Question

1. Research makes use of statistics of data being studied.

(a) Describe the types of data you expect to use in your forthcoming research project.

(b) What methods of data collection will you prefer to use? Why?
Introduction

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in
an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions, test
hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. The data collection component of research is common to all
fields of study including physical and social sciences, humanities, business, etc. While methods
vary by discipline, the emphasis on ensuring accurate and honest collection remains the same.
The goal for all data collection is to capture quality evidence that then translates to rich data
analysis and allows the building of a convincing and credible answer to questions that have been
posed. Regardless of the field of study or preference for defining data (quantitative, qualitative),
accurate data collection is essential to maintaining the integrity of research. Both the selection of
appropriate data collection instruments (existing, modified, or newly developed) and clearly
delineated instructions for their correct use reduce the likelihood of errors occurring.

Data collection is one of the most important stages in conducting a research. You can have the
best research design in the world but if you cannot collect the required data you will be not be
able to complete your project. Data collection is a very demanding job which needs thorough
planning, hard work, patience, perseverance and more to be able to complete the task
successfully. Data collection starts with determining what kind of data required followed by the
selection of a sample from a certain population. After that, you need to use a certain instrument
to collect the data from the selected sample. There are many ways of classifying data. A common
classification is based upon who collected the data.

Primary Data

Data that has been collected from first-hand-experience is known as primary data. Primary data
has not been published yet and is more reliable, authentic and objective. Primary data has not
been changed or altered by human beings; therefore its validity is greater than secondary data.

Importance of Primary Data: In statistical surveys it is necessary to get information from

primary sources and work on primary data. For example, the statistical records of female
population in a country cannot be based on newspaper, magazine and other printed sources. A
research can be conducted without secondary data but a research based on only secondary data is
least reliable and may have biases because secondary data has already been manipulated by
human beings. One of such sources is old and secondly they contain limited information as well
as they can be misleading and biased.

Sources of Primary Data: Sources for primary data are limited and at times it becomes difficult
to obtain data from primary source because of either scarcity of population or lack of
cooperation.

Following are some of the sources of primary data.

Experiments: Experiments require an artificial or natural setting in which to perform logical

study to collect data. Experiments are more suitable for medicine, psychological studies,
nutrition and for other scientific studies. In experiments the experimenter has to keep control
over the influence of any extraneous variable on the results.

Survey: Survey is most commonly used method in social sciences, management, marketing and
psychology to some extent. Surveys can be conducted in different methods.

Questionnaire: It is the most commonly used method in survey. Questionnaires are a list of
questions either open-ended or close-ended for which the respondents give answers.
Questionnaire can be conducted via telephone, mail, live in a public area, or in an institute,
through electronic mail or through fax and other methods.

Interview: Interview is a face-to-face conversation with the respondent. In interview the main
problem arises when the respondent deliberately hides information otherwise it is an in depth
source of information. The interviewer can not only record the statements the interviewee speaks
but he can observe the body language, expressions and other reactions to the questions too. This
enables the interviewer to draw conclusions easily.

Observations: Observation can be done while letting the observing person know that s/he is
being observed or without letting him know. Observations can also be made in natural settings as
well as in artificially created environment.

Advantages of Using Primary Data

 The investigator collects data specific to the problem under study.

 There is no doubt about the quality of the data collected (for the investigator).
  If required, it may be possible to obtain additional data during the study period.

Disadvantages of Using Primary Data

1. The investigator has to contend with all the hassles of data collection-

 deciding why, what, how, when to collect;

 getting the data collected (personally or through others);
 getting funding and dealing with funding agencies;
 Ethical considerations (consent, permissions, etc.).

2. Ensuring the data collected is of a high standard-

 all desired data is obtained accurately, and in the format it is required in;
 there is no fake/ cooked up data;
 Unnecessary/ useless data has not been included.

3. Cost of obtaining the data is often the major expense in studies.

Secondary data

Data collected from a source that has already been published in any form is called as secondary
data. The review of literature in any research is based on secondary data. It is collected by
someone else for some other purpose (but being utilized by the investigator for another purpose).
For examples, Census data being used to analyze the impact of education on career choice and
earning. Common sources of secondary data for social science include censuses, organizational
records and data collected through qualitative methodologies or qualitative research. Secondary
data is essential, since it is impossible to conduct a new survey that can adequately capture past
change and/or developments.

Sources of Secondary Data: The following are some ways of collecting secondary data –

 Books
 Records
 Biographies
 Newspapers
  Published censuses or other statistical data
 Data archives
 Internet articles
 Research articles by other researchers (journals)
 Databases, etc.

