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Computer Networks Unit-4
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ae ey . o> 5 Sathya Priya _ Dr. Jd S--P, Revathy \UNIT-IV ROUTING Routing and protocols: Unicast routing - Distance Vector Routing - RIP - Link State Routing - OSPF — Path-vector routing - BGP - Multicast Routing: DVMRP — PIM. 4.1 UNICAST ROUTING If communication takes place between single source to single destination then it is called unicast routing. In unicast routing, packet is routed, hop by hop from source to destination. Since both sender and receiver receives packet from default router. So, there is no need of forwarding table. Least Cost Routing : To find the best route to transmit data from source to destination, internet can be modelled as graph which has nodes and edges. Nodes are the routers whereas edges are links between the nodes. Weighted graph is one where each link is associated with cost. Source finds the best path with low cost to reach destination. If there are N routers (nodes), then there are (N—1) least cost path from one router to other, Need to find Nx (N-1) least cost paths for the internet. Rt =_6" LAN WAN Figure InternetComputer Networks 42 Figure The weighted Graph patn 1: (A) 2-8) —"€) 2 _(@) = Cost 10 path 2: (A} 2 (D2 (E) =) +__(@) = cost 10 Path a: (A)—2—(8 }-—*—(E) 2_()—1_(6) = coste Path x: Path 3 is at minimum (least) compared with possible paths in the network. ‘A least cost tree is a tree with the source router as the root that spans the whole graph (visits all other nodes) and in which the path between the root and any other node with the shortest distance (minimum cost). Properties of least cost trees for a weighted graph : @__ The least cost route from X to Y in X’s tree is the inverse of the least cost route from Y to X in Y’s tree, the cost in both directions is the same. (AB—E->F is same as F>E—B->A). (ii) Instead of X to Y using X tree, it can travel from X to Y using x’s tree and continue from Y to Z using y's tree. (A->B—>E—>F->G corresponds to A>B—>E Pee and EF->G). 4.2, ROUTING ALGORITHMS A route algorithm is a mathematical method used to determine bes path to route packets across the nodes in the network. The algorithm should be able to find the destination effi which is called as routing loops. ntly without creating loops irting 7 : 43 There are three main types of routing algorithms: 0 Distance vector (distance — vector touting) @) Link State (Link state touting) (ii) Path to vector (Path ~ vector Touting) piste yector routing i Indistance vector routing, each nodes exchan; ev : t ge information betwe ighbouri ojes. Using this information, routing table in ea co. odes. ch node gets updated. « By seeing updated routing table, it is easy to reach any destination with least cost. « Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is the best example for distance vector protocol. Routing information includes its time to reach all the other destination (number of hops) and costs associated with each node. Each node broadcast a vector to its neighbor. A vector includes the direction and the metric associated with it. Bellman-ford algorithm is used for the computation of distance-vector routing, Bellman-ford algorithm is used to find the shortest distance from source x to destination y, through the intermediates a, b and c. Bellman-ford algorithm calculates shortest distance by D,,=min {(C,,+D,), (C,,+D,,), (C, + Dy) DF distance between x and y Cis the cost, where a,b and c are the intermediate nodes. Equation can be represented asa4 Computer Networks If suppose, z is the new intermediate node with least cost, then the D,, can be calculateg and deputed as D,,=min {D,,(C,,+D.)} e A Distance vector is a one dimensional array that represent the tree. A distance ~ vector does not give path from source to destination as least cost tree. It gives only the least cost to the destination. With these information least cost trees can be constructed. « Distance vector information can be converted to forwarding table in the routing algorithm. ) 2 Qa7mmvgo> | a|o|~] fo 9 Distance vector Tree Figure Distance vector for the tree,outing. 