EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I

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VECTOR VALUED FUNCTIONS

LECTURE NOTES 3

Dr Matindih L. K. (Mr.)

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS, MULUNGUSHI

UNIVERSITY

2024/2025
Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 1 / 195
 Lecture Notes 3 Outline

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1 Plan Curve, Space Curves and Vector-Valued Functions

2 Limits and Continuity

3 Differentiation and Integration of Vector Valued Functions

4 Velocity and Acceleration Vectors

5
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The Unit Tangent, Normal and Binormal Vector

6 Arc Length and Curvature

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 1. Plan Curve, Space Curves and Vector-Valued Functions

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The functions that we have been using so far have been real-valued
functions. We now study functions whose values are vectors because such
functions are needed to describe curves and surfaces in space.

We will also use vector-valued functions to describe the motion of objects

Dr
through space and other circular motions. In particular, we will use them
to derive Kepler’s laws of planetary motion.

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 aft
Definition 1 (Plan Curve)
If f and g are continuous functions of t on an interval I, then the equations

x = f (t) and y = g(t)

are parametric equations and t is the parameter.

The set of points (x , y ) = (f (t), g(t)) obtained as t varies over the

interval I is the graph of the parametric equations. Taking together, the
Dr
parametric equations and the graph are a plane curve, denoted by C .

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 aft
A plane curve is generally defined as the set of ordered pairs (f (t), g(t))
together with their defining parametric equations x = f (t) and y = g(t),
where f and g are continuous functions of t on an interval I. This
definition can be extended naturally to three-dimensional space as fllows
Dr
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 Definition 2 (Space Curves)
Let f , g and h be continuous functions of t on an interval I, then the
equations

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x = f (t), y = g(t) and z = h(t)

are parametric equations and t is the parameter.

A space curve C is the set of all ordered triples (f (t), g(t), h(t)) together
with their defining parametric equations

x = f (t), y = g(t) and z = h(t)

Dr
where f , g and h are continuous functions of t on an interval I.

Before looking at examples of space curves, a new type of function, called

a vector-valued function, is introduced. This type of function maps real
numbers to vectors.
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 Definition 3 (Vector-Valued Function)
A vector-valued function or vector-function, is simply a function whose
domain is a set of real numbers and whose range is a set of vectors.

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The vector-valued function(s) in

(i) Plane is of the form

r(t) = f (t)i + g(t)j

(ii) Space is of the form

Dr r(t) = f (t)i + g(t)j + h(t)k

where f (t), g(t) and h(t) are the components of the vector r(t) and with
f , g and h are being real-valued functions of the parameter t - called the
component functions of r.
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 The Vector-valued functions are sometimes denoted in component form as

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(i) Plane is of the form

r(t) = hf (t), g(t)i

(ii) Space is of the form

Dr r(t) = hf (t), g(t), h(t)i.

We use the letter t to denote the independent variable because it

represents time in most applications of vector functions.

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 Example 4
If
√

aft
r(t) = ht 3 , ln(3 − t), ti

then the component functions are

√
f (t) = t 3 , g(t) = ln(3 − t) and h(t) = t.

By our usual convention, the domain of r consists of all values of t for

Dr
which the expression for r(t) is defined. The expressions
√
t 3, ln(3 − t) and t

are all defined when 3 − t > 0 and t ≥ 0. Therefore, the domain of r is

the interval [0, 3).

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 Technically, a curve in a plane or in space consists of a collection of points
and the defining parametric equations. Two different curves can have the
same graph. For instance, each of the curves

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r(t) = sin ti + cos tj and r(t) = sin t 2 i + cos t 2 j

has the unit circle as its graph, but these equations do not represent the
same curve-because the circle is traced out in different ways on the graphs.

Remark 1
Dr
Be sure you see the distinction between the vector-valued function r and
the real-valued functions f , g and h. All are functions of the real variable
t, but r(t) is a vector, whereas f (t), g(t) and h(t) are real numbers (for
each specific value of t).

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 aft
Real-valued functions are sometimes called scalar functions to distinguish
them from vector-valued functions. Vector-valued functions serve dual
roles in the representation of curves. By letting the parameter t represent
time, you can use a vector-valued function to represent motion along a
curve.

Or, in the more general case, you can use a vector-valued function to trace
the graph of a curve. In either case, the terminal point of the position
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vector r(t) coincides with the point (x , y ) or (x , y , z) on the curve given
by the parametric equations, as shown in Figure 1.

