UNIT V

Proof Reading

Definitions
The proof-reader’s job is to check for typographical and punctuation errors, as well as
ensuring that the publisher’s preferences regarding the layout and general appearance of the
text have been correctly applied.

The key thing to remember is that the document in question is the final version prior
to printing or delivery and that usually only minor changes are permitted.

Proofreading is the final stage of the editing process, focusing on surface errors
such as misspellings and mistakes in grammar and punctuation.

Proofreading is an activity undertaken by professional proof-readers, but it is also a

task performed in a variety of desk-based roles on an everyday or occasional basis by
individuals who are not necessarily formally trained in proofreading. There is a clear
organisational and professional interest in understanding the conditions that affect proof-
reader’s performance and experiences of this task.

A broader definition is also often used that identifies proofreading as a task

involving the checking of content, factuality, sentence structure, spelling and logic of
writing. In this broader sense, and throughout this report, proofreading is understood as an
activity that checks for two types of errors: spelling and related errors, but also semantic and
contextual errors. Detecting this second type of error requires memory of previous parts of
the text, interpretation of meaning, and integration of different parts of the text.

Guidelines for Proof-reading

Some of the guidelines to be observed for proof-reading are given below:

 Read everything in the draft from the beginning to the end.

 Reading aloud or listening to the draft read aloud by someone else helps to see and
hear errors a writer may miss when reading silently to themselves.
 Making the document look different on the screen or on the page (changing font, size,
and formatting) helps to read what is actually written and not what a writer meant to
write.
 Printing out a hard copy also gives the writer a different visual format, which may
help with identifying issues that could be missed when reading on a computer screen.
 Using a ruler or a blank sheet of paper and placing it under each line being proofread
can help give the eyes a manageable amount of text to focus on.
 One should have complete knowledge of the use of Proof-Reading Symbols/Signs.
 Do not forget to run the Spelling Check and Grammar Check at the end.
 Read the final document carefully before submission to the Officer to ensure that no
correction of error is left out.
 Be judicious in regard to the spellings in the document. Do not follow the spellings
blindly as the Computer gives the spellings from its own dictionary.
 Before submitting the final proof either to the Officer or to the Printing Press, it
should be in its final form being typed in double-line-spacing on one side of the paper.
 The corrections, alterations, additions should be marked with ink, not pencil. The ink
should have a different colour from the one used by the printer.
 To attract instant attention and for clarity, all corrections should be marked on the left
hand margin of the proof.
 All insertions of more than one line should be typed on separate pages.
 If the insertions are on separate pages, they should be numbered consecutively and on
the margin of the proof should be indicated where each item is to be inserted e.g.
―Insert at ―A‖, etc.
 Ensure that your project report follows a consistent formatting style—headings,
subheadings, and bullet points will make it easier to read.
 Put your initials on the copy you have proofread.
Typographical error

A typographical error often shortened to typo, also called a misprint, is a mistake such
as a spelling mistake made in the typing of printed or electronic material.

Historically, this referred to mistakes in manual type-setting (typography). Technically,

the term includes errors due to mechanical failure or slips of the hand or finger, but excludes
errors of ignorance, such as spelling errors, or changing and misuse of words such as "than"
and "then".

Before the arrival of printing, the copyist's mistake or scribal error was the equivalent
for manuscripts. Most typos involve simple duplication, omission, transposition, or substitution
of a small number of characters.

Fat finger or fat-finger syndrome (especially in the financial sector) is a slang term
referring to an unwanted secondary action when typing. When a finger is bigger than the touch
zone, with touchscreens or keyboards, there can be inaccuracy and one may hit two keys in a
single keystroke.

An example is buckled instead of bucked, due to the "L" key being next to the "K" key
on the QWERTY keyboard, the most common keyboard for Latin-script alphabets.

We humans are prone to typing errors. Despite all our best efforts at integrity
constraints, we are still at the mercy of simple typos. The typographical error is the hardest
error to detect because we rarely know about it until someone finds it. The fix is usually easy:
edit the data and replace the error with the correct values. However, determining how the error
occurred is even tougher than finding the source of missing rows.