5 45 rirst pistance Vector / Routing table at cach node. i Afo Ae ate Bl2 Blo Bist cle cis ate dls Dl gto] Ele El4 Elo Ele Ele Fa ale Ge} als Om] MOJO] a|> jo} | 8] 8 foo} 8] 8 A[3 A Ale Bie B Bla cle c| cia Dio D Bia ES E Eta fal E FE Ffo| Giz G Git Updating Vector by neighboring vector << lee lals A's table ABI] A z Alo BlO| B cls] Cis Ble D]=| DIS] This is obtained by a E[4| E]4] Bl]=min ({] +2, ACI) DIS Ete] El Efe] al=| Ge F[% 2 Gl= (a) (8) ods New B Example : Updating routing table by using neighbour routing table. (Now B obtained using A’s table)__ Computer 46 NetWrg Ape] Ae Bio} BJO cis} Cis 5 ; BIS | OTH a This is obtained by Ff=| Ffel Bi J=min (BL), 4,E[)) Gl=| G Old B NewB E's table () O|7|MJOJO}ol > s|lola]slals It is important to note, whenever a node updates its table, it immediately sends its updated vector to its neighbouring nodes. Distance vector - algorithm, Distance vector - routing { D{myself ]=0 //To create initial vector for nodes] For(x=1 to N) { if @ isa neighbour) Dix] = C[myself][x] else Diy} } Send vector to all neighbour repeat(forever) { wait(for a vector D,, from a neighbour «, where w is anew for (x= 1 to N) link)pouting 47 t : D(x) = min [DI+], (C[myself][o}+D, [x])V/ Bellman - ford equation { if (any change in vector) send vector to all neighbours } ) Bnd problems in Distance vector @ “ Two node loop instability (i) Three node instability () Two node loop instability Count to infinity This is the important issue in distance vector routing problem. Routing loops occur when a link is broken or two routers send updates at the same time. Example : Two-node problem ° «) (a) (8) , initially A & B knows how to reach X. &) (a) (B) Link between A and X fails. Now if B sends routing table to A, before getting updated table from A. Then system becomes unstable. Now A assumes B has the way to reach X. Afier triggering, A sends updated table to B. ‘A concludes that it can reach X through B and B concludes that it can reach X through A. In this way, the cost of reaching X gradually increases, until it reaches to infinity. IfB receives a packet destinated to X, it goes to A and comes back, similarly A goes to B and comes back. ‘Thus packets bounce between A and B, creating 4 two-node loop problem.Computer Networks 48 7 Solutions : q Split Horizon Poison reverse Split Horizon : / _ itisamethod used to prevent routing loops in distance-veetor routing protocols. The rinciple of split horizon is simple, where information about the routing for a particular paar is never sent back in the direction from which it was received. But it wanes one drawback, Normally when there is no news about a route, the node deletes the route from its table. Poison Reverse : O-0—O When link between B and C brokes, then node C initiates route poisoning by entering a table entry for node C as unreachable. When node A receives route poisoning from node B, it sends an update called a Poison reverse back to B. This poison reverse makes sure that all routes on the segment have received the poisoned route information. (i) Three node instability : If instability exists between the three nodes, then stability of a network cannot be guaranteed. Link State Routing : In link state routing, each node share its knowledge of its neighbourhood with all Participating nodes in the network. It implements Dijkstra’s algorithm to determine shortest path between source and destination. It sends link state all participating nodes in a network. Each node maintains a duplicate database of link information called link state database (LSDB). There is only one LSDB for the entire network. Each node have a duplicate copy of this.routing 49 Figure Weighted Graph LSDB Alp|cjolelrle O12} "13 ] alo] eo 2]o0]slola]lola ewlel4a}olelo]i [o[=[=[efo[e] > 8 8 eo 8 8 ° It floods the routing information to all nodes in a network. The packet flood to the other node includes identity of the node and cost of the link. The packet being sent is called LS Packet (LSP). Al2 BLS [eTs Fla E|4 G 5 3 D 3 1 A E Figure LSP at each node,4.10 Computer Networks Steps to be followed : Using shared LSDB, creates least cost tree based on Dijkstra Algorithm. 