Importance of Secondary Data: Secondary data can be less valid but its importance is still there.
Sometimes it is difficult to obtain primary data; in these cases getting information from
secondary sources is easier and possible. Sometimes primary data does not exist in such situation
one has to confine the research on secondary data. Sometimes primary data is present but the
respondents are not willing to reveal it in such case too secondary data can suffice. For example,
if the research is on the psychology of transsexuals first it is difficult to find out transsexuals and
second they may not be willing to give information you want for your research, so you can
collect data from books or other published sources.

A clear benefit of using secondary data is that much of the background work needed has already
been carried out. For example, literature reviews, case studies might have been carried out,
published texts and statistics could have been already used elsewhere, media promotion and
personal contacts have also been utilized. This wealth of background work means that secondary
data generally have a pre-established degree of validity and reliability which need not be re-
examined by the researcher who is re-using such data. Furthermore, secondary data can also be
helpful in the research design of subsequent primary research and can provide a baseline with
which the collected primary data results can be compared to. Therefore, it is always wise to
begin any research activity with a review of the secondary data.

Advantages of Using Secondary Data

 No hassles of data collection.

 It is less expensive.
 The investigator is not personally responsible for the quality of data (‘I didn’t do it’).

Disadvantages of Using Secondary Data

  The data collected by the third party may not be a reliable party so the reliability and
accuracy of data go down.
 Data collected in one location may not be suitable for the other one due variable
environmental factor.
 With the passage of time the data becomes obsolete and very old.
 Secondary data collected can distort the results of the research. For using secondary data
a special care is required to amend or modify for use.
 Secondary data can also raise issues of authenticity and copyright.

Keeping in view the advantages and disadvantages of sources of data requirement of the research
study and time factor, both sources of data i.e. primary and secondary data have been selected.

Part a)

The following are the types of data expected to be used in the forthcoming research project

Data are organized into two broad categories: qualitative and quantitative.

Qualitative Data: Qualitative data are mostly non-numerical and usually descriptive or nominal
in nature. This means the data collected are in the form of words and sentences. Often (not
always), such data captures feelings, emotions, or subjective perceptions of something.
Qualitative approaches aim to address the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of a program and tend to use
unstructured methods of data collection to fully explore the topic. Qualitative questions are open-
ended. Qualitative methods include focus groups, group discussions and interviews. Qualitative
approaches are good for further exploring the effects and unintended consequences of a program.
They are, however, expensive and time consuming to implement. Additionally the findings
cannot be generalized to participants outside of the program and are only indicative of the group
involved.

Qualitative data collection methods play an important role in impact evaluation by providing
information useful to understand the processes behind observed results and assess changes in
people’s perceptions of their well-being. Furthermore qualitative methods can be used to
improve the quality of survey-based quantitative evaluations by helping generate evaluation
hypothesis; strengthening the design of survey questionnaires and expanding or clarifying
quantitative evaluation findings. These methods are characterized by the following attributes -

 they tend to be open-ended and have less structured protocols (i.e., researchers may change
the data collection strategy by adding, refining, or dropping techniques or informants);
 they rely more heavily on interactive interviews; respondents may be interviewed several
times to follow up on a particular issue, clarify concepts or check the reliability of data;
 they use triangulation to increase the credibility of their findings (i.e., researchers rely on
multiple data collection methods to check the authenticity of their results);
 Generally their findings are not generalizable to any specific population; rather each case
study produces a single piece of evidence that can be used to seek general patterns among
different studies of the same issue.

Regardless of the kinds of data involved, data collection in a qualitative study takes a great deal
of time. The researcher needs to record any potentially useful data thoroughly, accurately, and
systematically, using field notes, sketches, audiotapes, photographs and other suitable means.
The data collection methods must observe the ethical principles of research. The qualitative
methods most commonly used in evaluation can be classified in three broad categories -

 In-depth interview
 Observation methods
 Document review.

Quantitative Data: Quantitative data is numerical in nature and can be mathematically

computed. Quantitative data measure uses different scales, which can be classified as nominal
scale, ordinal scale, interval scale and ratio scale. Often (not always), such data includes
measurements of something. Quantitative approaches address the ‘what’ of the program. They
use a systematic standardized approach and employ methods such as surveys and ask questions.
Quantitative approaches have the advantage that they are cheaper to implement, are standardized
so comparisons can be easily made and the size of the effect can usually be measured.
Quantitative approaches however are limited in their capacity for the investigation and
explanation of similarities and unexpected differences. It is important to note that for peer-based
programs quantitative data collection approaches often prove to be difficult to implement for
agencies as lack of necessary resources to ensure rigorous implementation of surveys and
frequently experienced low participation and loss to follow up rates are commonly experienced
factors.

The Quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and structured data collection
instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. They produce
results that are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize. If the intent is to generalize from the
research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to
select participants. Typical quantitative data gathering strategies include -

 Experiments/clinical trials.
 Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the number of patients waiting
in emergency at specified times of the day).
 Obtaining relevant data from management information systems.
 Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (e.g., face-to face and telephone
interviews, questionnaires etc).
 In quantitative research (survey research), interviews are more structured than in Qualitative
research. In a structured interview, the researcher asks a standard set of questions and nothing
more. Face -to -face interviews have a distinct advantage of enabling the researcher to
establish rapport with potential participants and therefore gain their cooperation.
 Paper-pencil-questionnaires can be sent to a large number of people and saves the researcher
time and money. People are more truthful while responding to the questionnaires regarding
controversial issues in particular due to the fact that their responses are anonymous.

Mixed Methods: Mixed methods approach as design, combining both qualitative and
quantitative research data, techniques and methods within a single research framework. Mixed
methods approaches may mean a number of things, i.e. a number of different types of methods in
a study or at different points within a study or using a mixture of qualitative and quantitative
methods. Mixed methods encompass multifaceted approaches that combine to capitalize on
strengths and reduce weaknesses that stem from using a single research design. Using this
approach to gather and evaluate data may assist to increase the validity and reliability of the
research. Some of the common areas in which mixed-method approaches may be used include –
 Initiating, designing, developing and expanding interventions;
 Evaluation;
 Improving research design; and
 Corroborating findings, data triangulation or convergence.

Some of the challenges of using a mixed methods approach include –

 Delineating complementary qualitative and quantitative research questions;

 Time-intensive data collection and analysis; and
 Decisions regarding which research methods to combine.

Mixed methods are useful in highlighting complex research problems such as disparities in
health and can also be transformative in addressing issues for vulnerable or marginalized
populations or research which involves community participation. Using a mixed-methods
approach is one way to develop creative options to traditional or single design approaches to
research and evaluation.

Part b)

The following are the methods of data collection i prefer to use and Why

Questionnaire Method

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for
the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Although they are often designed for
statistical analysis of the responses, this is not always the case. The questionnaire was invented
by Sir Francis Galton (1822 - 1911). Questionnaires have advantages over some other types of
surveys in that they are cheap, do not require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or
telephone surveys, and often have standardized answers that make it simple to compile data. As a
type of survey, questionnaires also have many of the same problems relating to question
construction and wording that exist in other types of opinion polls.

Questionnaire Administration Modes: Main modes of questionnaire administration are -

 Face-to-face questionnaire administration, where an interviewer presents the items orally.

 Paper-and-pencil questionnaire administration, where the items are presented on paper.
 Computerized questionnaire administration, where the items are presented on the computer.
 Adaptive computerized questionnaire administration, where a selection of items is presented
on the computer, and based on the answers on those items, the computer selects following
items optimized for the testee’s estimated ability or trait.

Concerns with Questionnaires: It is important to consider the order in which questions are
presented. Sensitive questions, such as questions about income, drug use, or sexual activity,
should be put at the end of the survey. This allows the researcher to establish trust before asking
questions that might embarrass respondents. Researchers also recommend putting routine
questions, such as age, gender, and marital status, at the end of the questionnaire. Double-
barreled questions, which ask two questions in one, should never be used in a survey. An
example of a double barreled question is, please rate how strongly you agree or disagree with the
following statement - ‘I feel good about my work on the job, and I get along well with others at
work’. This question is problematic because survey respondents are asked to give one response
for two questions. Researchers should avoid using emotionally loaded or biased words and
phrases.

Advantages of Questionnaires: The advantages of questionnaires are -

 Large amounts of information can be collected from a large number of people in a short
period of time and in a relatively cost effective way.
 Can be carried out by the researcher or by any number of people with limited affect to its
validity and reliability.
 The results of the questionnaires can usually be quickly and easily quantified by either a
researcher or through the use of a software package.
 Can be analyzed more scientifically and objectively than other forms of research.
 When data has been quantified, it can be used to compare and contrast other research and
may be used to measure change.
 Positivists believe that quantitative data can be used to create new theories and / or test
existing hypotheses.