A common cause of typos remaining undetected is the way that we read. We skim
through the text at high speed and pick up the meaning as we go. We barely look at individual
words. The old saying, "You can't see the wood for the trees" could easily be changed to, "You
can't see the words for the text" because it describes the situation pretty well. When it's our own
writing, we skim even faster because we already know the meaning of the text. That's fine for
checking our writing at a higher level. We can feel how it flows and can check if the ideas and
facts come across logically, etc. However, it's useless for spotting typos.

For low-level checking, i.e., typos and similar mistakes, we need to force ourselves to
look at the words individually. Reading aloud certainly helps. It's a lot slower than silently
skimming through the text. Individual words become more visible and typos stand out more
noticeably. You don't need to read aloud, though. You can make a point of reading slowly
enough to hear each word in your head while you're seeing the word. At this low level of
checking, the actual text isn't so important; only the words are.

Read the text backward. The meaning of the text is completely lost. You've no choice
but to see the words individually, and typos have nowhere to hide. Unlike normal reading,
there's no temptation to start skimming because the backward text is meaningless at any speed.
But moderately slow and mindful forward reading is just as effective and a lot less boring.\

To avoid typographical errors in project writing:

1. Plan and outline:

* Organize your thoughts and structure your content.
* Create a clear outline to guide your writing.

2. Write in stages:
* Break your writing into smaller tasks.
* Focus on content, then grammar, and finally spelling.

3. Use clear headings and subheadings:

* Label sections and subsections clearly.
* Use consistent formatting throughout.

4. Proofread in passes:
* Review content for clarity and accuracy.
* Check grammar, punctuation, and spelling separately.
5. Use style guides and templates:
* Follow established style guides (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).
* Utilize templates for consistency in formatting.

6. Edit and revise:

* Review your work critically.
* Make revisions and edits as needed.

7. Get feedback:
* Ask peers or mentors to review your work.
* Incorporate feedback and suggestions.

8. Use language tools:

* Utilize grammar and spell checkers.
* Consider using language editing software.

9. Take breaks and revisit:

* Step away from your writing to clear your mind.
* Revisit your work with fresh eyes.

10. Final check:

* Perform a thorough final review.
* Double-check for errors before submission.

Bibliography
When you’re researching a paper, you’ll likely consult a wide variety of sources. You may
quote some of these directly in your work, summarize some of the points they make, or simply
use them to further the knowledge you need to write your paper. Since these ideas are not your
own, it’s vital to give credit to the authors who originally wrote them. This list of sources,
organized alphabetically, is called a bibliography.

A bibliography should include all the materials you consulted in your research, even if you
don’t quote directly from them in your paper. These resources could include (but aren’t limited
to):

 Books and e-books

 Periodicals like magazines or newspapers

 Online articles or websites

 Videos

 Primary source documents like letters or official records

Bibliography vs. References

These two terms are sometimes used interchangeably, but they actually have different
meanings. As noted above, a bibliography includes all the materials you used while researching
your paper, whether or not you quote from them or refer to them directly in your writing.

A list of references only includes the materials you cite throughout your work. You might use
direct quotes or summarize the information for the reader. Either way, you must ensure you
give credit to the original author or document. This section can be titled ―List of Works Cited‖
or simply ―References.‖

Your teacher may specify whether you should include a bibliography or a reference list. If they
don’t, consider choosing a bibliography to show all the works you used in researching your
paper. This can help the reader see that your points are well supported and allow them to do
further reading on their own if they’re interested.

How to write a bibliography

 Create a reference list. Reserve a page at the end of the paper for the bibliography. Title
it "References." Under this heading, you’ll list everything you’ve used in the paper.

 Sort all of your references alphabetically by last name. You should use the author’s full
last name and then their first and middle (if available) initials. If there is more than one
author, list the authors in the order they appear on the source, alphabetizing the source
in your reference list by the first author’s last name.

For example, if the author's name for a source is "John Adams Smith," you would list
him as "Smith, J.A.," before listing the title of his piece.

 Use ellipses if there are more than seven authors. List the first seven authors of the
source, and then use an ellipses (a series of three periods). After the ellipses, write the
name of the last author listed on the source.