1. Node itself chooses as root of the tree with singlé node. Total cost of each node is determined based on LSDB. Other nodes which are close to the root node are added. Now all the other nodes not in the tree gets updated. The step 2 repeats until all nodes form trees. Dijkstra Algorithm () { tree = {root} // Tree is made fox(x=1 to N), where N is the total number of nodes { if (x is the root) D[x]=0 //D[x] is the shortest distance from root to node x else if (x is a neighbor) D[y] = C[root][y] // C[x][y] cost between x and y in LSDB else Diy]= repeat D[w] minimum among all nodes not in tree Tree = Tree ufo} // Add o to tree // Update all neighbors of @ for (every node x, neighbour of o and not in tree) { Dix] = min (D[x], O[o] + Clo}[x)} \ ye = } until (All nodes added in the tree) } End |Routing an e > © o > ©, O—O o a Figure Least Cost Tree Path Vector Routing A path vector routing does not rely on the distance to destination to promote loop free path, instead it deals with analysis of path itself. In path vector routing, the best path is determined by path itself based on certain policies. Unlike DV and LS it does not consider the cost alone, it also focus on security of packet being transmitted across the network. Spanning Trees : In path vector routing, path from source to destination can be determined by path vector routing. BGP is the example of path vector routing. Best Spanning tree, however may not be least cost tre It follows policies lik © Selection of best path based on cost [selection of one path from the possible paths.] «Avoiding middle nodes in the route. Example : Middle (common) node avoidance,Computer Netwio, 412 rks (8) © Gu “ning ® xp = a It is an asynchronous and distributed routing algorithm. It is a subset of graph G. Each node, after creation of initial path, sends it all to its immediate neighbours. It considers policy along with the least cost. Path(x,y) = best {path(x.y), [@ +path (v, »)] for all v’s in the network, where v is the vertices. + means to add x to the beginning of the path. A B[c.B A[BA cl ¢ al B bic... c[Bc EIGE D/B,D =| —— EC E,D E Figure Path vector.oti — = 43 §-~¢ received copy of 'B’ vector ‘C rece) on , received copy of ‘D’ vector New New Olac . A AIBA A los) sre AlcBAl aleBal a [08 7 BICB B/C.B DB «cl c]| clac =|) Se c a Cl Cc j
] — Ta N4 R2 2 N2 = 1 N2 _ 1 NS R2 2 N3 a 1 N3 —_— 1 na] pe | 2 Ns | Re | 2 R2 to R3 Fe soon by RS ai New RS Dest Cost] | Dest] NO | cost Dest} Next ~ Router Router St] Router | Cost is} R2 | 2 ]}na] — [+ /}——+Iaal pe To Na] Re | 2}]ne| — | 4 na} — | 4 Ns] Ro | 2 Ns | pe | 2 q Ne | — 1 ipouting 4.19 R2toR4 | Ra R2 seen by Ra N New Ra 1 | Dest| Next Next Router | Cost Next Dest] Router | COSt] ie F Dest! Router | Cost na] R2 | 2 |} ng na] po | 2 —_ | ——————> | na] re | 2 i Na] R2 | 2 | een ns} — | 14 Ne| — [1 Ra Next Dest Router Cost Nt R2 3 N2 R2 3 NS R2 2 Nt Ce] we] pe | 2 Ne NS — 1 NE — 1 a R2 RS S vest] NOR | Cost Dest] NOM | Cost Dest] NO | cost Nt _ 1 Nt Ri 2 Nt R2 3 N2 1 NB. | N2 Ri 2 N4 } N2 R2 3 N38] — 1 NB} — | 14 N3| R2 | 2 Né R2 2 N4 | — 1 Na] — = NS R2 2 NS _ 1 NS R2 2 N6 R2 3 N6 R3 2 N6é | — 1 Open Shortest Path First : It is an intradomain route protocol based on link state routing protocol. Operates within a single autonomous system. Unlike RIP, which updates entire routing table for every 30s, it updates only the changes that taking place in routing table. e — Itmakes use of Dijikstra’s Algorithm to find shortest path first. © Itcanbe extended large level of hop count. ¢ — Itisclassless routing protocol © Forwarding table is almost same for RIP and OSPF. Instead, it not only consider cost as in RIP but also other factors like throughput, round-trip time, reliability to determine the weight of network link.: Computer Networks 4.20 It has no impact of traffic jn lobal LSDB- rn date g traffic in large AS. To preven; Each route floods LSP to up ! small autonomous system (AS), but it results ois this, AS can be divided into small sections cal that floods LSP. «Each area is small independent domain Ri Fa RS Dest] NO | cost} | Dest Net | Cost] | Dest Re Cost ni {| — | 4 mi] At | 9 ni | Re | 12 no} — | 5] ]ne} —] 5s] ]ne] re] 8 na] re} a] {ns} — | 3 ns] — | 3 na] r2_| 12] [na] ro | 7] [na] — | 4 Among the areas, one area is nominated as backbone and identified by value zero (0). Backbone ‘Area 0 (Backbons) Figure Areaspouting Ituses five types of link state advertisements : 4.21 «router link network link «summary link to network e summar link to AS border router «external link Router link This advertisement advertise the existence of a router. Itis of three types. Atransient link - It isa link that connects other networks. e — Astub link - It is a link to a network which is not a thorough network. A