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 aft
Dr
Figure 1: Curve C is traced out by the terminal point of position vector r(t).

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 The arrowhead on the curve indicates the curve’s orientation by pointing

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in the direction of increasing values of t.

Unless stated otherwise, the domain of a vector-valued function r is

considered to be the intersection of the domains of the component
functions f , g and h. For instance, the domain of

√
r (t) = ln(t)i + 1 − tj + tk
Dr
is the interval (0, 1].

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 Example 5 (Sketching a Plane Curve)
Sketch the plane curve represented by the vector-valued function

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r(t) = 2 cos ti − 3 sin tj, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.

Solution.
From the position vector r(t), we can write the parametric equations

x = 2 cos t and y = −3 sin t.

Solving for cos t and sin t and using the identity
Dr cos2 t + sin2 t = 1,
We get the rectangular equation

x2 y2
+ 2 = 1.
22 3
The graph of this rectangular equation is the ellipse shown in Figure 2.
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 Proof Contin’d.

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Dr
Figure 2: The Ellipse is traced clockwise as t increases from 0 to 2π
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 aft
Proof Contin’d.
The curve has a clockwiseorientation. That is, as t increases from 0 to 2π
the position vector r(t) moves clockwise, and its terminal point traces the
ellipse.
Dr
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 Example 6 (Sketching a Space Curve)
Sketch the space curve represented by the vector-valued function

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r(t) = cos ti + sin tj + tk, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.

Solution.
The parametric equations for this curve are

Dr x = cos t, x = sin t and z = t.

we can obtain from the first two parametric equations, the rectangular
equation

x2 + y2 = 1

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 Proof Contin’d.

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Since

x 2 + y 2 = cos2 t + sin2 t = 1,

the curve must lie on the circular cylinder. The point (x , y , z) lies directly
above the point (x , y , 0), which moves counterclockwise around the circle
x 2 + y 2 in the x y-plane.
Dr
Since z = t, the curve spirals upward around the cylinder as t increases.
The curve, shown in Figure 3, is called a helix.

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 Proof Contin’d.

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Dr
Figure 3: Cuve of r(t) = cos ti + sin tj + tk for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.

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 In Examples 5 and 6, we were given a vector-valued function and were
asked to sketch the corresponding curve. The next two examples address
the reverse problem-finding a vector-valued function to represent a given

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graph. Of course, when the graph is described parametrically,
representation by a vector-valued function is straight forward. For
instance, to represent the line in space given by

x = 2 + t, y = 3t and z = 4 − t,

we can simply use the vector-valued function

Dr r(t) = (2 + t)i + 3tj + (4 − t)k.

When a set of parametric equations for the graph is not given, the problem
of representing the graph by a vector-valued function requires finding a set
of parametric equations first.

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 aft
Example 7 (Representing a Graph: Vector-Valued Function)
Find a vector function that represents the curve of intersection of the
cylinder x 2 + y 2 = 1 and the plane x + z = 2.

Solution.
The left side Figure 4 shows how the plane and the cylinder intersect, and
right side shows the curve of intersection C , which is an ellipse.
Dr
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 Solution.

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Dr
Figure 4

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 Solution Contin’d.
The projection of C onto the xy -plane is the circle x 2 + y 2 = 1, z = 0. So
we know we can write

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x = cos t, y = sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
From the equation of the plane, we have

z = 2 − x = 2 − sin t
So we can write parametric equations for C as

x = cos t, y = sin t, z = 2 − sin t 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.

Dr
The corresponding vector equation is

r(t) = cos ti + sin tj + (2 − sin t)k 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π

This equation is called a parametrization of the curve C . The arrows in
Figure 4 indicate the direction in which C is traced as the parameter t
increases.
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 Example 8 (Representing a Graph: Vector-Valued Function)
Represent the parabola

y = x2 + 1

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by a vector-valued function.

Solution.
Although there are many ways to choose the parameter t, a natural choice
is to let
Dr x = t,
And we have the vector-valued function
then y = t2 + 1

r(t) = ti + (t 2 + 1)j.
Note in Figure 5 the orientation produced by this particular choice of
parameter.
Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 24 / 195
 Proof Contin’d.

aft
Dr
Figure 5: There are many ways to parametrize this graph.One way is to let x = t.