For example, if one source has twelve authors, and the seventh author is "Smith, J.A." and the
twelfth is "Timothy, S.J.," you would list the first six authors, then write "Smith, J.A.
...Timothy, S.J."

 List sources by the same author is chronological order. Depending on the type of paper
you’re writing, you might have multiple sources by the same author. Start with the
source published first and list the rest of the sources chronologically.
 Use the information you have if you don’t have an author. Sometimes a source might be
published by an organization, like the American Medical Association, or it might not
have an author at all. If an organization is the author, write out the name of the
organization. If there’s no author, begin with the title of the source.

For example, if you have a World Health Organization Report without an author as one of your
sources, you would write, "World Health Organization, "Report on Development Strategies in
Developing Nations," July 1996."
  Indent each line after the first line of each source. If your source takes up more than one
line, you’ll need to indent each succeeding line 0.5 inches (1.25 cm). When you move
to the next source, start at the original margin of the paper.
 Cite articles. Articles are cited with the author's name, followed by the year, then the
title of the article, the name of the publication in italics, the volume and issue number (if
available), and the group of pages referenced. The format is as follows: Author, A. A.,
& Author, B. B. (Year). "Title of article." Title of Journal, volume number(issue
number), pages.

For example, an article citation might look like this: Jensen, O. E. (2012). "African Elephants."
Savannah Quarterly, 2(1), 88.

If the periodical the article comes from always begins with page number 1 (these types of
periodicals are called ―paginated by issue‖ periodicals, you should include the full page range
of the article.

If the article was retrieved online, end the citation with the words "Retrieved from" followed by
the web address.

 Cite books. Start with the author's name, followed by the publication year, the title of
the book in italics, the location of the publisher, and finally the name of the publisher.
The format is as follows: Author, A. A. (Year). Title of book. Location: Publisher.

Example: Worden, B. L. (1999). Echoing Eden. New York, New York: One Two Press.

 If the title is more than one word long and doesn’t contain any proper nouns, only the
first word should be capitalized. Only the first letter of any subtitle should be
capitalized as well.
 Cite websites. Include the author's name, the complete date, the title of the web page,
and the words "retrieved from" followed by the web address. The format is as follows:
Author, A. A. (Year, Month day). Title of web page/document. Retrieved from
https://URL to specific page.

For example, a cited website might look like this: Quarry, R. R. (May 23, 2010). Wild Skies.
Retrieved from https://wildskies.com.

If no author is available, just start with the title. If no date is available, write "n.d."

 Check a reliable source for other citation rules. APA has a lot of rules for citing sources
in your reference list. If you’re working with things like movies, project reports, online
periodicals, or other sources, use a reliable source. Purdue University’s OWL (Online
Writing Lab) website is a great resource.

Font
Choosing the right font for your academic project is crucial for several reasons:

1. Readability

 A clear, legible font ensures that your content is easily readable, even in smaller sizes.
  Good readability reduces eye strain and makes your work more accessible.

2. Professionalism

 A suitable font conveys a level of professionalism and seriousness, essential for

academic work.

 It demonstrates attention to detail and respect for the reader.

3. Consistency

 A consistent font throughout the project maintains a cohesive look and feel.

 It helps to organize and structure your content.

4. Clarity of Message

 A well-chosen font ensures that your message is communicated clearly and effectively.

 It avoids distractions and focuses the reader's attention on the content.

5. Adherence to Guidelines

 Many academic institutions have specific font requirements.

 Using the recommended font ensures that you meet these guidelines.

6. Visual Hierarchy

 Fonts can be used to create a visual hierarchy, guiding the reader through the content.

 Headings, subheadings, and body text can be distinguished using different fonts or font
sizes.

7. Accessibility

 Choosing a font that is accessible to readers with visual impairments is essential.

 Fonts with clear letterforms and sufficient spacing can make a significant difference.

By selecting an appropriate font, you can ensure that your academic project is presented in a
clear, professional, and readable manner, making a positive impact on the reader.