point to point link - It is a link which defines address of the router at the end of point to point link. Network ‘Stublink }——————————— Network Point to point © Figure Router link Network link : This advertisement advertise the entire network as a node, Network is advertised by Any one of the designated router.Computer 4.22 Neto [netwen & Figure Network link Summary link to network : This type of advertisement is advertised by area border router. This provides the information about the links connected to the backbone area. Area border router Area 0. Figure Summary link to network. Summary link to AS: This is advertised by AS router. It provides links from other AS to the backbone area of the current AS. Gs) Areao / AS router Figure Summary link to AS External link : It is advertised by AS router. This informs about the network outside the AS to the backbone area.outing 423 AS router « _ OSPF is implemented as a program in network layer. Protocol field set to 89 means to route datagram inside an AS. « OSPF messages is of 5 types : +. type | - Hello message + type 2 - database description message ° type 3 - link state request message type 4 - link state update message type 5 - link state acknowledgement message Type 1 Network mask Hello a Interval E/T] Priority Designated router IP address Neighbor IP address Hello message - sends by a router to introduce itself. Type 2 E;/By]I|M MS. = Message sequence number Link state header ————————— Database description — sent as response to hello messageComputer 1y, 4.24 Stor, Type 3 Link state type ID Advertising routes Ed Link state request — Send by router to know about specific information. Type 4 Number of link state Advertisement Header Link state update —It is used to updata LSDB OSPF header Link state header Link state acknowledgement — To maintain reliability in network. Figure: OSPF - message formats Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) BGP4 is version 4, It is the only interdomain routing protocol. Lets consider the autonomous system connected together. AS-2 AS [va] pil) NZ &)* NS (&)rs Ni9) aouting 4.25 ch foe other AS hee easily within a network (AS). But a router of one AS ommunicate with hrough border router. This is referred as BGP. qrere are fvo types of BGP, «external BGP (¢BGP) - Connecting border routers of different AS. « _ internal BGP (iBGP) - pxternal BGP (eBGP) : Itis an extension of BGP used to provide communication between distinct autonomous system. It may be called as point to point Protocol, AS1 AS2 AS3 R2 R3 mi& eae > 3)ra The routers that run BGP process is called as BGP peers or BGP speakers. iBap « eBGP allows physically connects border routers in different AS to form eBGP speakers and exchange messages. Logical connection during each BGP connection is referred as session problems ineBGP. “4 x S zm ee \o La « some border routers are unaware of route a packet to nonneighbour AS. ‘ e Nonborder routers are unaware of routing packet to any other AS. Internal bgp (iBGP) : Itcreates session between possible pair of routers in AS. For n routers in an AS, there will be (nx (n-1)/2] iBGP session. It is like a fully connected mesh to prevent loops in the network, Each router shares information about it to the neighbouring routers thus creating inter connection among the AS. At certain point, all informations have propagated to all other AS, then at this point it Creates a table called path table. Path table includes the best path to reach each router. ___ BGPis interdomain routing protocol. The path table created by BGP is injected to the intradomain forwarding table such as RIP or OSPF for routing packets.Computer Networks 4.26 ‘outing Injecting forwarding, information to intradomain r Instub AS By default area border router defined next router to be the speake at the end of its forwarding table. It adds default entry ‘ GP connection. router at the end of eB Intransient AS Each router in AS needs to inject entire path table to intradomain forwarding table, Address Aggregation : Intradomain forwarding table may ina forwarding table. To resolve this, and forms address aggregation. many destination networks y by huge, since it includes s as destination identifier BGP4 stores only prefixe: Path Attributes = In intradomain routing protocol, next ho, ‘ain routing protocol, needs additional information ca p and cost will