millions of devices. Figure 7.21 shows the LoRa network architecture.

End-points Gateway Network server Application server

LoRa/LoRaWAN

3G/Ethernet

TCP/IP

Figure 7.21 A typical LoRa deployment and communication architecture

It is a spread spectrum technology with a broader band (usually 125 kHz or more).
LoRa achieves high receiver sensitivity by utilizing frequency-modulated chirp coding
gain. LoRa devices provide excellent support for mobility, which makes them very

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useful for applications such as asset tracking and asset management. In comparison
with similar technologies such as NB-IoT, LoRa devices have significantly higher
battery lives, but these devices have low data rates (27 to 50 kbps) and longer latency
times. Figure 7.22 shows the LoRa protocol stack.

LoRa Stack

Application

MAC

PHY

RF

Figure 7.22 The LoRa protocol stack

LoRa devices make use of a network referred to as LoRaWAN, which enables the
routing of messages between end nodes and the destination via a LoRaWAN gateway.
Unlike Sigfox, LoRaWAN has a broader spectrum resulting in interference, which
is solved using coding gains of the chirp signals. Additionally, unlike Sigfox, the
LoRaWAN end nodes and the base stations are quite inexpensive. The LoRaWAN
protocol is designed for WAN communications and is an architecture that makes use
of LoRa, whereas LoRa is used as an enabling technology for a wide area network.
Messages transmitted over LoRaWAN is received by all base stations in proximity
to the device, which induces message redundancy in the network. However, this
enhances the resilience of the network by ensuring more messages are successfully
delivered between entities in the network.
A LoRa network follows the star topology and is made up of four crucial
entities: end points/nodes, gateways, network server, and a remote computer
(Figure 7.21). The end nodes deal with all the sensing and control solutions. The
gateways forward messages from end nodes to a backhaul network. The LoRa
network can comprise both or either of wired and wireless technologies. The gateways
themselves are connected to the network server utilizing IP-based connections (either
private or public). The LoRa network server is responsible for scheduling message
acknowledgments, modifying data rates, and removing message redundancies.
Finally, the remote computers have control over the end nodes and act as data sinks
for data originating from these nodes.
The LoRa network security is achieved through various mechanisms such as
unique network key, which ensures security on the network level, unique application
key, which ensures an end-to-end security on the application level and device specific
key.

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Check yourself

Features of a chirp signal, coding gains, spread spectrum technology

7.14 NB-IoT
NB-IoT or narrowband IoT is an initiative by the Third Generation Partnership
Project (3GPP) to develop a cellular standard, which can coexist with cellular systems
(2G/3G/4G), be highly interoperable and that too using minimum power [15]. It is
reported that a major portion of the NB-IoT applications can support a battery life
of up to ten years. NB-IoT also boasts of significant improvements in reliability,
spectrum efficiencies, and system capacities. NB-IoT uses orthogonal frequency
division multiplexing (OFDM) modulation, which enhances the system capacity and
increases spectrum efficiency (Figure 7.23). However, device complexities are quite
high. NB-IoT also provides support for security features such as confidentiality,
authentication, and integrity. Figure 7.24 shows the protocol stacks of the various
components of NB-IoT.

GSM band

Guard band

LTE LTE

200 KHz
Figure 7.23 A location of NB-IoT band within the LTE spectrum

The coverage of NB-IoT supports deployments in indoor environments as well

as in dense urban areas. When compared with technologies such as LoRa, NB-IoT
ensures a higher quality of service as well as reduced latencies. Because of its design
principles, the transfer of large messages is not efficient. NB-IoT is better suited
for static deployments such as energy metering, fixed sensors, and others. Mobility
support is not provided in this standard. NB-IoT communication can either make use
of the available 200-kHz GSM (global system for mobile communications) bands or
be allocated resource blocks on the guard bands by LTE base stations. This ensures

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UE eNB MME
NAC NAC

RRC RRC

PDCP PDCP

RLC RLC

MAC MAC

PHY PHY

Figure 7.24 The NB-IoT protocol stack with respect to its entities

that the NB-IoT can achieve more extensive coverage while coexisting with cellular
systems.
NB-IoT was developed for non-IP based applications requiring quite small
volumes of daily data transactions, typically in the range of a few tens to a hundred
bytes of data per device daily. Unlike technologies such as Sigfox and LoRa, the use of
OFDM (orthogonal frequency division multiplexing’s) faster modulation rates ensures
higher data handling capacities for NB-IoT.

