CHAPTER TWO

DATA COLLECTION AND PRESENTATION

2.1. DATA COLLECTION
2.1.1. Meaning of Collection of Data
Collection of data implies a systematic and meaningful assembly of information for the
accomplishment of the objective of a statistical investigation. It refers to the methods used in
gathering the required information from the units under investigation.
2.1.2. Primary and Secondary Data
2.1.2.1.Meaning and distinction between primary and secondary data
Statistical data may be obtained either from primary or secondary source. A primary source is a
source from where first-hand information is gathered. On the other hand, secondary source is the
one that makes data available, which were collected by some other agency. Clearly, a source, which
is not primary, is necessarily a secondary source. Primary sources are original sources of data.

Data obtained from a primary source is called primary data.

data. Likewise, data gathered from a
secondary source is known as secondary data.
data.
2.1.2.2.Methods of collecting primary data
After discussing the two sources of data, primary and secondary, it is logical to say a few words
about the methods employed in collecting data from its original or primary source.
Many authors commonly state three methods of collecting primary data. These are:
a. Interview method
b. Observation
c. Questionnaire method
a) Interview method (Personal Enquiry Method)
In personal enquiry method, a question sheet is prepared which is called schedule. The schedule
contains all the questions, which would extract a complete report from a respondent. Depending on
the nature of the interview, personal enquiry method is further classified into two types.
 Direct Personal Interview:
Interview: It is a type of personal enquiry where there is a fac-to-face contact
with the persons from whom the information is to be obtained
 Indirect Personal Enquiry (Interview): It is the second type of personal enquiry where the
investigator contacts third parties called witnessed who are capable of supplying the necessary
information.
b) Observation

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It includes all methods from simple visual observations to the use of high-level machines and
measurements, sophisticated equipment or facilities, such as radiographic, X-ray machines,
microscope.
In a direct observation approach, an investigator stays at the place of survey and notes down the
observation himself.
c) Questionnaire Method (Self-administered)
Under this method, a list of questions related to the survey is prepared and distributed by hand to
the respondents or sent to the various respondents by post, Web sites, e-mail, etc. However, this
method cannot be used if the respondent is illiterate. It is a method that is often used in many
statistical investigations.

Types of questions used in a questionnaire

Depending on how questions are asked and recorded we can distinguish two major types of
questions- Open –ended questions, and closed ended questions.
a) Closed- ended questions:
questions: Closed questions offer a list of possible options or answers
from which the respondents must choose.
b) Open-ended questions:
questions: Open-ended questions permit free responses that should be
recorded in the respondent’s own words. The respondent is not given any possible
answers to choose from.
2.1.3. Types of Variables and Level (Scale) of Measurement
Types of Variables
Variables are divided into two: Qualitative and quantitative variable
1. Qualitative variables are nonnumeric variables and cannot be measured. Examples: gender,
religious affiliation, and state of birth.
2. Quantitative Variables are numerical variables and can be measured. Examples: balance in
checking account, number of children in family.
Note that quantitative variables are either discrete or continuous
Discrete variable:
variable: It assumes a finite or countable number of possible values. It is usually obtained
by counting. Example: number of children‘s in a family, number of cars at a traffic light
Continuous variable:
variable: It can assume any value within the defined range. Continuous variables are
usually obtained by measuring. Example: weight in kg, height, time, air pressure in a tire.
Level (Scale) of Measurement
There are four general levels of measurements:
These are: Nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio levels of measurements