determine the route, whereas interdom led path attributes. There are seven path attributes such as origin, AS-path, Next hop, Local Pref, Atomic-Aggregate and Aggregator. These seven attributes are divided into two broad categories. Mult-exit-dise, - — Well-known = Optional , Well-known Attribute - It is mandatory. Must be present in all BGP update message, This attribute can be recognised by all the routers. An optional attribute can be transitive or intransitive, that can be sent or not sent to next rotiter. Origin - type 1 : Itdefines source of routing information. : (Mandatory) 1. path information obtained from intradomain protocol 2. path information obtained from BGP. , 3. Unknown source AS PATH type-2 : Defines list of AS ; : through which destinati (Mandatory) helps to prevent loops. ion can be reached. It Next HOP type-3 : Defi ; : (Mandatory) efines next router to which the packet can be forwarded. Mult-EXIT-DISC-type-4 : D i i oma type efines multiple exit paths to a destination. Local-PREF-type-5 + Itis set b pears (Well-known) et by administration to select the preference path.pouting, ‘atom -AGGREGATE- : type-6 (Well-known) AGGREGATOR-type-7 : Defi (Optional) 4.27 It defines a single destination network. nes the destination prefix as an aggregate. Route Selection : Route selection in BGP is not eas: attributes received from eBGP or iBGP Stan 'y as done in shortest path tree. It includes certain session, Identity route with highest LOCAL PREF Found >—1 Route . sSlecieg_[-> 8% M dently routes with lowest MULTLEXIST-DISC Found>—1f Sais, J ser Identity routes with shonest AS-Path Tentify routes with least cost NEXT-HOP 4 Toute = Found) selected fee P 1 Single route found M- Muttiple routes founa am exiernat [Find external — other route with route oo outs, lowest BGP identiion Find internat route with lowest BGP identifier Route seleciea__—-—> Stop428 Computer Networks BGP has four messages between BGP speakers across as : . Open message ° Update message . Keepalive message Notification Advantages and Disadvantages of BGP : « Loop free © Overcome count to infinity problem Suffers from huge size of forwarding table. 4.4 MULTICAST ROUTING There are three basic types of communication. © Unicasting e = Multicasting © Broadcasting Unicasting : This type of communication takes place between single source and destination (one to one). Each router forwards packet only to one of its interface, Destination Source Other node Other node Multicasting : It is the process of communication between single source and group of destination. (one to many) A multicast router sends copies of same datagram to more than one interface.pouting 4.29 Group of Source destination x Multicasting versus Multiple Unicasting Multicasting Multiple Unicasting () Single packet from source is |(j) Several packets starts from sender. duplicated by routers, (i) Destination address is same for all | (ii) Destination address is different. duplicates. Example : email to group. ¢ — Multicasting is more efficient than multiple unicasting. « — Inmulticasting there is no delay in packet sending but multiple unicasting falls with relative delay between packets. Applications of Multicasting ¢ Distributed database Information dissemination © Teleconferencing ¢ Distance learning Broadcast : Itis the process of communication between single source and multiple destination.oN Computer Networks 430 Basics of Multicasting : i of receipients. Itis the i ddress + Amutticast address defines group Multicast Addr single address (identifier) for a group (Ex ;)
[email protected]
Multicast addressing has (n+1) address. Where single source address (unicast) represent (or sends data to) multiple (n) destination address. (Ex:) Whatsapp. Multicast Address in IPV4 : In includes block of address for multicasting. Classful addressing has Class D for multicasting. Multicast Forwarding : « Asdestination address includes group of receivers, single identifier (address) can be used to represent the group. « — Forwarding destination depends on both source and destination address. ‘Two approaches in Multicasting : © — Source based tree approach. Each router creates separate tree for each group. If there are m groups and n sources, then there are m x n routing trees. © Group shared tree approach One router is designated as core router or rendezvous point and acts as representative for the group. This core router is responsible for multicasting. If there are m core routers (one for each group) and m trees, then the number of tree ism, when compared to m x n routing trees in source based tree approach. But this approach results with higher overhead. 