Choosing a font for your undergraduate project report can be a bit overwhelming, but here are
some tips to help you make the right choice:

Serif vs Sans Serif

 Serif fonts (e.g., Times New Roman, Garamond, Georgia) are traditional and suitable
for academic writing. They have small lines at the ends of the strokes that make up the
letters, which can aid readability in print.
  Sans Serif fonts (e.g., Arial, Calibri, Helvetica) are modern and clean. They don't have
the small lines at the ends of the strokes, making them suitable for digital screens.

Font Characteristics

 Legibility: Choose a font that is easy to read, even in smaller sizes.

 Consistency: Select a font that has consistent spacing and design throughout.

 Formality: Opt for a font that conveys a level of formality suitable for an academic
document.

Recommended Fonts

 Times New Roman (12-point) - A classic, traditional choice.

 Garamond (12-point) - A elegant, serif font.

 Calibri (12-point) - A modern, sans-serif font.

 Georgia (12-point) - A clear, serif font suitable for both print and digital.

Remember

 Check your university's guidelines for font requirements.

 Use a single font throughout the project report, except for headings or titles, where you
can use a complementary font.

 Avoid using fonts that are too ornate or difficult to read.

SPACING
 Proper spacing is crucial in academic project report writing for several reasons:

 1. Readability

 Adequate spacing between lines, paragraphs, and sections enhances readability.

 It reduces visual clutter, making the content easier to comprehend.

 2. Organization

 Spacing helps to organize and structure the content, distinguishing between:

 Headings and subheadings

 Body text and supporting material (e.g., tables, figures)

 Different sections and subsections

 3. Visual Hierarchy
 Spacing creates a visual hierarchy, guiding the reader through the content.

 It emphasizes important information and separates less important details.

 4. Professionalism

 Consistent spacing throughout the report conveys a professional and polished image.

 It demonstrates attention to detail and respect for the reader.

 5. Accessibility

 Proper spacing can aid readers with visual impairments or dyslexia.

 It makes the content more accessible and easier to understand.

 6. Clarity of Message

 Spacing helps to clarify the message by:

 Separating key points and ideas

 Emphasizing important information

 Reducing cognitive overload

 Best Practices

 Use double spacing or 1.5 spacing for body text.

 Leave a blank line between paragraphs.

 Use consistent spacing throughout the report.

 Adjust spacing for headings, subheadings, and supporting material as needed.

 By incorporating proper spacing in your academic project report writing, you can
enhance readability, organization, and overall effectiveness, making your content more
engaging and accessible to your audience.

Selecting the right spacing for your project report is crucial for readability, organization,
and overall presentation. Here's a step-by-step guide to help you choose the appropriate
spacing:

1. Check University Guidelines

 Consult your university's project report guidelines for specific spacing requirements.

 Ensure you meet the recommended spacing standards.

2. Body Text Spacing

 Typically, double spacing (24-28 points) or 1.5 spacing (18-22 points) is used for body
text.
  This allows for easy reading and commenting.

3. Heading and Subheading Spacing

 Use larger font sizes and bold formatting for headings (e.g., 14-18 points).

 Add extra spacing before headings (e.g., 12-18 points) to create visual hierarchy.

 Use smaller font sizes and italic formatting for subheadings (e.g., 10-14 points).

4. Paragraph Spacing

 Leave a blank line (12-18 points) between paragraphs to create a clear visual break.

 Use indentation (0.5-1 inch) instead of extra spacing between paragraphs.

5. Line Spacing

 Use consistent line spacing throughout the report.

 Avoid using very tight (less than 18 points) or very loose (more than 30 points) line
spacing.

6. Section and Subsection Spacing

 Use extra spacing (e.g., 24-36 points) before section headings to create a clear visual
break.

 Use smaller spacing (e.g., 12-18 points) before subsection headings.

7. Table, Figure, and Image Spacing

 Leave sufficient spacing (e.g., 12-18 points) above and below tables, figures, and
images.

 Use captions and labels to explain visual elements.

8. Consistency

 Apply consistent spacing throughout the report.

 Use a style guide (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago) to ensure uniformity.