Had we chosen x = −t as the parameter, the curve would have been

oriented in the opposite direction.
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 2. Limits and Continuity

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Many techniques and definitions used in the calculus of real-valued
functions can be applied to vector-valued functions. For instance, you can
add and subtract vector-valued functions, multiply a vector-valued
function by a scalar, take the limit of a vector-valued function,
differentiate a vector-valued function, and so on. The basic approach is to
capitalize on the linearity of vector operations by extending the definitions
Dr
on a component-by-component basis. Below is a scenario

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 Theorem 9
Let r1 (t) = f1 (t)i + g1 (t)j and r2 (t) = f2 (t)i + g2 (t)j be vectors in plane.

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(i) to add two vector-valued functions (in the plane), you can write

r1 (t) + r2 (t) = [f1 (t)i + g1 (t)j] + [f2 (t)i + g2 (t)j] Sum

= [f1 (t) + f2 (t)] i + [g1 (t) + g2 (t)] j.

(ii) To subtract two vector-valued functions, you can write

Dr
r1 (t) − r2 (t) = [f1 (t)i + g1 (t)j] − [f2 (t)i + g2 (t)j] Difference
= [f1 (t) − f2 (t)] i + [g1 (t) − g2 (t)] j.

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 (iii) Similarly, to multiply a vector-valued function by a scalar, you can
write

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cr(t) = c [f1 (t)i + g1 (t)j] Scalar multiplication
= cf1 (t)i + cg1 (t)j.

(iv) To divide a vector-valued function by a scalar, you can write

r(t) [f1 (t)i + g1 (t)j]

= , c 6= 0
c c
f1 (t) g1 (t)
= i+ j.
c c
Dr
This component-by-component extension of operations with real-valued
functions to vector-valued functions is further illustrated in the definition
of the limit of a vector-valued function. The limit of a vector function is
defined by taking the limits of its component functions as follows.
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 Definition 10 (Limit of a Vector-Valued Function)
Let a ∈ R. Then,

(i) If r is a vector-valued function such that r(t) = f (t)i + g(t)j, then

aft
h i h i
lim r(t) = lim f (t) i + lim g(t) j Plane
t→a t→a t→a

provided f and g have limits as t → a: provided the limits of the

component functions exist.

(ii) If r is a vector-valued function such that r(t) = f (t)i + g(t)j + h(t)k,

then
Dr h i h i h i
lim r(t) = lim f (t) i + lim g(t) j + lim h(t) k Space
t→a t→a t→a t→a

provided f , g and h have limits as t → a.

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 If r(t) approaches the vector L as t → a, then the length of the vector
r(t) − L approaches 0 . That is,

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kr(t) − Lk → 0 as t → a.

This is illustrated graphically in Figure 6.

Dr
Figure 6: As t approaches a, r(t) approaches the limit L. For the limit L to exist,
it is not necessary that r(a) be defined or that r(a) be equal to L.

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 aft
With this definition of the limit of a vector-valued function, we can
develop vector versions of most of the limit theorems. For example, the
limit of the sum of two vector-valued functions is the sum of their
individual limits. Also, you can use the orientation of the curve r(t) to
define one-sided limits of vector-valued functions. The next definition
extends the notion of continuity to vector-valued functions.
Dr
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 Definition 11 (Continuity of a Vector-Valued Function)
A vector-valued function r is continuous at the point given by t = a when

aft
(i) The limit of r(t) exists as t → a
and
(ii)
lim r(t) = r(a).
t→a

A vector-valued function r is continuous on an interval I when it is

continuous at every point in the interval.
Dr
From this definition, it follows that a vector-valued function is continuous
at t = a if and only if each of its component functions is continuous at
t = a.

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 Example 12 (Continuity of a Vector-Valued Function)
Discuss the continuity of the vector-valued function
 

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r(t) = ti + aj + a2 − t 2 k a is a constant.

at t = 0.

Solution.
As t approaches 0, the limit is
Dr   
lim r(t) = lim t i + lim a j + lim a − t
t→0 t→0

= 0i + aj + a2 k
t→0
 

t→0

2 2

k

= aj + a2 k.

Because
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 aft
Proof Contin’d.
 
r(0) = (0)i + (a)j + a2 k
= aj + a2 k

you can conclude that r is continuous at t = 0.

