UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL &

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
REVITALISATION PROJECT-PHASE II

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN
SCIENCE LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY

THERMODYNAMICS AND
ELECTROMAGNETISM
COURSE CODE: STP 212

YEAR 2- SE MESTER I

PRACTICAL

Version 1: December 2008.

1
TABLE OF CONTENT

WEEK 1
Verification of the First Law of Thermodynamics

WEEK 2
The ratio of the principal specific heat capacities of a gas by Clement and
Desormes’ method to cycle pump oil manometer

WEEK 3
Measurement of Current Using Simple Current Balance

WEEK 4
Investigation of Magnetic Intensity Outside a Long Straight Wire

WEEK 5
Measurement of Magnetic Field Strength Using a Search Coil

WEEK 6
Investigation of Lenz’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

WEEK 7
Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

WEEK 8
Investigation of Capacitance in A.C. Circuits

WEEK 9
Investigation of Inductance in A.C. Circuits

WEEK 10
Investigation of Series Resonance Circuit

WEEK 11
A.C. Circuit with inductance and resistance

WEEK 12
Determination of the Inductance and Resistance of an Inductive
Coil by Voltmeter Measurements
 WEEK 1

VERIFICATION OF THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Aim: To demonstrate the relationship between heat and work

Apparatus: Insulated vessel, paddle, a known weight, water, thermometer and a metre-rule,
string and a pulley.

Procedure: Place a paddle into the insulated vessel provided. Using the string provided
wound the string on a paddle and pass it over the pulley. Attach the known weight
at the end of the strong. Using a metre rule measure a height h = 1m over which
the mass will fall. Record the initial temperature of the water before starting.
Calculate the amount of work done by the falling object using work done = mgh.
Note the final temperature of water in the vessel. Repeat the experiment using
fresh water and find the average rise in temperature.

Result: Mass of solid = Ms kg

Initial temperature = 1 0C
Height of fall of solid = h/m
Final temperature of water = 2
Volume of water in the vessel = V
Density of water  = 1000kg/m3
Rise in temperature of water = (2 - 1) 0C

Heat gained by water = mass of water x specific heat

capacity x rise in temperature

= mc (2 - 1)
Theory: If the first law of thermodynamics is obeyed, work done by solid in falling = Heat
gained by water
i.e mwc ((2 - 1) = msgh (1)
where mw = mass of water
ms = mass of solid
g = acceleration due to gravity.
Where mass of water = density of water x volume
= 1000 V kg.
 WEEK 2

The ratio of the principal specific heat capacities of a gas by Clement and Desormes’
method to cycle pump oil manometer

Apparatus: A large glass or metal vessel (e.g. an old acid carboy or a 2 gallon petrol tin)
provided with a good rubber bung and surrounded by insulating material (closely
packed cotton wool, straw, carpet underlay or even paper). The rubber bung is
bored to take
(1) a glass tube A to which a bicycle pump is connected by rubber tubing and
a clip C,
(2) a glass tube B leading to an oil or sulphuric acid manometer,
(3) a wide glass tube W fitted with a stop-cock S or rubber stopper.

All the connections to the apparatus must be well fitting and greased so that the
apparatus is air-tight.

Method: Pour a little concentrated sulphuric acid into the vessel and then assemble the
apparatus as shown in the diagram.

Close the stop-cock S to the wide tube (or insert the rubber bung) to seal off the
air inside the vessel and pump in air by means of the bicycle pump until an excess
pressure of about 10 cm of oil is registered on the manometer. Close the clip C
and leave the apparatus for about 15 minutes until the temperature of the air inside
the vessel, which heated up during the pumping process, has regained the
temperature of its surroundings. This point is reached when the manometer levels
are seen to be steady. (If they do not become steady there is a leak somewhere
which must be located and sealed.) When the manometer levels are steady, read
and record them.
 Open stop-cock S for about 1 second and close it again. (If a rubber stopper is
used it should be replaced as quickly as possible because the operation bf
loosening it from the tube to remove it will have taken up at least a second.)