Disadvantages of Questionnaires: The disadvantages of questionnaires are -

 To be inadequate to understand some forms of information - i.e. changes of emotions,
behavior, feelings etc.
 Phenomenologists state that quantitative research is simply an artificial creation by the
researcher, as it is asking only a limited amount of information without explanation.
 There is no way to tell how truthful a respondent is being.
 There is no way of telling how much thought a respondent has put in.
 The respondent may be forgetful or not thinking within the full context of the situation.
 People may read differently into each question and therefore reply based on their own
interpretation of the question - i.e. what is ‘good’ to someone may be ‘poor’ to someone else,
therefore there is a level of subjectivity that is not acknowledged.

Questionnaires are not among the most prominent methods in qualitative research, because they
commonly require subjects to respond to a stimulus, and thus they are not acting naturally.
However, they have their uses, especially as a means of collecting information from a wider
sample than can be reached by personal interview. Though the information is necessarily more
limited, it can still be very useful. For example, where certain clearly defined facts or opinions
have been identified by more qualitative methods, a questionnaire can explore how generally
these apply, if that is a matter of interest.

Interviews Method

Interviewing involves asking questions and getting answers from participants in a study.
Interviewing has a variety of forms including: individual, face-to-face interviews and face-to-
face group interviewing. The asking and answering of questions can be mediated by the
telephone or other electronic devices (e.g. computers).

Interviewing, when considered as a method for conducting qualitative research, is a technique

used to understand the experiences of others. Characteristics of qualitative research interviews –

 Interviews are completed by the interviewer based on what the interviewee says.
 Interviews are a far more personal form of research than questionnaires.
 In the personal interview, the interviewer works directly with the interviewee.
 Unlike with mail surveys, the interviewer has the opportunity to probe or ask follow up
questions.
  Interviews are generally easier for the interviewee, especially if what is sought are
opinions and/or impressions.

Types of Interviews

Informal, Conversational interview: No predetermined questions are asked, in order to remain

as open and adaptable as possible to the interviewee’s nature and priorities; during the interview
the interviewer ‘goes with the flow’.

General interview guide approach: Intended to ensure that the same general areas of
information are collected from each interviewee; this provides more focus than the
conversational approach, but still allows a degree of freedom and adaptability in getting the
information from the interviewee.

Standardized, open-ended interview: The same open-ended questions are asked to all
interviewees; this approach facilitates faster interviews that can be more easily analyzed and
compared.

Closed, fixed-response interview: All interviewees are asked the same questions and asked to
choose answers from among the same set of alternatives. This format is useful for those not
practiced in interviewing. This type of interview is also referred to as structured.

Interviewer’s judgments: According to Hackman and Oldman several factors can bias an
interviewer’s judgment about a job applicant. However these factors can be reduced or
minimized by training interviews to recognized them. Some examples are -

Prior Information: Interviewers generally have some prior information about job candidates,
such as recruiter evaluations, application blanks, online screening results, or the results of
psychological tests. This can cause the interviewer to have a favorable or unfavorable attitude
toward an applicant before meeting them.

The Contrast Effect: How the interviewers evaluate a particular applicant may depend on their
standards of comparison, that is, the characteristics of the applicants they interviewed previously.

Iterviewers’ Prejudices: This can be done when the interviewers’ judgment is their personal
likes and dislikes. These may include but are not limited to racial and ethnic background,
applicants who display certain qualities or traits and refuse to consider their abilities or
characteristics.

Strengths and Weaknesses

Possibly the greatest advantage of interviewing is the depth of detail from the interviewee.
Interviewing participants can paint a picture of what happened in a specific event, tell us their
perspective of such event, as well as give other social cues. Social cues, such as voice,
intonation, body language etc. of the interviewee can give the interviewer a lot of extra
information that can be added to the verbal answer of the interviewee on a question. This level of
detailed description, whether it be verbal or nonverbal, can show an otherwise hidden
interrelatedness between emotions, people, objects unlike many quantitative methods of
research. In addition, interviewing has a unique advantage in its specific form. Researchers can
tailor the questions they ask to the respondent in order to get rich, full stories and the information
they need for their project. They can make it clear to the respondent when they need more
examples or explanations. Not only can researchers also learn about specific events, they can
also gain insight into people’s interior experiences, specifically how people perceive and how
they interpreted their perceptions. How events affected their thoughts and feelings. In this,
researchers can understand the process of an event instead of what just happened and how they
reacted to it.