By similar reasoning, you can conclude that the vector-valued function r is

Dr
continuous at all real-number values of t.

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 34 / 195

 Proof Contin’d.

aft
Dr
Figure 7: For each value of a,the curve Represented by the vector-valued function
r(t) = ti + aj + (a2 − t 2 )k is a parabola
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 For each value of a, the curve represented by the vector-valued function in

aft
Example 12

 
r(t) = ti + aj + a2 − t 2 k a is a constant.

is a parabola. You can think of each parabola as the intersection of the

vertical plane y = a and the hyperbolic paraboloid
Dr
as shown in Figure 7.
y2 − x2 = z

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 Example 13 (Continuity of a Vector-Valued Function)
Determine the interval(s) on which the vector-valued function
√  
r(t) = ti + t + 1j + t 2 + 1 k

aft
is continuous.

Proof.
The component functions are
√
f (t) = t,
Dr g(t) = t +1 and h(t) = (t 2 + 1).

Both f and h are continuous for all real-number values of t. The function
g, however, is continuous only for t ≥ −1. So, r is continuous on the
interval

[−1, ∞).

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 3. Differentiation and Integration of Vector Valued
Functions

aft
Later in this chapter we are going to use vector functions to describe the
motion of planets and other objects through space. Here we prepare the
way by developing the calculus of vector functions.
Dr
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 3.1 Differentiation of Vector-Valued Functions

aft
In the Sections to came, you will study several important applications
involving the calculus of vector-valued functions. In preparation for that
study, this section is devoted to the mechanics of differentiation and
integration of vector-valued functions.
Dr
The definition of the derivative of a vector-valued function parallels the
definition for real-valued functions.

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 Definition 14 (The Derivative of a Vector-Valued Function)
The derivative r0 of a vector-valued function r is defined as

aft
d r(t + ∆t) − r(t)
r(t) = r0 (t) = lim
dt ∆t→0 ∆t

for all t for which the limit exists. If r0 (t) exists, then r is differentiable at
t.
Dr
If r0 (t) exists for all t in an open interval I, then r is differentiable on the
interval I.

Differentiability of vector - valued functions can be extended to closed

intervals by considering one-sided limits.

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 The geometric significance of this Definition 14 is shown in Figure 8.

aft
Dr
Figure 8: Geometric significance of d
dt r(t) = r0 (t) = lim
∆t→0
r(t+∆t)−r(t)
∆t

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 −→
If the points P and Q have position vectors r(t) and r(t + ∆t), then PQ
represents the vector r(t + ∆t) − r(t) which can therefore be regarded as
a secant vector. If ∆t > 0, the scalar multiple

aft
1
[r(t + ∆t) − r(t)]
∆t

has the same direction as r(t + ∆t) − r(t). As ∆t −→ 0, it appears that

this vector approaches a vector that lies on the tangent line. For this
reason, the vector r0 (t) is called the tangent vector to the curve defined
by r at the point P, provided that r0 (t) exists and r0 (t) 6= 0. The tangent
Dr
line to C at P is defined to be the line through P parallel to the tangent
vector r0 (t).
Differentiation of vector-valued functions can be done on a component-by
component basis. To see why this is true, we consider the following
Theorem

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 Theorem 15 (Differentiation of Vector-Valued Functions)

(i) If r(t) = f (t)i + g(t)j, where f and g are differentiable functions of t,

aft
then

r0 (t) = f 0 (t)i + g 0 (t)j. Plane

(ii) If r(t) = f (t)i + g(t)j + h(t)k, where f , g and h are differentiable

functions of t, then

r0 (t) = f 0 (t)i + g 0 (t)j + h0 (t)k. Space

Proof.
Dr
We only prove part (2) as part (1) follows suit. For the vector-valued
function r(t) = f (t)i + g(t)j in plain. Applying the definition of the
derivative produces the following.
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 Proof.

r(t + ∆t) − r(t)

r0 (t) = lim

aft
∆t→0 ∆t
f (t + ∆t)i + g(t + ∆t)j − f (t)i − g(t)j
= lim
∆t→0 ∆t
f (t + ∆t) − f (t) g(t + ∆t) − g(t)
    
= lim i+ j
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t
f (t + ∆t) − f (t) g(t + ∆t) − g(t)
     
= lim i + lim j
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t
= f 0 (t)i + g 0 (t)j
Dr
Note that the derivative of the vector-valued function r is itself a
vector-valued function. You can see from Figure 9 that r0 (t) is a vector
tangent to the curve given by r(t) and pointing in the direction of
increasing t-values.
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 aft
Dr
Figure 9

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 Example 16 (Differentiation of a Vector-Valued Function)
For the vector-valued function

r(t) = ti + (t 2 + 2)j

aft
find r0 (t). Then sketch the plane curve represented by r(t) and the graphs
of r(1) and r0 (1).