4.4.1 Multicast Distance Vector - DVMRP Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol (DVMRP) is an extension of RIP for multicasting. The distance vector multicast routing protocol is multicast routing protocol that takes the routing decision based upon the source address of the packet. This algorithm constructs the routing tree fora network, ¢ Whenever a router receives a packet, it forwards it to some of its ports based on the source address of packet. e Router creates a multicast tree to forward multicast packet using the 3 steps:Router uses reve; h = © path forwardin, g (RPF) + to create opti te optimal source-baseq tree between source and itself — Router uses reverse path broadcasting (RPB) * tocreate a broadcast (spanni spanning) tre i i leavesareallnetworig nae i fo Toot is router itself and whose - Router uses reverse path multicasting (RPM) tocreate multicast {tee by cutting some branches of the tree that end in network with no member in the group. 1, Reverse Path Forwarding (RPF) « Inthis strategy, the router only forwards those packets that have traveled the shortest path from source to destination, « Toachieve this, the router pretends that it has a packet to send to the source from where the packet has arrived, In this way, the shortest path to the sender of the packet is computed. Ifthe same route is followed by the received packet, it is forwarded to the next router and it is discarded otherwise. The reverse path forwarding ensures that the network receives a copy of the packet without formation of loops. A loop occurs when a packet that has left the router may come back again from another interface or the same inferface and be forwarded again. e RPF does not guarantee that there would be no duplicate packets in the network i.e. the network may receive two or more copies. ® The reason for this is that the routing is based on the source address and not on the destination address. Reverse Path Broadcasting (RPB) * — Inorder to solve the problem, RPB is used. © Inthis method, one parent router is defined for each network. © Thenetwork could accept the multicast packets from this parent router only. * This router sends packets to those ports for which it is designated as parent. * Thus, RPB principle’ allows a router to broadcast the packet in the network. * This creates duplicate packets on the network and reduces the network efficiency.Computer Networks 432 3, Reverse Path Multicasting (RPM) « Toovercome the problem of broadcasting in RPB, Reverse Path Multicasting in used, In this the desired multicast network tree is created by using two different methods: Pruning and grafting. Arouter can send a prune message to its upstream router whenever it finds that its network is not interested in a multicast packet. In this way a router prunes (cuts) its network from multicasting. Ifa router receives prune message from all the downstream routers, it in turn, sends a prune message to its upstream router. e — Arouter can also send a graft message to its upstream router if it finds that its network is again interested in receiving the multicast packet. In this way, graft message forces the upstream router to resume sending the multicast message. The network is again grafted (joined). 4.4.2 PIM Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM) is a collection of multicast routing protocols that is used to send traffic from a single source to multiple destinations across a network, Multicast Forwarding Multicast uses RPF (Reverse Path Forwarding) to prevent flooding/loops within the network. The RPF check uses the routing table to check against the source IP within the packet. If the packet came in on an interface that is specified against the source of the multicast stream, the RPF check succeeds, otherwise, the RPF check fails and the packet is dropped. PIM Components In order for multicast traffic to be sent through a network, there are two key elements ~ state and the multicast Getribution tree. State {eo gel ie Sie 303% State is the information network devices must track in order for