Check yourself

OFDM, LTE, guard band, GSM

7.15 Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi or WiFi is technically referred to by its standard, IEEE 802.11, and is a wireless
technology for wireless local area networking of nodes and devices built upon similar
standards (Figure 7.25). Wi-Fi utilizes the 2.4 GHz ultra high frequency (UHF) band
or the 5.8 GHz super high frequency (SHF) ISM radio bands for communication
[16]. For operation, these bands in Wi-Fi are subdivided into multiple channels.
The communication over each of these channels is achieved by multiple devices
simultaneously using time-sharing based TDMA multiplexing. It uses CSMA/CA for
channel access.
Various versions of IEEE 802.11 have been popularly adapted, such as a/b/g/n.
The IEEE 802.11a achieves a data rate of 54 Mbps and works on the 5 GHz band using
OFDM for communication. IEEE 802.11b achieves a data rate of 11 Mbps and operates
on the 2.4 GHz band. Similarly, IEEE 802.11g also works on the 2.4 GHz band but
achieves higher data rates of 54 Mbps using OFDM. Finally, the newest version, IEEE
802.11n, can transmit data at a rate of 140 Mbps on the 5 GHz band.

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Wi-Fi Stack

Presentation

Application
Data Link

Transport
Network
Physical

Session
IEE.802.11

Figure 7.25 The IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi stack

Wi-Fi devices can network using a technology referred to as wireless LAN

(WLAN), as shown in Figure 7.26. A Wi-Fi enabled device has to connect to a wireless
access point, which connects the device to the WLAN. WLAN is then responsible for
forwarding the messages from the devices to and fro between the devices and the
Internet.
Host A Host B

Host A Host B

Wireless
router 1

Wireless Access point 1

router 2
Host A Host B Internet

Wireless
router 3 Access point 2

Figure 7.26 The Wi-Fi deployment architecture

Check yourself

TDMA

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7.16 Bluetooth
Bluetooth is defined by the IEEE 802.15.1 standard and is a short-range wireless
communication technology operating at low power to enable communication among
two or more Bluetooth-enabled devices [17]. It was initially developed as a cable
replacement technology for data communication between two or more mobile devices
such as smartphones and laptops. This standard allows the transmission of data as
well as voice-over short distances. Bluetooth functions on the 2.4 GHz ISM band
and has a range of approximately 10 m. The transmission of data is done through
frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), which also reduces the interference
caused by other devices functioning in the 2.4 GHz band. The data is divided into
packets before transmitting them by Bluetooth. The packets are transmitted over the
79 designated channels, each 1MHz wide in the 2.4 GHz band. Adaptive frequency
hopping (AFH) enables this standard to perform 800 hops per second over these
channels. Initial versions of this standard followed Gaussian frequency shift keying
(GFSK) modulation, which was known as the basic rate (BR) mode, and was capable
of data rates of up to 1 Mbps. However, with the development of newer variants,
modulation schemes such as π/4 DQPSK (differential quadrature phase shift keying)
and 8-DPSK (differential phase shift keying) were adopted, which enabled data rates
of 2 Mbps and 3 Mbps respectively.

S S
S Piconet M
M B
S S
S S Piconet S

Scatternet

S Slave M Master B Bridge

Figure 7.27 The Bluetooth device network architecture

Bluetooth follows a master–slave architecture (Figure 7.27). It enables a small

network, which can accommodate seven slave devices simultaneously with a single
master node. A slave node in one piconet cannot be part of another piconet at the
same time, that is, it can have a single master node at a time. This network is known
as a personal area network (PAN) or piconet. All the devices in a piconet share the
master node’s clock. Two piconets can be joined using a bridge. The whole network is
also referred to as a scatternet.
Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), the advanced variant of Bluetooth has 2 MHz
wide bands, which can accommodate 40 channels. Its features include low energy
consumption, low cost, multivendor interoperability, and an enhanced range of
operations.

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Bluetooth connections are encrypted and prevent eavesdropping of

communications between devices. The inclusion of service-level security adds an
additional layer of security by restricting the usage and device features and activities.
The Bluetooth standard consists of four parts: 1) core protocols, 2) cable
replacement protocols, 3) telephony control protocols, and 4) adopted protocols.
Figure 7.28 shows the Bluetooth protocol stack. Link Manager Protocol (LMP), Logical
Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP), Host Controller Interface (HCI),
Radio Frequency Communications (RFCOMM), and Service Discovery Protocol (SDP)
are some of the well-known protocols associated with Bluetooth. These protocols can
be enumerated as follows:
Bluetooth stack

Application

Serv. Disc.
Telephony
RFComm
LLC

Audio Control

L2CAP

Baseband

PHY Radio

Figure 7.28 The Bluetooth protocol stack

(i) Link Manager Protocol: It manages the establishment, authentication, and

links configuration. LMPs consist of some protocol data units (PDU), between
which transmission occurs for availing services such as name requests, link
address requests, connection establishment, connection authentication, mode
negotiation, and data transfer.
(ii) Host Controller Interface: It enables access to hardware status and control
registers and connects the controller with the link manager. The automatic
discovery of Bluetooth devices in its proximity is one of the essential tasks of
HCI.

