Assignment No 1

1. Explain the connection oriented and connection less services

Ans.

 The Connection oriented services - These services establish a connection

prior to sending the packets belonging to the same message from source to
the destination.TCP/IP is connection oriented service.
 Connectionless services - Connectionless services considers each packet
belonging to the same message as a different & independent entity and route
them with a different path.UDP is connectionless service

2. What is fragmentation?

Ans. IP fragmentation is an Internet Protocol (IP) process that breaks packets into
smaller pieces (fragments), so that the resulting pieces can pass through a link
with a smaller maximum transmission unit (MTU) than the original packet size.
The fragments are reassembled by the receiving host.
3. Name different Network Layer Protocols.

Ans. Following are the different network layer protocols

 Networking : the linking of computers to allow then to operate interactively.

 Addressing : port addresses which work at transport layer to help send
segments from 1 process to another
 Routing : It contains two compartments

a) Header : It contains information to help routing the data packets.

b) Actual data

 Fragmenting : Dividing use data in smaller parts that is chunks.

 Encapsulation : The network layer receives protocol data unit (PDU) from
the transport layer. In the process called encapsulation , the network layer
adds IP header information

4. What is ARP protocol?

Ans. The Address Resolution Protocol is a communication Protocol used for

discovering the link layer address , such as MAC , address associated with a given
internet layer address , typically and ipv4 address. This mapping is a critical
function in the internet protocol suite.
5. Write short note on : IP

Ans. An internet protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to

each device connected to a computer network that uses the internet protocol for
communication

 An IP address serves to many functions :host or network interface

identification and location addressing
 Internet protocol version 4 ipv4 defines an IP address as a 32 bit number.
 However because of growth of the internet and the depletion of available
ipv4 addresses.
 A new version of IP IPv6 using 128 bits for the IP address was standardized
in 1998.
 IPv6 deployment has been going since the mid 2000s

A)

B.)
6. Compare ipv4 and IPv6

Ans.

IPV4 IPV6

IPv4 has 32-bit address length IPv6 has 128-bit address length

In IPv4 end to end connection integrity In IPv6 end to end connection integrity
is Unachievable is Achievable

It can generate 4.29×109 address space Address space of IPv6 is quite large it
can produce 3.4×1038 address space

Security feature is dependent on IPSEC is inbuilt security feature in the

application IPv6 protocol

Fragmentation performed by Sender and In IPv6 fragmentation performed only

forwarding routers by sender

In IPv4 checksum field is available In IPv6 checksum field is not available

In IPv4 Encryption and Authentication In IPv6 Encryption and Authentication

facility not provided are provided

IPv4 has header of 20-60 bytes. IPv6 has header of 40 bytes fixed

7. state limitations of of ipv4

Ans.

 The lack of address space the number of different devices connected to the
internet grows exponentially and the size of the address space is quickly
depleted.
 Weak protocol extensibility - the insufficient size of the ipv4 header , which
does not accommodate the required number of additional parameters.
 Scarcity of ipv4 addresses - the ipv4 addressIng system uses 32 bit address
space .This 32 bit address space is further classified into usable A , B and C
 classes. 32 bit address space a loss for or 4,294,967,296 ipv4 addresses , but
the previous and current ipv4 address.

8. Explain IP addressing along with classes.

Ans. IP defines 5 classes of IP addresses: class A, B, C, D and E. Each class has a

range of valid IP addresses. The value of the 1st Octet determines the class . IP
addresses from the first three classes A, B and C can be used for host addresses.
The other two classes are used for other purposes class D for multicast and class E
for experimental purposes

 Following are the classes with other range.

Class High order bits Start IP address End IP address

A 0 0.0.0.0 127.255.255.255

B 10 128.0.0.0 191.255.255.255

C 110 192.0.0.0 223.255.255 255

Multicast (D) 1110 224.0.0.0 239.255.255.255

Experimental (E) 1111 240.0.0.0 255.255.255.255

 Following are classes and their jobs.