Solution.
Differentiating on a component-by-component basis:
Dr
d d d d
[r(t)] = [ti + (t 2 + 2)j] = [ti] + [(t 2 + 2)j]
dt dt dt dt

we obtain

r0 (t) = i + 2tj.

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 Solution Contin’d.
From the position vector r(t), we can write the parametric equations

aft
x = t and y = t 2 + 2. The corresponding rectangular equation is
y = x 2 + 2. Now, when t = 1,

r(1) = i + 3j
and

r0 (1) = i + 2j.
Dr
In Figure 10, r(1) is drawn starting at the origin, and r0 (1) is drawn
starting at the terminal point of r(1). Note that at (1, 3), the vector r0 (1)
is tangent to the curve given by r(t) and is pointing in the direction of
increasing t-values.

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 Solution Contin’d.

aft
Dr
Figure 10: Plane curve represention r(t) and the graphs of r(1) and r0 (1).

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 48 / 195

 Example 17
Find the parametric equations for the tangent line to the helix with
parametric equations

aft
x = 2 cos t, y = sin t, z =t

at the point 0, 1, π2 .

Solution.
The vector equation of the helix is r(t) = 2 cos ti + sin tj + tk and so,
Dr r0 (t) = −2 sin ti + cos tj + k

The parameter value corresponding to the point 0, 1, π2 is t = π2 , so the

tangent vector there is

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 49 / 195

 Solution Contin’d.

aft
π π π
     
0
r = −2 sin i + cos j + k = −2(1)i + (0)j + k
2 2 2
= −2i + k

The
tangent line is the line through 0, 1, π2 parallel to the vector

r0 π2 = −2i + k, so by Equations ?? its parametric equations are

Dr x = −2t, y =1 z=
π
2
+t

See Figure 11.

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 50 / 195

 Solution Contin’d.

aft
Dr
Figure 11: The helix r(t) = 2 cos ti + sin tj + tk and the tangent line.

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 51 / 195

 aft
Higher-order derivatives of vector-valued functions are obtained by
successive differentiation of each component function just as for
real-valued functions: the second derivative of a vector function r is the
derivative of r0 , that is, r00 = [r0 ]0 .
Dr
Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 52 / 195
 Example 18 (Higher-Order Differentiation)
For the vector-valued function

aft
r(t) = cos ti + sin tj + 2tk
find each of the following.

(i) r0 (t) (ii) r00 (t) (iii) r0 (t) · r00 (t) (iv) r0 (t) × r00 (t)

Solution.
(i) First Derivative
Dr
(ii) Second Derivative
r0 (t) = − sin ti + cos tj + 2k

r00 (t) = − cos ti − sin tj + 0k = − cos ti − sin tj

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 53 / 195

 Solution.
(iii) Dot Product

aft
r0 (t) · r00 (t) = sin t cos t − sin t cos t = 0

(iv) Cross-Product

i j k
0 00
r (t) × r (t) = − sin t cos t 2
− cos t − sin t 0

=
Dr cos t 2
− sin t 0
i−
− sin t 2
− cos t 0
j+
− sin t cos t
− cos t − sin t
k

= 2 sin ti − 2 cos tj + k

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 54 / 195

 aft
In Example 18(iii), note that the dot product is a real-valued function, not
a vector-valued function. The parametrization of the curve represented by

the vector-valued function

r(t) = f (t)i + g(t)j + h(t)k

Dr
is smooth on an open interval I when f 0 , g 0 , and h0 are continuous on I
and r0 (t) 6= 0 for any value of t in the interval I.

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 55 / 195

 Example 19 (Finding Intervals on Which a Curve Is Smooth)
Find the intervals on which the epicycloid C given by

aft
r(t) = (5 cos t − cos 5t)i + (5 sin t − sin 5t)j, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π
is smooth.