The apparatus is again left until the temperature of the air remaining in the vessel,
which has cooled because of its adiabatic expansion on opening the stop-cock,
regains the temperature of its surroundings. When the manometer levels become
steady once more, read and record them.

If time permits repeat the experiment with a different initial pressure in the vessel.
Manometer levels
At room temperature before At room temperature after adiabatic
adiabatic expansion expansion y =
Left-hand Right- Difference Left-hand Right- Difference h1
limb/mm hand h1/mm limb/mm hand h2/mm h1  h 2
limb/mm limb/mm

Experimental details:
Note the precautions taken to ensure that the air inside the apparatus is dry-
concentrated sulphuric acid inside the vessel and oil or sulphuric acid in the
manometer.

Theory: Consider the air left inside the vessel immediately after the adiabatic expansion
has taken place. Its volume is V, the volume of the vessel, and its pressure the
atmospheric pressure p0. Originally, i.e. just before the adiabatic expansion took
place, this mass of air was at room temperature occupying a smaller volume v and
its pressure was a higher pressure P1. Because the expansion from (p1, v) to (p0, v)
is adiabatic
 p1v = p0V
cp
where  is the ratio of the principal specific heat capacities namely, . .
cv
After the adiabatic expansion the stop-cock is closed, the volume of this mass of
air remains the same, its temperature rises to room temperature and its pressure
becomes P2.

The change from conditions (p1, v) to (p2, V) is thus isothermal

 p1v = p2V
From (1) and (2)
 
p1  V   p1 
   
p0  v   p 2 
But p1 = p0 + h1pg and p2 = p0 + h2pg
Where  is the density of the oil in the manometer.

p0  h 1 pg  p1  h 1 pg 
  
cv  0
p  h 2 pg 

 h g 
 1 1 
h g  p0 
 1 1 
p0  h 2 g

1 
 p0 

 1
h g  h g 
or  1 2  1  1 
p0  p0 

Expanding both sides by the binomial theorem and neglecting the squares and
higher powers of
h2 g h g
and 1 9since both < 1).
p0 p0

h 2 g  h g 
1    - 1 1  1 
p0  p0 

from which

h1
 = (3)
h1  h2
 WEEK 3

Measurement of Current Using Simple Current Balance

Aim: To compare the current of the source with that from current balance.

Apparatus: A simple current balance, rheostat, ammeter, d.c. source, standard masses and
key.

Diagram:

Method: Connect the simple current balance in series with key rheostat and ammeter and
d.c. source using the rheostat pass a known current of about 2A.
Move the rider until the pointer is restored to its initial position.
Record the mass and calculate the force F in Newton. Measure the length of the
frame wire xy and record it as l.

Theory: Using the principle of moments, we can find an expression for I. to restore
balance, moment due to force F = moment due to the shift of the rider
 F x d = mgx
The flux density B is related to current by
B = 0nI
Since F = BIl
F = (0nI) Il
= 0nI2l

F
 I =
0 nl
Result : F = mg N
Current from the source = I1 A
Current from the current balance = I2 A

Conclusion: Is current I1 equal to I2?

 WEEK 4

Investigation of Magnetic Intensity Outside a Long Straight Wire

Apparatus
200 cm. of copper wire XY, reversing switch S, deflection magnetometer M, rheostat R,
accumulator C, ammeter A (0-5 A), long leads L, L’, two wooden clamps, traveling microscope,
half- COP metre rule.

Diagram:

Method
Place the magnetometer M in the centre of a large bench, and align it so that the pointer reads 0°.
Arrange the long wire XY in the NS direction above the magnetometer. The wire may be fixed by
tape to a wooden lath. Connect the ends of this wire by long leads L, L’ to the reversing switch S,
and join the rheostat R, accumulator C, and ammeter A to the input terminals of S. The ammeter
ensures that excessive current is not drawn from the accumulator, and checks that the current
remains RC constant.