Checking Tables and Illustrations

Using Tables
A table is a collection of information expressed in numbers or words and presented in columns and
rows. It shows the data that result from the interaction of an independent and a dependent variable.
An independent variable is the topic itself. The dependent variable is the type of information you
discover about the topic (White, Graphic). In a table of weather conditions, the independent
variable, or topic, is the months. The dependent variables are the factors that describe weather in
 any month: average temperature, average precipitation, and whatever else you might want to
compare. The data—and the point of the table—are the facts that appear for each month.

When to Use a Table

Because tables present the results of research in complete detail, they generally contain a large
amount of information. For this reason, professional and expert audiences grasp tables more quickly
than do nonexperts. When your audience knows the topic well, use tables to do the following.

1. To present all the numerical data so that the audience can see the context of the relationships you
point out

2. To compare many numbers or features (and eliminate the need for lengthy prose explanations) In
the text, you should add any explanation that the audience needs to understand the data in the table.

Parts and Guidelines

Tables have conventional parts: a caption that contains the number and title, rules, column heads,
data, and notes, as shown in Figure 7.2. The following guidelines will help you use these parts
correctly (based in part on Publication).

1. Number tables consecutively throughout a report with Arabic numerals in the order of their
appearance. Put the number and title above the table. Use the ―double-number‖ method (e.g.,
―Table 6.3‖) only in long reports that contain chapters.

2. Use the table title to identify the main point of the table. Write brief but informative titles. Do not
place punctuation after the title.

3. Use horizontal rules to separate parts of the table. Place a rule above and below the column heads
and below the last row of data. Seldom use vertical rules to separate columns; use white space
instead. If the report is more informal, use fewer or no rules.

4. Use a spanner head to characterize the column headings below it. Spanners eliminate repetition in
column heads.

5. Arrange the data into columns and rows. Put the topics you want to compare (the independent
variables) down the left side of the table in the stub column. Put the factors of comparison (the
dependent variables) across the top in the column headings. Remember that columns are easier to
compare than rows.

6. Place explanatory comments below the bottom rule. Introduce these comments with the word Note.
Use specific notes to clarify portions of a table. Indicate them by raised (superscript) lowercase
letters within the table and at the beginning of each note.

7. Cite the source of the data unless the data were obviously collected specifically for the paper. List
the sources you used, whether primary or secondary.

Using Illustrations
Illustrations, usually photographs or drawings of objects, are often used in sets of instructions and
manuals.
Guidelines
There are two basic guidelines for using illustrations.

1. Use high-quality illustrations. Make sure they are clear, large enough to be effective, and set off by
plenty of white space.

2. Keep the illustrations as simple as possible. Show only items essential to your discussion.

Use an illustration

1. To help explain points in the text

2. To help readers remember a topic

3. To avoid lengthy discussions (A picture of a complex part is generally more helpful than a lengthy
description.)

4. To ―give the reader permission‖ (A visual of a computer screen duplicates what is obviously visible
before the user, but gives the user permission to believe his or her perception. It reassures the
reader.)

Photographs

A good photograph offers several advantages: It is memorable and easy to refer to, it duplicates the
item discussed (so audiences can be sure they are looking at what is being discussed), and it shows
the relationships among various parts. The disadvantages are that it reduces a three-dimensional
reality to two dimensions and that it shows everything, thus emphasizing nothing.

Use photographs to provide a general introduction or to orient a reader to the object. In manuals, for
instance, writers often present a photograph of the object on the first page.

Drawings
Drawings, whether made by computer or by hand, can clearly represent an item and its relationship
to other items. Use drawings to eliminate unnecessary details so that your reader can focus on what
is important.

Two commonly used types of drawings are the exploded view and the detail drawing.
Detail Drawings
Detail drawings are renditions of particular parts or assemblies. Drawings have two common uses in
manuals and sets of instructions.

1. They function much as an uncluttered, well-focused, cropped photograph, showing just the items
that the writer wishes.

2. They show cross-sections; that is, they can cut the entire assembled object in half, both exterior and
interior. (In technical terms, the object is cut at right angles to its axis.) A cross-sectional view
 shows the size and the relationship of all the parts. Two views of the same object—front and side
views, for example—are often juxtaposed to give the reader an additional perspective on the object .