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1. Nominal level
The terms nominal level of measurements and nominal scale are commonly used to refer to data
that can only be classified into categories. In the strict sense of the words, however, there are no
measurements and no scales involved. Instead, there are just counts.
There is no any mathematical difference between categories.
Examples:
1. Sex of a person (male and female could be coded as 0 and 1).
2. Ethnic group (black, white and oriental may be coded as 0, 1 and 2).
This indicates that for nominal level of measurement, there is no particular order for the groupings.
Further, the categories are considered to be mutually exclusive. Note that in all the above cases one
cannot say that 1> 0 or 2> 1 etc.
Nominal level is considered the most primitive, the lowest or the most limited type of measurement
2. Ordinal Level
Ordinal data are nominal data, which have order and consensus. Measurements with ordinal scales
are ordered in the sense that higher numbers represent higher values, i.e., they can have meaningful
inequalities (< or >). In such kind of data, only counting and ranking are possible but it is not likely
to find exact differences.
Examples
1. Military ranks: comparing 3 stars general and 4 stars general.
2. Linkers scale such as 1= poor, 2= fair, 3= good and 4= excellent.
The major difference between a nominal level and an ordinal level of measurement is the “greater
than” relationship between the ordinal-level categories. Otherwise, the ordinal scale of
measurement has the same characteristics as the nominal scale; namely, the categories are mutually
exclusive and exhaustive.
2. Interval level
The interval scale of measurement is the next higher level. It includes all the characteristics of the
ordinal scale, but in addition, the distance between values is a constant size. If one observation is
greater than another by a certain amount, and the zero point is arbitrary, the measurement is on at
least an interval scale. For example, the difference between temperatures of 70 degrees and 80
degrees is 10 degrees. Likewise, a temperature of 90 degrees is 10 degrees more than a temperature
of 80 degrees, and so on. Scores on a statistics or mathematics examination are also examples of the
interval scale of measurement.

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 3. Ratio level
Ratio level is the highest level of measurement. This level has all the characteristics of interval
level. The distances between numbers are of a known, constant size; the categories are mutually
exclusive, and so on.

The major differences between interval and ratio levels of measurement are these: (1) Ratio-level
data has a meaningful zero point and (2) the ratio between two numbers is meaningful. Money is a
good illustration having zero dollars has meaning you have none! Weight is another ratio-level
measurement.
Examples:

1. Income is a ratio data because zero dollars is truly “no income”

2. Measurement data like height, weight, volume and area.
If the dial on a scale is zero, there is a complete absence of weight. Also, if you earn $40,000 a year
and John earns $ 10,000, you earn four times what he does. Likewise, if you weigh 80 kg and John
weight 40 kg., you weigh twice John. But such comparisons are impossible in interval level of
measurement.

2.2. CLASSIFICATION OF DATA

After collecting relevant information (data) for the purpose of statistical investigation, the next
important task is classification of this data. It is difficult to group the meaning of any considerable
volume of numerical data unless their mass is somehow reduced to relatively few convenient
classes or categories.

Classification of data is the process of arranging things in groups or classes according to their
resemblance.
Purposes of Classification:
Classification: -
 To eliminate unnecessary detail.
 To bring out clearly points of similarity & dissimilarity
 To enable one to form mental pictures of objects on measurements
 To enable one to make comparisons and draw inferences

Types of Classification
1. Geographical Classification:
Classification: - Data are arranged according to places like continents, regions,
and countries
2. Chronological Classification:
Classification: - Data are arranged according to time like year, month.

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3. Qualitative Classification: - Data are arranged according to attributes like color,
religion, marital-status, sex, educational background, etc.
4. Quantitative Classification:
Classification: - In this type of classification, the statistical data is classified
according to some quantitative variables. The variable may be either discrete or continuous.
2.3. PRESENTATION OF DATA
This section deals with the study of organizing a set of raw data into a Frequency Distribution (FD)
and describes the distribution graphically in a histogram, a frequency polygon, & a cumulative
frequency curve (ogive). The other types of numerical information will be summarized & presented
in the form of bar chart, pie chart or a pictogram.