Interviewing is not a perfect method for all types of research. It does have its disadvantages.
First, there can be complications with the planning of the interview. Not only is recruiting people
for interviews hard, due to the typically personal nature of the interview, planning where to meet
them and when can be difficult. Participants can cancel or change the meeting place at the last
minute.

During the actual interview, a possible weakness is missing some information. This can arise
from the immense multitasking that the interviewer must do. Not only do they have to make the
respondent feel very comfortable, they have to keep as much eye contact as possible, write down
as much as they can, and think of follow up questions. After the interview, the process of coding
begins and with this comes its own set of disadvantages. Second, coding can be extremely time
consuming. This process typically requires multiple people, which can also become expensive.
Third, the nature of qualitative research itself, doesn’t lend itself very well to quantitative
analysis. Some researchers report more missing data in interview research than survey research,
therefore it can be difficult to compare populations.

FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (FGD)

A focus group discussion (FGD) is an in-depth field method that brings together a small
homogeneous group (usually six to twelve persons) to discuss topics on a study agenda. The
purpose of this discussion is to use the social dynamics of the group, with the help of a
moderator/ facilitator, to stimulate participants to reveal underlying opinions, attitudes, and
reasons for their behavior. In short, a well facilitated group can be helpful in finding out the
‘how’ and ‘why’ of human behavior.

Focus group discussions are a data collection method. Data is collected through a semi-structured
group interview process. Focus groups are generally used to collect data on a specific topic.
Focus group methods emerged in the 1940s with the work of Merton and Fiske who used focus
groups to conduct consumer satisfaction. The discussion is conducted in a relaxed atmosphere to
enable participants to express themselves without any personal inhibitions. Participants usually
share a common characteristic such as age, sex, or socio-economic status that defines them as a
member of a target subgroup. This encourages a group to speak more freely about the subject
without fear of being judged by others thought to be superior. The discussion is led by a trained
moderator/facilitator (preferably experienced), assisted by an observer who takes notes and
arranges any tape recording. The moderator uses a prepared guide to ask very general questions
of the group. Usually more than one group session is needed to assure good coverage of
responses to a set of topics. Each session usually lasts between one and two hours but ideally 60
to 90 minutes.

Focus group interviews typically have the characteristics -

 Identify the target market (people who possess certain characteristics).

 Provide a short introduction and background on the issue to be discussed.
 Have focus group members write their responses to the issue(s).
 Facilitate group discussion.
 Recommended size of the sample group is 6 - 10 people as smaller groups may limit the
potential on the amount of information collected, and more may make it difficult for all
participants to participate and interact and for the interviewer to be able to make sense of the
information given.
 Several focus groups should be used in order to get a more objective and macro view of the
investigation, i.e. focusing on one group may give you idiosyncratic results. The use of
several groups will add to the breadth and depth of information. A minimum of three focus
groups is recommended for best practice approaches.
 Members of the focus group should have something in common which is important to the
investigation.
 Groups can either be put together or existing groups - it is always useful to be mindful of the
group dynamics of both situations.
 Provide a summary of the focus group issues at the end of the meeting.

The purpose of an FGD is to obtain in-depth information on concepts, perceptions, and ideas of
the group. An FGD aims to be more than a question-answer interaction. In combination with
other methods, focus groups might be used to -

 explore new research areas;

 explore a topic that is difficult to observe (not easy to gain access);
 explore a topic that does not lend itself to observational techniques (e.g. attitudes and
decision-making);
 explore sensitive topics;
 collect a concentrated set of observations in a short time span;
 ascertain perspectives and experiences from people on a topic, particularly when these are
people who might otherwise be marginalized;
 gather preliminary data;
 aid in the development of surveys and interview guides;
 clarify research findings from another method;
 explore the range of opinions/views on a topic of interest;
 collect a wide variety of local terms and expressions used to describe a disease (e.g.,
diarrhea) or an act (e.g., defecation);
 explore meanings of survey findings that cannot be explained statistically.

Advantages and Disadvantages of FGD

Focus groups and group discussions are advantageous as they -

 Are useful when exploring cultural values and health beliefs;

 Can be used to examine how and why people think in a particular way and how is influences
their beliefs and values;
 Can be used to explore complex issues;
 Can be used to develop hypothesis for further research;
 Do not require participants to be literate.

Disadvantages of focus groups include -

 Lack of privacy/anonymity;
 Having to carefully balance the group to ensure they are culturally and gender appropriate
(i.e. gender may be an issue);
 Potential for the risk of ‘group think’ (not allowing for other attitudes, beliefs etc.);
 Potential for group to be dominated by one or two people;
 Group leader needs to be skilled at conducting focus groups, dealing with conflict, drawing
out passive participants and creating a relaxed, welcoming environment;
 Are time consuming to conduct and can be difficult and time consuming to analyze.

PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL/ ASSESSMENT (PRA)

Participatory rural appraisal/ assessment (PRA) is a set of participatory and largely visual
techniques for assessing group and community resources, identifying and prioritizing problems
and appraising strategies for solving them. During the 1980s, PRA was firstly developed in India
and Kenya, mainly supported by NGOs operating at grass-roots level. Until today PRA evolved
so fast in terms of the methodology, the creation of new tools and specifically in the different
ways it is applied. It is a research/planning methodology in which a local community (with or
without the assistance of outsiders) studies an issue that concerns the population, prioritizes
problems, evaluates options for solving the problem(s) and comes up with a Community Action
Plan to address the concerns that have been raised. PRA is particularly concerned that the
multiple perspectives that exist in any community are represented in the analysis and that the
community itself takes the lead in evaluating its situation and finding solutions. Outsiders may
participate as facilitators or in providing technical information but they should not ‘take charge’
of the process.

Advantages of PRA

Identification of genuine priorities for target group. PRA allows local people to present their
own priorities for development and get them incorporated into development plans.

Devolution of management responsibilities; An important goal of PRA is to encourage self-

reliant development with as much of the responsibility for the management and implementation
of development activities devolved to local people themselves. This can greatly improve the
efficiency of development work and eliminate many of the problems regarding proprietorship of
development activities at the community level.

Motivation and mobilization of local development workers; Participation in PRA by local

development workers, whether from NGOs, government or other agencies can greatly increase
the motivation and level of mobilization in support of the project or program of which it is part.

Forming better linkages between communities and development institutions; PRA can assist in
forming better links between communities and the agencies and institutions concerned with rural
development. A PRA which encourages a better understanding of the environmental issues at
stake in local communities and develops activities which enable them to benefit from better
management could also lead to better monitoring of mangrove exploitation by the communities
themselves. PRAs involve intensive interaction between communities and outsiders which can
have lasting effects in breaking down the barriers of reticence and suspicion which often
characterize these relationships.

Use of local resources; Where local people have had more say in the design of projects they are
also more likely to design activities which make full use of existing resources.

Mobilization of community resources; Greater commitment from the community can also mean
greater mobilization of community resources for development and less reliance on outside
inputs. This can take the form of labor inputs, savings or time devoted to management functions.
More sustainable development activities; This combination of effects will generally lead to
more sustainable development activities which are less reliant on support from outside agencies
and is technically, environmentally and socially appropriate to local conditions. These benefits
from participation can only be realized where the full implications of participation for the
development agencies which are encouraging it have been taken into account and accommodated
and the institutions involved are willing to support the sort of long-term changes in social,
political and institutional frameworks which proper participation, and PRA, can set in motion.

Weaknesses of PRA

 The term PRA itself can cause difficulties. PRA need not be rural, and sometimes is not
even participatory, and is frequently used as a trendy label for standard RRA techniques.
 Raising expectations which cannot be realized. One of the most immediate and frequently
encountered risks in PRA is that it raises a complex set of expectations in communities which
frequently cannot be realized given the institutional or political context of the area. This can
be due to the political situation, the local power and social structure or simply too
bureaucratic inertia in institutions which are supposed to be supporting development.
 Hijacking. If PRA becomes part of the global development agenda, there are risks of
hijacking - When this occurs, the PRA agenda is externally driven, and used to create
legitimacy for projects, agencies and NGOs.
 Disappointment. Local expectations can easily be raised. If nothing tangible emerges, local
communities may come to see the process as a transient external development phenomenon.
Lack of feedback to the community adds to the sense of disappointment.
 Failure to take account of stratification in communities. The fact that PRA is often carried
out with the community as a whole can mean that stratification within the community,
whether by wealth, social status, gender or ethnic group, can often be obscured and ignored.
 Threats. The empowerment implications of PRA, and the power of its social analysis, can
create threats to local vested interests, although less so than with PAR (Participatory Action
Research).