1
Place the wire X Y at a distance from the magnetometer not more than of the length of the
16
wire. If this is done, the error due to the wire not being ‘infinitely’ long is less than 1 %. Make
that the rest of the circuit is well away from M, owing to their magnetic effects.

Adjust the current to about 2 – 3 A, and verify that the deflection of M is at least 15°. Make sure
Point, that the wire is horizontal and measure the distance d from the centre of the wire to the top
surface of the magnetometer cover glass. Read the deflection 6° at both ends of the pointer,
reverse the current, and again read both ends. Decrease the distance d in steps of about 1cm, and
repeat the four readings of  for each value of d, keeping the current constant.

Use a travelling microscope to measure the distance x from the magnetometer cover glass to the
needle, and add this correction to the measured distances d.
Measurements

Deflection 1
,, 2
,, 3
,, 4
Average 
cot 
Distance d (cm)
Corrected distance r (cm)

Correction x = . . . cm.

Since H  tan , a graph of 1/r may be plotted against tan , (i). However, if r was varied in
equal steps the points will ‘gather together’ at one end of the scale; this may be avoided by
plotting r against cot . If the correction x is not applied to r, this graph will have an intercept - x
on the r-axis.

Conclusion
The graph found is consistent with the relation . . .

Errors
1. There will be error in reading the value of d; also the wire may sag.
2. Estimate the error in  from the variations in the readings. Find the variations in cot 
used by these changes in , from tables.

Order Of Accuracy Of Graph

Draw vertical and horizontal lines through each plotted point, as shown exaggeratedly. (ii), their
lengths being equal to the estimated errors in r and cot  respectively. If a straight line can be
drawn, passing through the origin, which intersects each arm of each ‘cross’ at some point, then
the plotted points are consistent with the relationship r  cot .
 WEEK 5

Measurement of Magnetic Field Strength Using a Search Coil

Aim: To determine the magnetic field strength using a search coil

Apparatus: A search coil of know number of turns and area, horse shoe magnet, resistance
box and a ballistic galvanometer.

Diagram:

Method: Connect the search coil in series with a rheostat and a ballistic galvanometer as
shown in diagram above. Place the search coil so that it is at right angles to the
field lines. Suddenly remove the search coil from the magnet and note the
deflection of the beam on both sides of the zero position.
Repeat this experiment a number of times and obtain the average defection  and
record your result.

Theory: If the ballistic galvanometer is calibrated so that its charge sensitivity is known,
the charge passed by the search coil can be calculated.
i.e Q = k
where Q = induced charge
 = first throw
k = charge per unit deflection.

To calculate the magnetic field strength B from the induced charge, we use the
Faraday’s law. The induced e.m.f. is given by

E = change of flux linkage through the coil

Time taken for the charge

The initial flux through each turn of the coil is B x A. where A is the coil area.
The initial flux linkage through the coil is Ban. The final flux linkage through the
coil is zero. Hence
E = BAn/t
 The induced current I = induced e.m.f. _
Circuit resistance R
 I = BAn / Rt
However the induced charge Q = It
Therefore Q = BAn/R
B = QR
An
Where B = magnetic field strength
Q = induced charge
A = area of search coil
n = number of turns in search coil

Result: From the experiment record Q, A, R and n and calculate the magnetic field
strength.
 WEEK 6

Investigation of Lenz’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

Aim: To investigate the Lenz’s law of Electromagnetic Induction

Apparatus: Coil AB of several hundred turns, strong bar magnet M, compass F, galvanometer
G, battery C, key K, rheostat R, short length of resistance wire S.