Definition: Presentation is a statistical procedure of arranging and putting data in a form of

tables, graphs, charts and/or diagrams
2.3.1. Tabular Data Presentation
Tabulation is a logical or systematic listing of related data in rows and columns. The row of a table
represents the horizontal arrangement of data and column represents the vertical arrangement of
data.
Simple or one-way table
Table 1: Educational level of 200 employees in a certain organization
Educational level Number of employees Percent (%)
BA 120 60
MA 60 30
PhD 20 10
Two-way table:
table: This table shows two characteristics and is formed when either the row or
the column is divided into two or more parts.
Table 2: Educational level by marital status of employees in an organization
Educational level
Marital BA MA PhD Total
Single
Status 90 50 18 158
Married 30 10 2 42
Total 120 60 20 200
2.3.2. Frequency Distribution
When the raw data have been collected, they should be put into an ordered array in an ascending or
descending order so that it can be looked at more objectively. Then this data must be organized into
a “FD” which simply lists the values or classes with their corresponding frequencies in a tabular
form. Here, frequency refers to the number of observations a certain value occurred in a data.
The tabular representation of values of a variable together with the corresponding frequency is
called a Frequency Distribution (FD).

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Definition: A frequency distribution is the organization of raw data in table form, using classes and
frequencies.
Frequency distribution is of two kinds: Ungrouped and Grouped Frequency Distribution
2.3.2.1. Ungrouped Frequency Distribution (UFD)
Shows a distribution where the values of a variable are linked with the respective frequencies.
Example 1: Consider the number of children in 15 families.
1 0 3 2 0
2 4 1 3 1
4 1 2 2 3
Construct ungrouped FD for the above data.
Solution:
No. of Children No. of Family Frequency Relative
(Values) (Tallies) Frequency
0 // 2 0.13
1 //// 4 0.27
2 //// 4 0.27
3 /// 3 0.2
4 // 2 0.13
Total 15 1
Exercise 1

Consider the following scores in a statistics test obtained by 20 students in a given class.

10, 4, 4, 7, 5, 7, 7, 8, 5, 7, 8, 5, 10, 8, 7, 5, 7, 8, 7, 4
Prepare an ungrouped FD
2.3.2.2. Grouped Frequency Distribution (GFD)
If the mass of the data is very large, it is necessary to condense the data into an appropriate number
of classes or groups of values of a variable and indicate the number of observed values that fall into
each class. Therefore, a GFD is a frequency distribution where values of a variable are linked into
groups & corresponded with the number of observations in each group.
Example 2
Values (xi) 1 - 25 26 - 50 51 - 75 76 - 100
Frequency (fi) 3 10 18 6

Common Terminologies in a GFD

1. Class: - group of values of a variable between two specified numbers called lower class limit
and upper class limit
Lower Class Limit (LCL) & Upper Class Limit (UCL)
In example 2, the GFD contains four classes: 1 – 25, 26 – 50, 51 – 75, and 76 – 100
LCL1 = 1, UCL1 = 25 LCL3 = 51, UCL3 = 75
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 LCL2 = 26, UCL2 = 50 LCL4 = 76, UCL4 = 100
2. Class Frequency (or Simply Frequency):
Frequency): refers to the number of observations corresponding
to a class.
In example 2 the class frequency of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, & 4th classes are respectively 3, 10, 18 and 6.
3. Class Boundaries: are boundaries obtained by subtracting half of the unit of measurement (u)
from the lower limits or by adding ½ (u) on the upper limits of a class.
i.e LCBi = LCLi - ½ (u)
UCBi = UCLi + ½ (u)
Where LCBi = Lower Class Boundaries and
UCBi = Upper Class Boundaries
Remark:
Remark: The unit of measurement (u) is the gap between any two successive classes. i.e
u = lower limit of a class – upper limit of the preceding class.
In example 2, consider the 2nd class, 26 – 50, since u = 26 – 25 = 1,
LCL2 = 26 UCL2 = 50
LCB2 = 26 - ½(1) = 25.5 UCB2 = 50 + ½(1) =50.5
4. Class Width (size of a class or class interval)
interval): it is the difference between the upper and lower
class limits or the difference between the upper and lower class boundaries of any class.