Class A Supports 16 millions hosts on each other

of 127 networks.

Class B Supports 6500 hosts on each of 16000

networks.

Class C Supports 254 hosts on each of 2 millions

networks.

Class D Reserved for Multicast group.

Class E Reserved for future use , or research and

development purpose.
 9).Draw and explain IPv4 packet format
ANS:

IP header includes many relevant information including Version Number, which,

in this context, is 4. Other details are as follows −

 Version − Version no. of Internet Protocol used (e.g. IPv4).

 IHL − Internet Header Length; Length of entire IP header.
 DSCP − Differentiated Services Code Point; this is Type of Service.
 ECN − Explicit Congestion Notification; It carries information about the
congestion seen in the route.
 Total Length − Length of entire IP Packet (including IP header and IP
Payload).
 Identification − If IP packet is fragmented during the transmission, all the
fragments contain same identification number to identify original IP packet
they belong to.
 Flags − As required by the network resources, if IP Packet is too large to
handle, these ‘flags’ tells if they can be fragmented or not. In this 3-bit flag,
the MSB is always set to ‘0’.
  Fragment Offset − This offset tells the exact position of the fragment in the
original IP Packet.
 Time to Live − To avoid looping in the network, every packet is sent with
some TTL value set, which tells the network how many routers (hops) this
packet can cross. At each hop, its value is decremented by one and when the
value reaches zero, the packet is discarded.
 Protocol − Tells the Network layer at the destination host, to which Protocol
this packet belongs to, i.e. the next level Protocol. For example protocol
number of ICMP is 1, TCP is 6 and UDP is 17.
 Header Checksum − This field is used to keep checksum value of entire
header which is then used to check if the packet is received error-free.
 Source Address − 32-bit address of the Sender (or source) of the packet.
 Destination Address − 32-bit address of the Receiver (or destination) of the
packet.
 Options − This is optional field, which is used if the value of IHL is greater
than 5. These options may contain values for options such as Security,
Record Route, Time Stamp, etc.

10)Write a short note on ICMP.

ANS: ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) is an error-reporting protocol

network devices like routers use to generate error messages to the source IP
address when network problems prevent delivery of IP packets.

ICMP creates and sends messages to the source IP address indicating that a
gateway to the Internet that a router, service or host cannot be reached for packet
delivery. Any IP network device has the capability to send, receive or process
ICMP messages.

ICMP is not a transport protocol that sends data between systems.

While ICMP is not used regularly in end-user applications, it is used by network

administrators to troubleshoot Internet connections in diagnostic utilities including
ping and traceroute.
11) What is Unicast routing and Multicast routing?

ANS:

UNICAST ROUTING: Unicast routing is the process of forwarding unicasted

traffic from a source to a destination on an internetwork. Unicasted traffic is
destined for a unique address. To understand the details of routing protocols such
as Routing Information Protocol (RIP) and Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) and
their implementation in Windows NT Server version 4.0 with the Routing and
Remote Access Service, it is important to have a solid foundation in the principles
of unicast routing. Because Windows NT, with the Routing and Remote Access
Service (RRAS), is an open platform that can conceivably host any
internetworking protocol and routing protocol, this whitepaper provides an
overview of protocol-independent unicast routing principles. The Internet Protocol
(IP) and the Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) protocol are used as the example
protocols where appropriate.

MULTICAST ROUTING: Multicast IP Routing protocols are used to distribute

data (for example, audio/video streaming broadcasts) to multiple recipients. Using
multicast, a source can send a single copy of data to a single multicast address,
which is then distributed to an entire group of recipients.

A multicast group identifies a set of recipients that are interested in a particular

data stream, and is represented by an IP address from a well-defined range. Data
sent to this IP address is forwarded to all members of the multicast group.

Routers between the source and recipients duplicate data packets and forward
multiple copies wherever the path to recipients diverges. Group membership
information is used to calculate the best routers at which to duplicate the packets in
the data stream to optimize the use of the network.