Diagram:

Method:
1. Connect the galvanometer G to the coil AB (Fig. above (i)). Identify the N
pole of the magnet M, using the compass P. Hold the N pole of the magnet
near one end A of the coil, and push it smartly into the coil. Note the
direction (left or right) in which the galvanometer first swings. Withdraw
the magnet, and verify that the swing is now in the other direction.
2. Without otherwise altering the connections to the galvanometer join a
short length of resistance wire S across its terminals, as a low-resistance
shunt. Break the connection at one end of the coil (B in Fig. (ii)) and insert
the key K, battery C, and rheostat R in series, as shown. Close the key K,
with the rheostat at maximum, and observe the direction of the
galvanometer deflection. If it is opposite to that obtained when inserting
the magnet in (1), reverse the connections to the battery terminals. The
current from the battery, through the coil, is now in the same direction as
the induced current was, but is much larger. Place the plotting compass
near the end A, and observe its behaviour when the key is closed; deduce
the polarity of A. This was also the polarity of A when the N-pole of M
was moved towards it in the first part of the experiment. Did A attract or
repel the N-pole of M as the pole approached?
Conclusion: The induced current in the coil flows so as to ... the motion producing it.

Note: Verify that the law applies similarly to withdrawal of the N-pole, and to motion of
the S-pole of the magnet in both directions. Predict, and verify, the polarities to be
expected at B in each case. By using a (primary) coil, battery and tapping key in
place of the magnet M, investigate the polarity of the face A of the (secondary)
coil AB when the primary circuit is made and broken, and verify Lenz’ law.
 WEEK 7

Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

Aim: To investigate the Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

Apparatus: Earth inductor E, mirror galvanometer G, lamp L and scale S, resistance box R,
stop-watch.

Method: Set up the mirror galvanometer 1 metre from the glass scale S, and focus the lamp
L on the mirror M of the galvanometer. Adjust the height of the lamp so that a
bright spot is cast on to the scale: if the lamp is focused properly a dark hairline
should be visible in the spot on the scale. Move E RR (the scale sideways until the
hairline rests upon its zero mark; if this proves difficult take an accurate 1.1
reading of its position and record this as a zero error.

Connect the brushes of the commutator C, attached to the earth inductor coil E, in
series with a resistance box R, and the galvanometer G. Set the axis of the earth
inductor coil approximately E-W, and rotate the coil steadily as fast as possible,
though not so fast that the turns cannot be 0 RD counted. Increase the resistance
in R until this steady rate of rotation produces a deflection near the end of the
scale. Record the average reading of the spot on the scale, correcting for the zero
error if necessary.

Obtain the readings for, say, eight slower speeds of rotation and deflections over
as wide a range as possible. (At low speeds it will be found difficult to maintain a
steady deflection.)

Measurements:

Time for 100 revolution (sec.)

Rate of turning (revs./sec.)
Deflection (mm.)
Graph:

Plot a graph of the rate of turning (revs./sec.) against the deflection (cm.) of the
galvanometer Fig. above. See whether a straight line can be drawn from the origin
passing through the plotted points.

Conclusion: The induced e.m.f. in a coil is . . . to the rate at which it is turned.

Errors: 1. Error in measuring the time for 100 revolutions.

2. Error in measuring the deflection.
3. Lack of constancy in the deflection.

Order of
Accuracy: Taking account of the above errors, discuss how far the plotted points are
consistent with the assumption that they represent a straight line passing through
the origin.

Note: For large deflections d on the scale, the angle of deflection  of the galvanometer
coil is given by tan 2 = d/D, where D is the distance from the mirror to the scale.
Thus, if d is large it is no longer proportional to . Does your graph show any
evidence of this?
 WEEK 8

Investigation of Capacitance in A.C. Circuits

Aim: To determine the capacitive reactance of the a.c circuit.

Apparatus: Cathode-ray oscillograph; non-inductive resistance box R, 0-5000; oscillator

with low impedance output (or oscillator and amplifier); A.C. milliammeter mA;
paper or mica capacitor C, 1F or decade box 0.1 – 1.0 F; high-resistance A.C.
voltmeter V, 0 - 10 V. transparent mm. scale S.

Method: Connect the capacitor C and milliammeter mA in series and join them to the
oscillator output as in Fig. above. Connect the voltmeter V across the oscillator
output. (The cathode-ray oscillograph may be used in place of V).

Set the oscillator frequency at a fairly high value, say 3000 cycle sec-1, and adjust
the output voltage V until the milliammeter reads near full scale. Reduce the
frequency in steps, down to, say, 100 cycle sec-1 and record pairs of values of the
current I mA and voltage V V. If time allows,
repeat for other values of C.