Remarks:
a. If both the LCL & UCL are included in a class, it is called an inclusive class. E.g 0 – 10,
11 – 20, 21 – 30, and so on. For inclusive classes,
Class width (cw) = UCBi - LCBi
b. If LCL is included and the UCL is not included in a class, it is called an exclusive class.
E.g. 0 – 10, 10 – 20, 20 – 30, and so on. For exclusive classes
cw = UCLi – LCLi
To be consistent, we use inclusive classes.
5. Class Mark (cm): it is the midpoint (center) of a class cmi = UCBi + LCBi
2
Note:-
Note:- the difference between any two successive class marks is equal to the width of a class
6. Range (R) : is the difference between the largest (L) and the smallest (S) values in a data
R=L–S

Steps in constructing a Grouped Frequency Distribution

1. Find the Largest and the smallest value and compute the range; R = L – S,

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 2. n 1 + 3.322LogN; up/down to
Determine the number of classes (n) using sturgles formula n
the nearest whole number, where N=Total number of observation
3. Find the class width (cw) by dividing the range(R) by the number of classes (n) and round to
the nearest integer. cw=R/n
4. Identify the unit of measurement usually as 1, 0.1, 0.01…
5. Determine the class limits
a. Determine the lower-class limit of the first class (LCL1), pick a suitable starting point less
than or equal to the minimum value. then
LCL2 = LCL1 + cw, LCL3 = LCL2 + cw,… LCLi+1 = LCLi + cw
b. Determine the upper class limit of the first class (UCL1) i.e.
UCL1 = LCL1 + cw – u, where u = the unit of measurement, then
UCL2 = UCL1 + cw, UCL3 =UCL2 + cw, … , UCLi+1 = UCLi + cw
6. Compute class boundaries (UCBi = UCLi + ½*U and LCBi = LCLi – ½*U) and class mark
(Cmi=(UCBi+LCBi)/2) then complete the GFD with the respective class frequencies.
Example 3: The number of customers for consecutive 30 days in a supermarket was listed as
follows:
20 48 65
25 48 49
35 25 72
42 22 58
53 42 23
57 65 37
18 65 37
16 39 42
49 68 69
63 29 67
a. Construct a GFD with a suitable number of classes
b. Complete the distribution obtained in (a) with class boundaries & class marks

Solution:
1. Range = Largest value – smallest value = 72 – 16 = 56
2. N = 30 (total number of observations)
 Number of classes, n = 1 + 3.322 log30
 n = 1 + 3.322 log30
= 1 + 3.322 (1.4771)
= 5.9
Hence a suitable number of class n is chosen to be 6

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3. Class width = Range  = 9.33 = cw
56
n 6

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 For the sake of convenience, take cw to be 10 (note that it is also
possible to choose the cw to be 9).
4. u=1
5. Take lower limit of the 1st class (LCL1) to be 16 & u = 1
LCL1 = 16 and UCL1 = LCL1 + cw – u =16+10-1 = 25
LCL2 = LCL1 + cw = 16 + 10 = 26 UCL2 = UCL1 + cw = 25 + 10 = 35
LCL3=LCL2 + cw = 26 + 10 = 36 UCL3 = UCL2 + cw = 35 + 10 = 45 and so on

6. LCBi = LCLi – ½(u) UCB i=

= UCLi + ½(u) Cmi=(UCBi+LCBi)/2
LCB1 = LCL1 – ½(u) =16-½(1) =15.5, LCB2 = LCL2 – ½(u) =26-½(1) =25.5 and so on
UCB1= UCL1 + ½(u) =25+½(1) =25.5, then continue to UCL6
Therefore, the GFD would be
a) b)
Class (xi) Frequency (f
(fi) Class (xi) Frequency (f
(fi) CBi cmi
16 – 25 7 16 – 25 7 15.5 – 25.5 20.5
26 – 35 2 26 – 35 2 25.5 – 35.5 30.5
36 – 45 6 36 – 45 6 35.5 – 45.5 40.5
46 – 55 5 46 – 55 5 45.5 – 55.5 50.5
56 – 65 6 56 – 65 6 55.5 – 65.5 60.5
66 – 75 4 66 – 75 4 65.5 – 75.5 70.5

Exercise 3: Consider the following data about the ages of 50 persons.