Oral presentation
Presenting a Report Orally
Giving a presentation to a foreign or non-English-speaking audience is easier if you give some
thought to relating to an audience whose culture is not your own. A key idea for your planning is
that although English is commonly studied as a second language, ―English proficiency within a
given audience can vary widely, so the best approach is to simplify and clarify content at every
turn‖.

In order to simplify and clarify content, follow these tips:

Use simple sentences, make clear transitions, avoid digressions, reduce use of potentially confusing
pronouns, restate key points, pause periodically, use subject–verb– object word order, repeat
phrases using the exact wording. If you call it a ―plan‖ the first time, continue to use that word;
don’t switch to ―proposal‖ or ―map‖ or ―vision‖

Also, be aware that the international audience’s reaction to you may differ greatly from what you are
used to. For example, in Japan, it is not unusual for audience members to close their eyes in order to
convey concentration and attentiveness, while in the United States closed eyes are a sign that you
are lulling the audience to sleep.

Applause is a generally universal sign of approval, but whistling in Europe is a negative reaction to
your presentation. Finally, know that other cultures have a different sense of acceptable personal
space than Americans have. Middle Easterners and Latin Americans tend to stand much closer than
Americans find comfortable, while many Asian cultures stand quite far away from each other. Keep
this in mind if you have others onstage with you or if you will be going into the audience for your
presentation.

Be aware of body language conventions. Hand gestures that are accepted in the United States, such
as the A-OK symbol (the circle formed with your index finger and thumb), or the thumbs-up
gesture, are considered obscene in some countries. Pointing with a finger can be impolite; use a
fully extended hand. In some countries, emphatic gestures are poorly received. Body language that
is unwittingly offensive can cause an audience to focus on what is inappropriate and lose the
content of your presentation

Plan for differences in technology. Bring pictures of the equipment that you will need during your
presentation. Bring a voltage converter. Remember that many countries have differently sized
standard paper and may use a two-hole instead of a three-hole punch. Most importantly, have a
backup plan and keep a sense of humor.

Worksheet for Preparing an Oral Presentation

Identify your audience.

• What is your listeners’ level of knowledge about the topic?

• What is their level of interest in the entire speech?

• Why are they attending?

• What do they need?

Create an outline showing the main point and sub points.

• Which strategy will best help the audience? Problem solution? Narrative? IMRD?

• Assign a time limit to each point.

Create a storyboard.

• What visual aid will illustrate each point most effectively?

• Decide whether you need any kind of projection or display equipment. Laptop? LCD projector?
Flip chart?

Review the speaking location.

• Do you know how to make your technology (laptop, disk, projector) interact with the technology
resident at the site?

• Determine your relationship to the slides. Will they be foreground or background for you?

• Prepare clearly written note cards—with just a few points on each.

• Rehearse the speech several times, including how you will actually handle the technology.

Techniques for oral presentation

Here are some techniques to help you deliver a confident and effective oral presentation of your
project report:

1. Prepare Thoroughly

 Know your content inside out.

 Practice your presentation several times.

2. Focus on Key Messages

 Identify the main points you want to convey.

 Emphasize your research's significance and contributions.

3. Use Visual Aids

 Create clear, concise slides that support your message.

 Use images, charts, and graphs to illustrate complex concepts.

4. Engage Your Audience

  Make eye contact with your audience.

 Vary your tone, pitch, and pace to maintain interest.

5. Use Storytelling Techniques

 Share your research journey and experiences.

 Use anecdotes to illustrate key points.

6. Handle Questions Confidently

 Anticipate potential questions.

 Prepare clear, concise responses.

7. Practice with Feedback

 Rehearse your presentation with peers or mentors.

 Incorporate feedback to improve your delivery.

8. Use Positive Body Language

 Maintain good posture and confident gestures.

 Use facial expressions to convey enthusiasm.

9. Speak Clearly and Slowly

 Enunciate your words clearly.

 Avoid rushing through your presentation.

10. Stay Calm and Focused

 Take deep breaths to manage nerves.

 Concentrate on your message and audience.

By incorporating these techniques into your oral presentation, you'll effectively communicate your
research and confidently defend your project report.