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(iii) L2CAP: It multiplexes logical connections between two devices. It is also tasked
with data segmentation, flow control, and data integrity checks.
(iv) Service Discovery Protocol: It is tasked with the discovery of services provided
by other Bluetooth devices.
(v) Radio Frequency Communications: It is a cable replacement protocol, which
generates a virtual stream of serial data. This protocol supports many telephony
related profiles as AT commands and Object Exchange Protocol (OBEX) over
Bluetooth.
(vi) Telephony Control Protocol – Binary (TCS BIN): It is a bit-oriented protocol to
control call signaling prior to initiation of voice or data communications between
devices.

Check yourself

Bluetooth paging and inquiry, π/4 DQPSK, 8-DPSK, AFH

Summary
This chapter covered the various IoT connectivity technologies and their functional
requirements and focuses on those technologies, which primarily rely on wireless
media for communications. The standards covered in this chapter are a mix of the
ones used for general consumer electronics, household devices, as well as speciality
applications such as industries. The connectivity technologies covered here range
from near-field ones to long-range ones. After going through this chapter, readers
will be able to select various connectivity technologies, which will be suitable for an
IoT application or architecture under consideration.

Exercises
(i) What is a piconet?
(ii) What is a scatternet? Explain the working of a scatternet with a brief
description of its various members.
(iii) Describe the protocol stack of Bluetooth.
(iv) What is BLE?
(v) Differentiate between class 1, 2, and 3 Bluetooth devices.
(vi) What are the various modes of operation of Bluetooth?
(vii) Describe the L2CAP layer in Bluetooth.
(viii) Describe the RFCOMM layer in Bluetooth.

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(ix) What is service discovery protocol (SDP) in Bluetooth?

(x) Describe the Bluetooth baseband.
(xi) How does Bluetooth avoid collisions between simultaneously transmitting
nodes?
(xii) Explain the protocol stack of Zigbee.
(xiii) What is ZDO? How is it different from APS?
(xiv) Elaborate on the various network topologies of Zigbee.
(xv) What are the various Zigbee device types?
(xvi) Describe the Zigbee network layer.
(xvii) What is AODV? Explain with an example.
(xviii) How is Zigbee different from Bluetooth?
(xix) How is Zigbee different from 6LoWPAN?
(xx) Explain the protocol stack of IEEE 802.15.4
(xxi) How is LWPAN different from PANs?
(xxii) Explain the terms:
(a) DSSS
(b) BPSK
(c) QPSK
(d) O-QPSK
(xxiii) Differentiate between CSMA/CA and CSMA/CD.
(xxiv) Differentiate between star and mesh network topologies.
(xxv) What are the various IEEE 802.15.4 network types?
(xxvi) Differentiate between RFD and FFD.
(xxvii) Differentiate between a PAN coordinator, router, and a device in IEEE 802.15.4.
(xxviii) What are the various IEEE 802.15.4 frame types?
(xxix) What is beaconing?
(xxx) How are beacon-enabled networks different from non-Beacon enabled
networks?
(xxxi) What is HART? How is it different from wirelessHART?
(xxxii) Describe the protocol stack of HART.
(xxxiii) Describe the HART physical layer.
(xxxiv) Describe the HART data link layer.
(xxxv) Describe the HART network and transport layers.

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(xxxvi) What is TDMA? Describe with an example.

(xxxvii) What is channel blacklisting?
(xxxviii) What are superframes?
(xxxix) Describe the HART congestion control mechanism.
(xl) Describe the working of the wirelessHART network manager.
(xli) How is wirelessHART different from Zigbee?
(xlii) What is RFID? Explain its working.
(xliii) How is RFID different from QR codes?
(xliv) Differentiate between active and passive RFID.
(xlv) List some of the typical applications of RFID.
(xlvi) What is NFC? Describe its working.
(xlvii) How is NFC different from RFID?
(xlviii) What are the different types of NFC? Explain in detail.
(xlix) Describe the various modes of operation of NFC.
(l) List some of the popular applications of NFC.
(li) What is ISA 100.11a?
(lii) Describe the various transport services in ISA100.11a.
(liii) What are the various networks permitted in ISA100.11a?
(liv) What network topologies are allowed in ISA100.11a?
(lv) What are the various device types in ISA100.11a?
(lvi) List the salient features of ISA100.11a.
(lvii) What are the security features of ISA100.11a?
(lviii) Differentiate between an NRD and backbone device in ISA100.11a.
(lix) Differentiate between an RD and an NRD in ISA100.11a.
(lx) What are the typical usage classes in ISA100.11a?
(lxi) What is Z-Wave?
(lxii) Describe the working of a Z-Wave implementation.
(lxiii) Describe GFSK.
(lxiv) What is Manchester encoding?
(lxv) What is healing in the context of Z-Wave?
(lxvi) Differentiate between Z-Wave and Zigbee.
(lxvii) What are the different variants of Weightless? Enumerate the highlighting
features of each.