RAPID RURAL APPRAISAL/ ASSESSMENT (RRA)

Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) emerged in the late 1970s in response to some of the problems
with large-scale, structured questionnaire surveys. It provided an alternative technique for
outsiders –often scientists carrying out research into agriculture – to quickly learn from local
people about their realities and challenges. RRA practitioners worked in multi-disciplinary teams
and pioneered the use a suite of visual methods and semi-structured interviews to learn from
respondents. While it was largely about data collection, usually analyzed by outsiders, RRA
contained the seeds from which other primary methods grew in the 1980s. Reflections on RRA
led to the development of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), which focused more strongly on
facilitation, empowerment, behavior change, local knowledge and sustainable action. It was
developed in response to the disadvantages of more traditional research methods, including - the
time taken to produce results, the high cost of formal surveys and the low levels of data
reliability due to non-sampling errors.

Advantages of RRA

 The approach is responsive and flexible to new learning and conditions on the ground.
 Achieves a complex understanding of processes and dynamics and connections between
different disciplines, activities and sets of conditions.
 The analysis and interpretation of findings is carried out during the appraisal providing
opportunities for cross-checking.

Weaknesses of RRA

 The findings will not be statistically ‘sound’, even if RRA teams can use ‘quick and dirty’
sampling methods to make sure that they cover a reasonable number of people or households
in a particular area.
 Risk that the information gathered by an RRA is not very ‘representative’ but is a collection
of ‘particular cases’ which do not tell researchers very much about general conditions.
 RRA is very dependent on the skills of the people carrying it out and having the right
combination of experience and viewpoints on the team.
Observational Method

Observation is a fundamental way of finding out about the world around us. As human beings,
we are very well equipped to pick up detailed information about our environment through our
senses. However, as a method of data collection for research purposes, observation is more than
just looking or listening. Research, simply defined, is ‘systematic enquiry made public’
(Stenhouse, 1975). Firstly, in order to become systematic, observation must in some way be
selective. We are constantly bombarded by huge amounts of sensory information. Human beings
are good at selectively attending to what is perceived as most useful to us. Observation harnesses
this ability; systematic observation entails careful planning of what we want to observe.
Secondly, in order to make observation ‘public’, what we see or hear has to be recorded in some
way to allow the information to be analysed and interpreted. Observation is a systematic data
collection approach. Researchers use all of their senses to examine people in natural settings or
naturally occurring situations.

Observation of a field setting involves -

 Prolonged engagement in a setting or social situation;

 Clearly expressed, self-conscious notations of how observing is done;
 Methodical and tactical improvisation in order to develop a full understanding of the setting
of interest;
 Imparting attention in ways that is in some sense ‘standardized’;
 Recording one’s observations.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Observational Method

What and how you observe depends very much on your subject of study. Researchers who prefer
more security from the beginning might consider systematic observation. This involves using an
observation schedule whereby teacher and/or pupil behavior is coded according to certain
predetermined categories at regular intervals. The strengths of systematic observation are –

 It is relatively free of observer bias. It can establish frequencies, and is strong on objective
measures which involve low inference on the part of the observer.
 Reliability can be strong. Where teams of researchers have used this approach, 80%
reliability has been established among them.
 Generalisability. Once you have devised your instrument, large samples can be covered.
 It is precise. There is no ‘hanging around’ or ‘muddling through’.
 It provides a structure for the research.

The weaknesses are –

 There is a measure of unreliability. Qualitative material might be misrepresented through the

use of measurement techniques.
 Much of the interaction is missed.
 It usually ignores the temporal and spatial context in which the data is collected.
 It is not good for generating fresh insights.
 The pre-specification of categories predetermines what is to be discovered and allows only
partial description.
 It ignores process, flux, development, and change.

There has been lively debate about the pros and cons of systematic and unsystematic
observation. In general, systematic observation is a useful technique and can be particularly
strong where used in conjunction with more purely qualitative techniques.

Survey Method

Survey research is often used to assess thoughts, opinions, and feelings. Survey research can be
specific and limited, or it can have more global, widespread goals. Today, survey research is
used by a variety of different groups. Psychologists and sociologists often use survey research to
analyze behavior, while it is also used to meet the more pragmatic needs of the media, such as, in
evaluating political candidates, public health officials, professional organizations, and
advertising and marketing directors. A survey consists of a predetermined set of questions that is
given to a sample. With a representative sample, that is, one that is representative of the larger
population of interest, one can describe the attitudes of the population from which the sample
was drawn. Further, one can compare the attitudes of different populations as well as look for
changes in attitudes over time.
Case Study Method

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event or community. Typically
data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g.
observations & interviews). The case study research method originated in clinical medicine (the
case history, i.e. the patient’s personal history). The case study method often involves simply
observing what happens to, or reconstructing ‘the case history’ of a single participant or group of
individuals (such as a school class or a specific social group), i.e. the idiographic approach. Case
studies allow a researcher to investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they
were trying to deal with a large number of research participants (nomothetic approach) with the
aim of ‘averaging’.