Solution.
The derivative of r is

r0 (t) = (−5 sin t + 5 sin 5t)i + (5 cos t − 5 cos 5t)j.

Dr
In the interval [0, 2π], the only values of t for which

r0 (t) = 0i + 0j

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 56 / 195

 aft
Solution Contin’d.
are t = 0, π, 3π/2, and 2π. Therefore, you can conclude that C is smooth
on the intervals

π π 3π 3π
       
0, , ,π , π, , and , 2π
2 2 2 2
Dr
as shown in Figure 12.

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 57 / 195

 Proof Contin’d.

aft
Dr
Figure 12: The epicycloid is not smooth at the points where it intersects the axes

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 58 / 195

 In Figure 12, note that the curve is not smooth at points at which the
curve makes abrupt changes in direction. Such points are called cusps or
nodes.

aft
Most of the differentiation rules in Chapter ?? have counterparts for
vector-valued functions, and several of these are listed in the next theorem.
Note that the theorem contains three versions of "product rules." Property
3 gives the derivative of the product of a real-valued function w and a
vector-valued function r, Property 4 gives the derivative of the dot product
of two vector-valued functions, and Property 5 gives the derivative of the
Dr
cross product of two vector-valued functions (in space).

The next theorem shows that the differentiation formulas for real-valued
functions have their counterparts for vector-valued functions. This theorem
can be proved either directly from Definition 14 or by using Theorem 15
and the corresponding differentiation formulas for real-valued functions.

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 59 / 195

 Theorem 20 (Differentiation Rules Vector Valued Functions)
Let r and u be differentiable vector-valued functions of t, w be a
differentiable real-valued function of t, and let c be a scalar. Then,

aft
(i) Constant Multiple Rule: d
dt [cr(t)] = cr0 (t)

(ii) Sum and Difference Rule: d

dt [r(t) ± u(t)] = r0 (t) ± u0 (t)

(iii) Multiple-Product Rule: d

dt [w (t)r(t)] = w (t)r0 (t) + w 0 (t)r(t)

(iv) Dot-Product Rule: d

dt [r(t) · u(t)] = r(t) · u0 (t) + r0 (t) · u(t)
Dr
(v) Cross-Product Rule: d
dt [r(t) × u(t)] = r(t) × u0 (t) + r0 (t) × u(t)

(vi) Chain Rule: d

dt [r(w (t))] = r0 (w (t))w 0 (t)

(vii) If r(t) · r(t) = c, then r(t) · r0 (t) = 0.

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 60 / 195

 Proof.
To prove Property (4), let

r(t) = f1 (t)i + f2 (t)j and u(t) = g1 (t)i + g2 (t)j

aft
where f1 , f2 , g1 , and g2 are differentiable functions of t. Then
2
X
r(t) · u(t) = f1 (t)g1 (t) + f2 (t)g2 (t) = fi (t)gi (t)
i=1

and it follows that

d
dt
Dr d d
[r(t) · u(t)] = [f1 (t)g1 (t)] + [f2 (t)g2 (t)]
dt dt
= f1 (t)g10 (t) + f10 (t)g1 (t) + f2 (t)g20 (t) + f20 (t)g2 (t)
= f1 (t)g10 (t) + f2 (t)g20 (t) + f10 (t)g1 (t) + f20 (t)g2 (t)
   

= r(t) · u0 (t) + r0 (t) · u(t).

Proofs of the other properties are left as exercises

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 61 / 195
 aft
Remark 2
Note that Property (5) applies only to three-dimensional vector-valued
functions because the cross product is not defined for two-dimensional
vectors.
Dr
Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 62 / 195
 Example 21 (Using Properties of the Derivative)
For r(t) = 1t i − j + ln tk and u(t) = t 2 i − 2tj + k, find each derivative.

aft
(i) d
dt [r(t) · u(t)] (ii) d
dt [u(t) × u0 (t)]

Solution.
(i) Because r0 (t) = − t12 i + 1t k and u0 (t) = 2ti − 2j, you have

d
[r(t) · u(t)] = r(t) · u0 (t) + r0 (t) · u(t)
dt
=

1
t
Dr 

1


t
1 1
t
 
i − j + ln tk · (2ti − 2j) + − 2 i + k · t 2 i − 2tj + k


= 2 + 2 + (−1) +
t
1
=3+
t

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 63 / 195

 Solution Contin’d.
(ii) Because u0 (t) = 2ti − 2j and u00 (t) = 2i, you have

aft
d 
u(t) × u0 (t) = u(t) × u00 (t) + u0 (t) × u0 (t)
    
dt
i j k
= t 2 −2t 1 + 0
2 0 0
−2t 1 t2 1 t 2 −2t
Dr =
0 0
i−
2 0
= 0i − (−2)j + 4tk
j+
2 0
k

= 2j + 4tk.