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(lxviii) How does Weightless provide true bi-directional communication?

(lxix) In Weightless, what topology is deployed to connect the EDs to the BS?
(lxx) What is the typical payload size restriction of Weightless?
(lxxi) What are the typical application domains of Sigfox?
(lxxii) What are the general data rates associated with Sigfox?
(lxxiii) Which encoding is used in Sigfox for transmitting messages?
(lxxiv) How does Sigfox communicate even in the presence of jamming signals?
(lxxv) What is the principle of spatial diversity in Sigfox?
(lxxvi) Why is the Sigfox uplink budget different from its downlink budget?
(lxxvii) What frequency bands are typically associated with LoRa?
(lxxvii) Differentiate between LoRa and NB-IoT.
(lxxix) How is the spread spectrum used for enhancing the efficiency of LoRa?
(lxxx) What is LoRaWAN? How is it different from LoRa?
(lxxxi) Differentiate between LoRaWAN and Sigfox.
(lxxxii) Describe the network topology of LoRa.
(lxxxiii) What are the modes of existence of NB-IoT?
(lxxxiv) How does NB-IoT make use of existing redundant GSM/CDMA bands?
(lxxxv) How does NB-IoT ensure high data handling capacities?
(lxxxvi) How does IEEE 802.11g achieve higher data rates?
(lxxxvii) What is the typical data transmission rate of IEEE 802.11n?
(lxxxviii) What is WLAN?
(lxxxix) Differentiate between WiFi and Bluetooth.
(xc) Differentiate between WiFI and Zigbee.

References
[1] Sikora, A. and V. F. Groza. 2005. “Coexistence of IEEE 802. 15.4 with Other Systems in the
2.4 GHz-ISM-Band.” In 2005 IEEE Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference
Proceedings 3: 1786–1791. IEEE.
[2] 802.15.4-2015 - IEEE Standard for Low-Rate Wireless Networks, IEEE. https://standards.
ieee.org/standard/802 15 4-2015.html.
[3] Zigbee Alliance. https://zigbee.org/zigbee-for-developers/zigbee-3-0/.
[4] Farahani, S. 2011. ZigBee Wireless Networks and Transceivers. Newnes.
[5] Thread. https://www.threadgroup.org/.

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[6] OpenThread: An Open Foundation for the Connected Home. https://openthread.io/.

[7] Petersen, S. and S. Carlsen. 2011. “WirelessHART vs. ISA100. 11a: The Format War Hits
the Factory Floor.” IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine 5(4): 23–34.
[8] Garfinkel, S. and H. Holtzman. 2006. “Understanding RFID Technology.” RFID, pp. 15–36.
[9] Coskun, V., B. Ozdenizci, and K. Ok. 2013. “A Survey on Near Field Communication
(NFC) Technology.” Wireless Personal Communications 71(3): 2259–2294.
[10] Weyn, M., G. Ergeerts, L. Wante, C. Vercauteren, and P. Hellinckx. 2013. “Survey of the
DASH7 Alliance Protocol for 433 MHz Wireless Sensor Communication.” International
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[11] Badenhop, C. W., S. R. Graham, B. W. Ramsey, B. E. Mullins, and L. O. Mailloux. 2017.
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112–129.
[12] Weightless specification. http://www.weightless.org/about/weightless-specification.
[13] Lauridsen, M., H. Nguyen, B. Vejlgaard, I. Z. Kovács, P. Mogensen, and M. Sorensen.
2017. “Coverage Comparison of GPRS, NB-IoT, LoRa, and SigFox in a 7800 km2 Area.”
In Proceedings of IEEE 85th Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC Spring) (pp. 1–5). IEEE.
[14] Augustin, A., J. Yi, T. Clausen, and W. Townsley. 2016. “A Study of LoRa: Long Range &
Low Power Networks for the Internet of Things.” Sensors 16(9): 1466.
[15] Sinha, R. S., Y. Wei, and S. H. Hwang. 2017. “A Survey on LPWA Technology: LoRa and
NB-IoT.” Ict Express 3(1): 14–21.
[16] IEEE 802.11TM WIRELESS LOCAL AREA NETWORKS – The Working Group for WLAN
Standards. http://www.ieee802.org/11/.
[17] Bluetooth specifications. https://www.bluetooth.com/specifications/.

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