The case study is not itself a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection
and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies such as qualitative techniques
(unstructured interviews, participant observation, diaries), personal notes (e.g. letters,
photographs, notes) or official document (e.g. case notes, clinical notes, appraisal reports). The
data collected can be analyzed using different theories (e.g. grounded theory, interpretative
phenomenological analysis, text interpretation (e.g. thematic coding) etc. All the approaches
mentioned here use preconceived categories in the analysis and they are ideographic in their
approach, i.e. they focus on the individual case without reference to a comparison group.

Characteristics of Case Study Method

 Case study research is not sampling research. Selecting cases must be done so as to maximize
what can be learned in the period of time available for the study.
 The unit of analysis is a critical factor in the case study. It is typically a system of action
rather than an individual or group of individuals. Case studies tend to be selective, focusing
on one or two issues that are fundamental to understanding the system being examined.
 Case studies are multi-perspectives analyses. This means that the researcher considers not
just the voice and perspective of the actors, but also of the relevant groups of actors and the
interaction between them. This one aspect is a salient point in the characteristic that case
studies possess. They give a voice to the powerless and voiceless.
 Case study is known as a triangulated research strategy. Snow and Anderson (1991) asserted
that triangulation can occur with data, investigators, theories, and even methodologies. Stake
(1995) stated that the protocols that are used to ensure accuracy and alternative explanations
are called triangulation. The need for triangulation arises from the ethical need to confirm the
validity of the processes.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Case Studies

A good case study should always make clear which information is factual description and which
is inference or the opinion of the researcher. The strengths of case studies are - Provides detailed
(rich qualitative) information; Provides insight for further research; Permitting investigation of
otherwise impractical (or unethical) situations.

Merits of case study method can be described briefly as follows -

 The case study helps to study and understand the human nature and conducts very
intensively. As a result, any researcher can formulate a valid hypothesis.
 Any researcher can get actual and exemplary records of experience that may be useful as
guidelines to others life as this method carries out intensive study of all aspects of a unit
or a problem selected for research.
 This case study method is very useful in sampling as it efficiently and orderly classifies
the units selected for research based on data and information so collected.
 Under the case study, any researcher can undertake one or more research method(s) under
the existing circumstances. S/he can use various methods as interviews, questionnaires,
report, sampling and similar other methods.
 As this method emphasizes historical analysis, this method is taken as a means of
knowing and understanding the past life of a social unit. That is why; it can suggest the
possible measures to be taken for having improvements in present life by the lesson of
past life. In other words, it is said that the old is gold and morning show the day.
 Under this case study method, any researcher can find out new helpful things as it holds
perfect study of sociological materials that can represent real image of experience.
 Under this case study method, any research may increase his/her analytical ability and
skill of the study of practical experiences.
  This method makes possible the study, to bring positive changes in the society. As this
method holds overall study of life of a social unit, the researcher can know and
understand the changes occurred in our society and can suggest to make corrections in
human behavior for the welfare, as well.
 As this case study method holds study of all aspects of a social unit, terms of past, present
and future time, it gives the matured knowledge that could also be useful to his/her
personal and public life.
 This case study method is also taken as indispensable and significant as regards to taking
decision on many management issues. Case data are also very useful for diagnosis and
thereby of practical case issues. It can be taken as an example to be followed in future.

Case studies can help us generate new ideas (that might be tested by other methods). They are an
important way of illustrating theories and can help show how different aspects of a person's life
are related to each other. The method is therefore important for a holistic point of view.

Despite its merits as referred to in above, demerits of the case study method can be described
shortly as follows –

 This case study method is a very vague process. There is no mechanism to control researcher.
Generalization is almost impossible to a larger similar population.
 Under this case study method, there is no limitation of study. The researcher always finds
difficulties in deciding when s/he should stop to collect data for his/her study. He/she may
find all things to be pertinent.
 This case study method is always based on several assumptions. However, sometimes, they
may not be realistic. Under such circumstances, such data should be tested.
 Under this case study method, the result is drawn up on the basis of all post experiences.
Collection of much data and information may lead to confusion to find out pertinent and
specific information.
 This case study method is based on comparison with the post life. However, human value,
attitude, behavior, reactions, circumstance are very wide and differ with each other. It is
difficult to compare from one another.
 This case study method always collects post information and data of the society. However,
there is no system of checking. Difficult to replicate.
References

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