Measurements:
C = . . F

Output voltage V (V r.m.s.)

Current I (A r.m.s.)
Frequency f (cycle see-1)
Reactance Xc = V/I ()
1/Xc -1
Graphs: Calculate, and enter in the table values of the reactance X = V/I and l/Xc -1.
Plot graphs of Xc v.f and 1/Xc v.f as in Fig. below.

Theory shows that the reactance X, = 1/2fC. Thus the graph of l/Xc v.f may be expected to be a
straight line of slope 2C, provided that the capacitor has negligible losses. Measure the slope
a/b of the straight-line graph and deduce the value of C:
1
C = (a / b)  . . F  . . F
2
Compare this value with that marked on the capacitor, and try to explain any discrepancy greater
than the manufacturers’ tolerance. Would you expect dielectric losses to show more effect at
high or low frequencies?
 WEEK 9

Investigation of Inductance in A.C. Circuits

Aim: To determine the Inductance of an a.c circuit

Apparatus: Air-cored inductance coil 0.1H (e.g. coil of 2000 turns of 23 s.w.g. copper, mean
radius 2-cm., length 5-10 cm., resistance about 20). (This coil may be used in
later experiments.) Non-inductive resistance box R 0-1000; oscillator with low-
impedance output (or oscillator and amplifier); A.C. milliammeter mA; high-
resistance A.C. voltmeter V 0-10 V; transparent mm. scale S; means of measuring
the D.C. resistance of the coil; cathode-ray oscillograph.

Method: Connect the coil and milliammeter mA in series and join them to the oscillator
output as in Fig. above. Connect the voltmeter V across the output. (The cathode-
ray oscillograph may be used in place of V - see Note.) For Set the oscillator
frequency at a fairly low value, say 200 cycle sec-1, and adjust the output voltage
2. P V until the milliammeter reads near full scale. Increase the frequency in steps
up to about 3000 this cycle sec-1 and record pairs of values of the current I mA
and voltage V V.

Measure and record the length 1cm. of the coil, its mean radius a cm, and record
the total number N of turns in the coil. Measure the D.C. resistance r of the coil.

Measurements:
Coil data: Output voltage, V (V r.m.s.)
Total turns N Current, I (A r.m.s.)
Mean radius a .. cm.
Length / .. cm. Frequency, f (cycle sec)
D.C. resistance r .. ohm

Output voltage, V (V r.m.s.)

Current, I (A r.m.s.)
Frequency, f (cycle sec-1)
Impedance, Z = V/A 
Graph and
Calculation: Calculate and enter in the table the values of the coil impedance, Z = V/I. Plot a
graph of Z v.f as in Fig. below.

1. At high frequencies the value of Z may be expected to approach the

reactance value, XL = 2fL), as XL becomes large compared with its
resistance. Draw an asymptote, passing through the origin, to the plotted
curve at high frequencies, as shown. Measure the slope a/b of this line and
deduce the value of L:
XL 1
L =  ( a / b)  . . H
2f 2
Calculate an approximate value of the inductance of the coil from:

2 2 N 2 a 2
L = z 10-9  . . H (approx.)
1
For a coil of the dimensions suggested, the true value may be less by a
factor between 07 and 05.

2. Find also from the graph the value r reached by Z as f becomes small, and
compare this with the D.C. resistance of the coil. (Note that the
milliammeter resistance may be appreciable.)
 WEEK 10

Investigation of Series Resonance Circuit

Apparatus: Coil L; paper or mica capacitor C, 0.1 F; cathode-ray oscillograph; A.C.
milliammeter mA, 0-10 mA; high-resistance A.C. voltmeter V 0-10 V; non-
inductive resistance box R, 0-500 oscillator of low output impedance (or
oscillator and amplifier); means of measuring D.C. resistance of coil.

Method: Connect the coil L, capacitor C and milliammeter mA in series and join them to
the oscillator output. Connect the voltmeter V across the output. (The cathode-ray
oscillograph may be used in place of V.