the router to know where it should send the traffic. State includes the component known as (S, G); $ (multicast source), G (multicast group). OF Course, state comes with a cost; in the event of state change, CPU and memory are required by the system to process the convergence. Therefore we typically we will find the more state that is held, the higher the convergence times are.pouting 4.33 pistribution Tree The Sores tree isa Path through the network used to distribute multicast taffic. There are two types of distribution trees - shortest path (also known as source tree) snd shared. source Distribution Tree The Shortest Path (Source) Distribution tree is, quite simply the shortest path from the source to the multicast group member. Because it represents an optimal path, a source distribution tree minimizes the latency in the network, At the same time, the multicast router must track all sources and maintain state information for each source. As a result, source trees can become a burden to the multicast router, especially as the number of sources grows. R, Ry Receiver Shared Distribution Tree Whereas source trees that have their root at the source, shared trees use a single Common root, called a Rendezvous Point (RP) as the root of the distribution tree. In this model, other routers do not need to know the addresses of the sources for ‘very multicast group. All they need to know is the IP address of the RP router. The RP ‘outer discovers the sources for all multicast groups. This means the overhead of finding = Multicast source from each router (S, G) is moved to the RP. The key benefits to shared °s is the reduction in resources required, as each router no longer needs to keep state of © multicast source. However, the downside is based on the location of the RP, the path Tom the receiver to the RP, may not present the most optimal path.Computer Networks 434 PIM Protocols There are two main PIM protocols, PIM Sparse Mode and PIM Dense Mode. A third PIM protocol, Bi-directional PIM, is less widely used. PIM Sparse Mode PIM Sparse Mode (PIM-SM) is a multicast routing protocol designed on the assumption that recipients for any particular multicast group will be sparsely distributed throughout the network. In order to receive multicast data, routers must explicitly tell their upstream neighbors about their interest in particular groups and sources. Routers use PIM Join and Prune messages to join and leave multicast distribution trees, (im-sm by default uses shared trees)shich are multicast distribution trees rooted at some selected node (in PIM, this router is éalled the Rendezvous Point, or RP) and used by all sources sending to the multicast group. To send to the RP, sources must encapsulate data in PIM control messages and send it by unicast to the RP. This is done by the source’s Designated Router (DR), which is a router.on the source’s local network. A single DR is elected from all PIM routers on a network, so that unnecessary control messages are not sent. PIM-SM also supports the use of source-based ted in which a separate multicast distribution tree is built for each source sending data to a mdlticast group. PIM-SM may use source-based trees in the following circumstances. ¢ For SSM, a last-hop router will join a source-based tree from the outset.outing » _ Toavoid data sent to an RP having to be encapsulated, the RP may join a source- based tree. 435 « To optimize the data path, a last-ho P router may choose to switch from the shared tree to a source-based tree, Y PIM-SM isa soft-state protocol. Thatis, all state is timed-out a while after receiving the control message that instantiated it. To keep the state alive, all PIM Join messages are periodically retransmitted. pIM Dense Mode PIM Dense Mode (PIM-DM) is a multicast routing protocol designed with the opposite assumption to PIM-SM, namely that the receivers for an y multicast group are distributed densely throughout the network. When a source first starts sending data, each router on the source’s LAN receives the data and forwards it to all its PIM neighbors and to all links with directly attached receivers forthe data. Each router that receives a forwarded packet also forwards it likewise, but only after checking that the packet arrived on its upstream interface. If not, the packet is dropped. This mechanism prevents forwarding loops