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 37 40 69
35 36 70
72 62 36
72
65 64 47
59 55 42
45 50 46
65
54 63 51
50 61 60
58 58 56
58
55 45 49
51 50 56
44 60 70
44
52 43 55
46 42 62
57 48 60
55
A. How many classes would you recommend?
B. What class interval would you suggest?
C. What would you recommend as the lower limit and upper limit of the first class?
D. Organize the data into a grouped frequency distribution based on the appropriate
class interval.
E. What is the modal age?
2.3.2.3. Cumulative Frequency Distribution (CFD)
It is the collection of values of a variable above or below specified values in a distribution. GFD
is of two types.
a. ‘Less Than’ Cumulative Frequency Distribution (<CFD): shows the collection of cases
lying below the upper class boundaries of each class.
b. ‘More Than’ Cumulative Frequency Distribution (>CFD): shows the collection of cases
lying above the lower class boundaries of each class.
Remark: The frequency distribution does not tell us directly the number of units above or
below specified values of the classes this can be determined from a “cumulative Frequency
Distribution’

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Example 4: Convert the absolute frequency distribution in example 3 into a less than and more
than cumulative frequency distribution
Class Class Frequency Less than Cumulative More than Cumulative
(xi) Boundaries (fi) Frequency (<cfi) Frequency (>cfi)
16 – 25 15.5 – 25.5 7 7 30
26 – 35 25.5 – 35.5 2 9 23
36 – 45 35.5 – 45.5 6 15 21
46 – 55 45.5 – 55.5 5 20 15
56 – 65 55.5 – 65.5 6 26 10
66 – 75 65.5 – 75.5 4 30 4
This means that from ‘less than’ cumulative frequency distribution there are 7 observations less
than 25.5, 9 observations below 35.5, etc and from ‘more than’ cumulative frequency
distribution 30 observations are above 15.5, 23 observations are above 25.5 etc.
2.3.2.4. Relative Frequency Distribution (RFD)
It enables the researcher to know the proportion or percentage of cases in each class. Relative
frequencies can be obtained by dividing the frequency of each class by the total frequency. It
can be converted in to a percentage frequency by multiplying each relative frequency by 100%.
i.e.

fi
Rf i =
n
Where Rfi – is the relative frequency of the ith class Note: Pfi = Rfi  100%
fi – is the frequency of the ith class Where Pfi is percentage frequency of each class. n – is
the total number of observations
Example 5: The relative and percentage frequency distribution of Example 3 is:

Class Class Frequency Rfi (Pfi)

16(xi)
– 25 15.5 – 25.5
Boundaries 7
(fi) 7/30=0.23 0.23*100=23%
26 – 35 25.5 – 35.5 2 2/30=0.07 0.07*100=7%
36 – 45 35.5 – 45.5 6 6/30=0.2 0.2*100=20%
46 – 55 45.5 – 55.5 5 5/30=0.17 0.17*100=17%
56 – 65 55.5 – 65.5 6 6/30=0.2 0.2*100=20%
66 – 75 65.5 – 75.5 4 4/30=0.13 0.13*100=13%