Vary the frequency over the range 300 - 3000 cycle sec-1 and find the frequency at
which the current is greatest. Adjust the output until mA reads near full scale.

Record pairs of values of the current I mA and voltage V V at frequencies

covering the above range. If time allows, repeat for another value of C, say 05
Measure the D.C. resistance r of the coil.

Measurements:
Output voltage, V (V r.m.s.)
Current, I (A r.m.s.)
Frequency, f (cycles sec-1)

C = .. F. Coil data: Total turns N = .., mean radius a = .. cm., length, 1 .. cm., D.C.
resistance r = .. .
Graph and
Calculation: Plot a graph of the current I v. frequency f. Record from the graph the values of
the maximum current Ires and the frequency fres at which this occurs. Deduce the
value of Zres = V/Ires, where V is the voltage when I = Ires.

fres = .. cycle sec-1 Zres = . . 

1
Theory shows that the resonant frequency fres = and Zres = r. Test these
2 LC
predictions by substituting the value of C, that of L calculated from 42N2a2/109l
henry, and the measured value of r. Discuss any observed discrepancy for the
resonant frequency.
 WEEK 11

A.C. Circuit with inductance and resistance

Aim: To the inductance from an a.c. circuit containing inductance and resistance

Apparatus: Low voltage (c. 10 volt) a.c. source, e.g. step-down transformer working from the
ordinary mains. Fixed inductance (c. 0.1 henry) with negligible resistance,
variable non-inductive resistance, e.g. standard plug-in box with 5 – ohms steps,
a.c. ammeter with range (say) 0 – 0.5 r.m.s. ampere, a.c. voltmeter to check
voltage of a.c. source.

Diagram:

Method: Plug in the transformer to the ordinary mains and feed the low-voltage output into
the circuit connected up as shown in the fig. above. Using the a.c. voltmeter,
check the voltage V supplied to the circuit. Now vary R in successive steps of 5
ohms and record the circuit current I – as read on the a.c. ammeter – at each stage.

Results:
R/ R2/2 I/r.m.s. A  V Z2/2
Z /
 I

 V
For each value of I calculate the impedance Z    and tabulated the results as
 I
shown above
For this circuit
V V
I  
Z R X
2 2
L
Where XL is the inductive reactance of the coil.
Since Z2 = R2 + XL2 a graph of Z2 against R2 will yield a straight-line plot, the
intercept OA giving the value of XL2.
Thus, XL2 = |OA| = (2fL)2
and from this the inductance L of the coil can be ascertained.
1
OA 2
L =  ____ H
2f
 WEEK 12

Determination of the Inductance and Resistance of an Inductive Coil by Voltmeter

Measurements

Aim: To determine the resistance and inductance of an a.c. circuit.

Apparatus: Low-voltage a.c. source (e.g 20 volt at mains frequency) – as for previous
experiments. Coil with inductance L of order of 0.1 henry (say), standard
non-inductance resistor R1 of order of 100 ohm, a.c. voltmeter of range 0 –
20 r.m.s. volt.

Diagram:

Method: Connect up the circuit as shown in fig. above. Place the voltmeter in turn
across the standard non-inductance resistor, the unknown coil, and the
total circuit, and so record the corresponding voltage drops V1, V2, and V3.
Set down the results and proceed as indicated.

Results: V1 = r.m.s. volt

V2 = ,,
V3 = ,,
R1 = ohm
Mains frequency f = Hz

From these observations construct the voltage vector triangle ABC as

shown in the figure below. From C drop the perpendicular to meet AB
continued at D.

Now if I is the circuit current, then

V1 = R1I = AB
and if R is the resistance of the unknown coil, then the in-phase voltage
across the coil due to this resistance
= RI = BD (1)

Hence from (1) and (2)

BD
R  . R1  _____ ohm
AB
CD represents the out of phase voltage due to the reactance XL of the coil.
Thus,
CD = XLI = 2fL . I
CD R1
and hence L .  _____ H
AB 2f