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 64 / 195

 Try reworking parts (a) and (b) in Example 21 by first forming the dot and
cross products and then differentiating to see that you obtain the same
results.

aft
Example 22
Show that if |r(t)| = c (a constant), then r0 (t) is orthogonal to r(t) for all
t

Solution.
Since
Dr r(t) · r(t) = |r(t)|2 = c 2

and c 2 is a constant, Formula 4 of Theorem 20 gives

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 65 / 195

 Solution Contin’d.

aft
d 2 d
0= [c ] = [r(t) · r(t)] = r0 (t) · r(t) + r(t) · r0 (t) = 2r0 (t) · r(t)
dt dt

and solving for r0 (t) · r(t) thus gives, r0 (t) · r(t) = 0, which says that r0 (t)
is orthogonal to r(t).
Dr
Geometrically, this result says that if a curve lies on a sphere with center
the origin, then the tangent vector r0 (t) is always perpendicular to the
position vector r(t).

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 66 / 195

 3.2. Integration of Vector-Valued Functions
Next we look at a consequence of the definition of the derivative of a
vector valued function.

aft
Definition 23 (Indefinite Integration of Vector-Valued
Functions)
(i) If r(t) = f (t)i + g(t)j, where f and g are continuous on [a, b], then
the indefinite integral (antiderivative) of r is
ZDr Z  Z 
r(t)dt = f (t)dt i + g(t)dt j Plane

(ii) If r(t) = f (t)i + g(t)j + h(t)k, where f , g, and h are continuous on

[a, b], then the indefinite integral (antiderivative) of r is

Z Z  Z  Z 
r(t)dt = f (t)dt i + g(t)dt j + h(t)dt k Space
Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 67 / 195
 The antiderivative of a vector-valued function is a family of vector-valued
functions all differing by a constant vector C. For instance, if r(t) is a
three-dimensional
R
vector-valued function, then for the indefinite integral
r(t)dt, you obtain three constants of integration

aft
Z Z Z
f (t)dt = F (t) + C1 , g(t)dt = G(t) + C2 , h(t)dt = H(t) + C3

where F 0 (t) = f (t), G 0 (t) = g(t), and H 0 (t) = h(t). These three scalar
constants produce one vector constant of integration.
Dr
Z
r(t)dt = [F (t) + C1 ] i + [G(t) + C2 ] j + [H(t) + C3 ] k
= [F (t)i + G(t)j + H(t)k] + [C1 i + C2 j + C3 k]
= R(t) + C

where R0 (t) = r(t).

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 68 / 195
 Example 24 (Integrating a Vector-Valued Function)
Find the indefinite integral

aft
Z
(ti + 3j)dt.

Solution.
Integrating on a component-by-component basis produces:
Dr Z
(ti + 3j)dt =

=
Z

t2
(ti)dt +

i + 3tj + C.
Z
(3j)dt

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 69 / 195

 aft
The definite integral of a continuous vector function can be defined in
much the same way as for real-valued functions except that the integral is
a vector. But then we can express the integral of r(t) in terms of the
integrals of its component functions f , g and h and as follows.
Dr
Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 70 / 195
 Definition 25 (Definite integral of a Vactor Valued Functions)
Let r(x ) = f (t)i + g(t)j + h(t)k be a vector valued function defined on a
closed interval [a, b], we divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of
equal width ∆t = b−a n . We let a = t0 < t1 < t2 < ... < tn−1 < tn = b be

aft
the endpoints of these subintervals and we choose sample points
t1∗ , t2∗ , ..., tn∗ in these subintervals, so that ti∗ lie in the i th interval
[ti−1 − ti ]. Then the definite integral of r(t) from a to b is