Exercise 4

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Consider the following data.
22, 11, 12, 12, 13, 20, 14, 14, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,7,8,7,8,9,10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 17, 17, 18, 15, 19, 12,
14,15,18
A. Prepare an ungrouped frequency distribution
B. Construct a grouped frequency distribution with appropriate number of classes and
compute the class boundaries and class marks
C. Construct a less than and more than cumulative frequency distribution
D. Compute the relative and percentage frequency distribution
2.3.3. GRAPHIC METHODS OF DATA PRESENTATION
2.3.3.1. Histogram
After you complete a frequency distribution, your next step will be to construct a “picture” of
these data values using a histogram. A histogram is a graph consisting of a series of adjacent
rectangles whose bases are equal to the class width of the corresponding classes and whose
heights are proportional to the corresponding class frequencies. Here, class boundaries are
marked along the horizontal axis (x – axis) and the class frequencies along the vertical axis (y –
axis) according to a suitable scale. It describes the shape of the data. You can use it to answer
quickly such questions as are the data symmetric? And where do most of the data values lay?
Example 6: Construct a histogram for the following distribution.

Class boundaries 14.5-24.5 24.5-34.5 34.5-44.5 44.5-54.5 54.5-64.5

Frequency 3 4 8 6 7
Solution
9

5
Series1
4
F

q
u
r
e

0
14.5-24.5 24.5-34.5 34.5-44.5 44.5-54.5 54.5-64.5

Class Boundaries

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Exercise 5: Construct a histogram for the following distribution
Class (xi) 5 – 10 10 – 15 15 – 20 20 – 25 25 - 30 30 – 35
Frequency (f
(fi) 4 7 9 12 6 5

2.3.3.2. Frequency Polygon

Frequency polygon is constructed by plotting the class frequencies against class marks and
joining them by a set of line segments.
Although a histogram does demonstrate the shape of the data, perhaps the shape can be more
clearly illustrated by using a frequency polygon. Here, you merely connect the centers of the
tops of the histogram bars (located at the class midpoints) with a series of straight lines. The
resulting figure is a frequency polygon. Here the class marks are plotted along the x – axis and
the class frequencies along the y – axis.
Note: Two classes with zero frequencies at the two ends of the Frequency distribution are added
to complete the polygon
Example 7: Consider the frequency distribution given in the above example 6 and construct a
frequency polygon.

Frequency Polygon

9
8
7
6
5
Frequency
F

q
u
r
e

4
3
2
1
0
9.5 19.5 29.5 39.5 49.5 59.5 69.5
Class Marks
.
Exercise 6: Construct
Construct a frequency polygon for the frequency distribution given in exercise 5
2.3.3.3. Cumulative Frequency Curve (Ogive)
It is the graphic representation of a cumulative frequency distribution Ogives are of two kinds.
‘Less than’ ogive and ‘more than’ Ogive (< Ogive and > Ogive).
A) ‘Less than’ ogive:
ogive: here, upper class boundaries are plotted against the ‘less than’
cumulative frequencies of the respective class & they are joined by adjacent lines.

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 Example 8: Draw a ‘less than’ Ogive for the following frequency distribution
Class (xi) 3-6 7 – 10 11 – 14 15 – 18 19 – 22
Frequency (f
(fi) 4 7 10 6 3
Class Boundaries 2.5-6.5 6.5-10.5 10.5-14.5 14.5-18.5 18.5-22.5
<Cumulative FD 4 11 21 27 30
>Cumulative FD 30 26 19 9 3

A less than ogive showing the frequency distribution above

Less than cumulative frequency (<Cfi)

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
6.5 10.5 14.5 18.5 22.5

Upper class boundary (UCBi)

B
. ‘More
‘More than’ Ogive:
Ogive: here, lower class boundaries are plotted against the ‘more than’ cumulative
frequencies of their respective class and they are joined by adjacent lines.
Example 9: Draw a ‘More than’ Ogive for the frequency distribution given in example 8
Solution:

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 A more than ogive for the above frequency distribu-
tion
More than cumulative frequency (>Cfi

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
2.5 6.5 10.5 14.5 18.5
lower class boundaries (LCBi)

2.3.3.4. Line Graph

It represents the relationship between time (on the x-axis) and values of variable (on the y-axis).
The values are recorded with respect to the time of occurrence.
Example 10: Draw a line graph for the following time series data.