from occurring. In this way, the data is flooded toall parts of the network. PEMI-DM only uses source-based trees. ‘As a result, it does not use RPs, which makes it siwpfer than PIM-SM to implement and deploy. It is an efficient protocol when most receivers are interested in the multicast data, but does not scale well across larger domains in which most receivers are not interested in the data. Bi-directional PIM. Bi-directional PIM (BIDIR-PIM) isa third PIM protocol, based on PIM-SM. BIDIR-PIM’s major differences from PIM-SM are as follows. * There are no source-based trees, and in fact no (S,G) state at all. Therefore there is no option for routers to switch from a shared tree to a source-based tree, and Source-Specific Multicast is not supported. To avoid forwarding loops, for each RP one router on each link is elected the Designated Forwarder (DF). This is done at RP discovery time using the DF election message. There is no concept of a Designated Router. No encapsulation is used. The forwarding rules are very much simpler than in PIM-SM, and there are no data-driven events in the control plane at all.4.36 | Computer Networks TWO MARKS QUESTION AND ANSWER What is routing? Routing is a process of selecting paths in a network through which network traffic js sent. What are routing protocols? Arouting protocol specifies how routers communicate with each other, distributing information that enables them to select routes between any two nodes on a computer network.[1] There are 4 main categories of routing protocols: Distance Vector (RIP) Link-state (OSPF, ISIS) Path Vector (BGP) Hybrid (EIGRP) What are the metrics used in determining the best path for a routing protocol? . Bandwidth * Delay Load Reliability Cost . . . ° Hop count What is multicasting? Multicasting is the delivery of information to a group of destinations simultaneously using the most efficient strategy to deliver the messages over each link of the network only once. Define RIP. RIP is a dynamic protocol used for finding the best route or path from ene-to-end over a network by using a routing metric/ hop count algorithm. What is OSPF? OSPF protocol is a router protocol used within larger autonomous system networks in preference to the Routing Information Protocol (RIP). Its features are: Authentication of routing messages, Additional hierarchy and Load balancing. What are the different kinds of multicast routing? e DVMRP e PIM | |oti 437 8 % MSDP MOSPF ._MBGP Write the types of PIM, « PIM Sparse mode + PIMDense mode « _ Bidirectional PIM + Source Specific Multicast (SM) How can the routing be classified? The routing can be classified as: Adaptive routing and Non-adaptive routing. , What is unicast routing? Unicast routing is the process of forwarding unicasted traffic from‘a source to a destination on an internetwork. Unicasted traffic is destined fora unique address. . What is BGP and why it is used? BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) is the protocol underlying the global routing system ofthe internet, It manages how packets get routed from network to network through the exchange of routing and reachability information among edge routers What is the difference between distance vector and path vector routing? Ina path vector protocol, a router does not just receive the distance vector for a particular destination from its neighbor; instead, a node receives the distance as well as path information (aka BGP path attributes), that the node can use to calculate (via the BGP path selection process) how traffic is routed to the destination. . What is Distance-Vector Routing? The distance vector (DV) protocol is the oldest routing protocol in practice. With distance vector routes are advertised based upon the following characteristics: Distance - How far the destination network is based upon a metric such as hop count. Vector - The direction (next-hop router or egress interface) required to get to the destination. |. What is RIP protocol and how it works? RIP uses a distance vector algorithm to decide which path to put a packet on to get to its destination. Each RIP router maintains a routing table, which is a list of all the destinations the router knows how to reach. Each router broadcasts its entire routing table to its closest neighbors every 30 seconds,
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