A source host sends data to a multicast group by simply setting the destination IP
address of the datagram to be the multicast group address. Any host can become a
source and send data to a multicast group. Sources do not need to register in any
way before they can begin sending data to a group, and do not need to be members
of the group themselves.

12) What is PING utility?

ANS: The Ping utility is an online free tool that helps you to verify if a
domain/server is operating and network accessible. This Ping tool uses the Internet
Control Message Protocol (ICMP) Echo function as detailed in RFC 792. A small
packet will be sent through the network to a given IP address (IPv4) or host name.
This packet contains 64 bytes - 56 data bytes and 8 bytes of protocol reader
information. The device that sent the packet then waits and listens for a return
packet. If the connections are good and the target domain/server is up, a good
return packet will be received. Ping can also tell the user the number of hops
between two targets and the amount of time it takes for a packet to make the
complete trip. In addition, this tool can also be used to resolve the host name to an
IP address. Instead of enter the IP address you can enter the host name for pinging.

13) Explain Traceroute command and its use.

ANS: The traceroute command uses ICMP Time Exceeded messages to trace a
network route. As discussed during IP, the Time to Live field is used to avoid
routing loops, every time a packet passes through a router, the router decrements
the TTL field. If the TTL reaches zero, the router drops the packet and sends an
ICMP Time Exceeded message to the original sender.

Traceroute takes advantage of this TTL feature in a clever way. Assume a client is
four hops away from a server, the client sends a packet to the server with a TTL of
1. The router A decrements the TTL to 0, drops the packet, and sends an ICMP
Time Exceeded message to the client. Router A is now identified.

The client then sends a packet with a TTL of 2 to the server. Router A decrements
the TTL to 1 and passes the packet to router B. Router B decrements the TTL to 0,
drops it, and sends an ICMP Time Exceeded message to the client. Router B is
now identified. This process continues until the server is reached, as shown in
Figure 5.10, identifying all routers along the route.
Most traceroute clients (such as UNIX and Cisco) send UDP packets outbound.
The outbound packets will be dropped, so the protocol does not matter. The
Windows tracert client sends ICMP packets outbound; Figure 5.11 shows
Windows tracert output for a route to www.syngress.com. Both client types usually
send three packets for each hop

14) Write a short note on Mobile IP.

Mobile IP is an open standard, defined by the Internet Engineering Task Force

(IETF) RFC 2002 that allows users to keep the same IP address, stay connected,
and maintain ongoing applications while roaming between IP networks. Mobile IP
is scalable for the Internet because it is based on IP—any media that can support IP
can support Mobile IP.

The number of wireless devices for voice or data is projected to surpass the
number of fixed devices. Mobile data communication will likely emerge as the
technology supporting most communication including voice and video. Mobile
data communication will be pervasive in cellular systems such as 3G and in
wireless LAN such as 802.11, and will extend into satellite communication.
Though mobility may be enabled by link-layer technologies, data crossing
networks or different link layers is still a problem. The solution to this problem is a
standards-based protocol, Mobile IP.

15) Explain the Virtual Private Network (VPN) in detail with an appropriate
diagram.
ANS: A VPN creates a secure connection between your device (for example your
computer or Smartphone) and the internet. When going online, we all have a
unique IP address. You could compare this address to a phone number or home
address, but for your computer or Smartphone, your IP address is a personal
identification code for your internet connection. It reveals your location and is tied
to the person paying your internet provider. With your IP address, you’re
recognizable and traceable online, no matter what you’re doing. That is, unless you
use a VPN.

A VPN won’t always be able to cover all your online tracks; there are other
methods that could result in uncovering your online identity. Techniques that use
WebRTC leaks and browser fingerprinting could still collect data about you. Even
so, a VPN will protect your privacy very well in most cases.

As mentioned before, VPN stands for Virtual Private Network. This private
network allows you to send your data traffic via an encrypted, secure connection to
an external server. From there, the traffic will be sent on to the internet. Because of
this, the IP address shown to the internet will be changed.