Year 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

Values 20 10 30 15 25 10
Solution
A line graph showing the above time series

40
30 30
Values

25
20 20
15
10 10 10
0
1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991
Year

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2.3.3.5. Bar Chart (Bar Diagram)
Histogram, Frequency polygon, ogives are used for data having an interval or ratio level of
measurement. The other kinds of presenting statistical data suitable for a particular kind of
situations are bar charts, pie chart and pictograph.
Bar chart is a series of equally spaced bars of uniform width where the height (length) of a bar
represents the amount (magnitude) of frequency corresponding with a category. Bars may be
drawn horizontally or vertically. Vertical bar graphs are preferred as they allow comparison with
other bars.

Types of Bar Charts

A. Simple Bar Chart: It represents a single set of data (variable) classified in different
categories. Singular bars are drawn with the respective frequencies.
Example 11: Revenue (in millions of Birr) of company x from 1980 to 1982 is given below
Year Revenue
1980 50
1981 150
1982 200

A simple bar chart showing revenues of company X from 1980 to 1982

250
Revenue

200
150
100
50
0
1980 1981 1982
year

B. Multiple Bar Chart: Here two or more bars are grouped with the corresponding frequency to
represent two or more interrelated data in each category. The bars of related variables are kept
adjacent to each other for every set of values. These charts can be used if the overall total is not
required and each bar is shaded or colored separately and a key is given to distinguish them.

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Example 12: The following table shows the production of wheat and maize in hundreds of
quintals.
Year 1980 1981 1982
Maize 40 20 60
Wheat 80 60 100
Solution:

The number of quintals(in thousands) of

wheat and maize production
100
100 80
80 60 60
Number of60 40
quintals
40 20 maize
20 wheat
0
1980 1981 1982
Year

C. Subdivided (Component) Bar Chart: It is used to present data by subdividing a single bar
with respect to the proportional frequency. Each portion of the bar is then shaded or colored and
a key is given to distinguish them.
Example 13: The number of quintals of wheat and maize (in millions of quintals) produced by
country x in the indicated years.

Year Wheat Maize

1980 150 150
1981 300 200
1982 350 100

Solution:

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 The number of quintals of wheat and maize
produced by country X

Number of quintals
600

400 200 100 Maize

200 150 Wheat

300 350
150
0
1980 1981 1982

Year

D. Percentage Bar Chart:

Chart: It is a subdivided bar chart where percentages are used in each
classification rather than the actual frequencies.
Example 14: Construct percentage bar chart for the data given in Example 13.
Year % of Wheat Production % of Maize Production
1980 150/300  100 = 50 150/300  100 = 50
1981 300/500  100 = 60 200/500  100 = 40
1982 350/450  100 = 78 100/450  100 = 22
Percentage produced

Percentage of wheat and maize production from 1980-1982

100%
22
80% 50 40
60% wheat
40% 78 maize
50 60
20%
0%
1980 1981 1982
Year
Solution:
2.3.3.6. Pie Chart
A pie chart is a circle divided in to various sectors with areas proportional to the value of the
component they represent. It shows the components in terms of percentages not in absolute
magnitude. The degree of the angle formed at the center has to be proportional to the values
represented.

Example 15: The monthly expenditure of a certain family is given below.

Items Expenditure % Proportion (Pf
(Pfi)

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 Clothing 100 100/1000  100 = 10%
Food 350 350/1000  100 = 35%
House Rent 250 250/1000  100 = 25%
Miscellaneous 300 300/1000  100 = 30%
Total 1000 100%
Solution: The pie chart for the above expenditure is as follows

Food
30% 35% House rent
Clothing
Misc.
10% 25%

2.3.3.7. Pictograph (Pictogram)

A pictograph is a graph that uses symbols or pictures to represent data.
Example 16: In comparing the population of a country from 1990 to 1992, we simply draw
pictures of people where each picture may represent 1,000,000 people.

1992 -  Key:  = 1,000,000

1991 - 

1990 - 

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