Z b n
r(ti∗ )∆t
X
r(t)dx = lim
a t−→∞

= lim
t−→∞
"
Dr n
X

i=1
i=1

f (ti∗ )∆t
!
i+
n
X

i=1
g(ti∗ )∆t
!
j+
n
X

i=1
h(ti∗ )∆t
! #
k .

where the numbers a and b are respectively the lower and upper limits of
integration. Hence, by making use of the elongated s, we have that;
Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 71 / 195
 (i) if r(t) = f (t)i + g(t)j, where f and g are continuous on [a, b], then
the definite over the interval a ≤ t ≤ b is

aft
Z b "Z # "Z #
b b
r(t)dt = f (t)dt i + g(t)dt j.
a a a

(ii) if r(t) = f (t)i + g(t)j + h(t)k, where f , g, and h are continuous on

[a, b], then the definite integral (antiderivative) of r over the interval
a ≤ t ≤ b is Dr
Z b "Z # "Z # "Z #
b b b
r(t)dt = f (t)dt i + g(t)dt j + h(t)dt k.
a a a a

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 72 / 195

 aft
This means that we can evaluate an integral of a vector valued function by
integrating each component function.

We can extend the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to continuous vector

functions as follows:
Dr
Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 73 / 195
 Theorem 26 (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus)
If r(t) is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and if R is any
0

aft
antiderivative of r(t), that is, R (t) = r(t), then

Z b
r(t)dt = [R(t)]ba = R(b) − R(a)
a

Proof. Dr
The Proof is left as an exercise to the learners

Example 27 shows how to evaluate the definite integral of a vector-valued

function.

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 74 / 195

 Example 27 (Definite Integral of a Vector -Valued Function)
Evaluate the integral
Z 1 Z 1 √
1


aft
r(t)dt = 3
ti + j + e −t k dt.
0 0 t +1

Solution.
By applying the necessary rules of differentiation, we get

Z 1 Z 1 √
1
Dr 
r(t)dt = 3
ti + j + e −t k dt
0 0 t +1
4 4 1
 
1
= t 3 i + [ln |t + 1|]10 j + −e −t 0 k

3 0
4 h i
= i + ln(2)j + 1 − e −1 k.
3

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 75 / 195

 aft
As with real-valued functions, you can narrow the family of antiderivatives
of a vector-valued function r0 down to a single antiderivative by imposing
an initial condition on the vector-valued function r. This is demonstrated
in the next example.
Dr
Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 76 / 195
 Example 28 (The Antiderivative of a Vector -Valued Function)
Find the antiderivative of
1
r0 (t) = cos 2ti − 2 sin tj + k

aft
1 + t2
that satisfies the initial condition

r (0) = 3i − 2j + k.

Solution.
Z Dr
r(t) = r0 (t)dt
1
Z  Z  Z 
= cos 2tdt i + (−2 sin tdt j + dt k
1 + t2
1
 
= sin 2t + C1 i + (2 cos t + C2 )j + (arctan t + C3 )k
2

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 77 / 195

 Solution.
Letting t = 0, we can write

r(0) = (0 + C1 )i + (2 + C2 )j + (0 + C3 )k.

aft
Using the fact that r(0) = 3i − 2j + k we have

(0 + C1 )i + (2 + C2 )j + (0 + C3 )k = 3i − 2j + k.

Equating corresponding components produces

Dr
C1 = 3, 2 + C2 = −2, and

So, the antiderivative that satisfies the initial condition is

C3 = 1.

1
 
r(t) = sin 2t + 3 i + (2 cos t − 4)j + (arctan t + 1)k.
2

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 78 / 195

 4. Velocity and Acceleration Vectors

aft
We are now ready to combine your study of parametric equations, curves,
vectors, and vector-valued functions to form a model for motion along a
curve. We will begin by looking at the motion of an object in the plane.
(The motion of an object in space can be developed similarly.)
Dr
Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 79 / 195
 4.1 Velocity, Speed and Acceleration

As an object moves along a curve in the plane or space, the coordinates x ,

aft
y and z of its center of mass are each functions of time t. Rather than
using the letters f g and h to represent these functions, it is convenient to
write x = x (t), y = y (t) and z = z(t). So, the position vector r(t) takes
the form
 In Plane

Drr(t) = x (t)i + y (t)j. Position vector in plane

and
 In space

r(t) = x (t)i + y (t)j + z(t)j. Position vector in space

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 80 / 195

 The beauty of this vector model for representing motion is that we can use
the first and second derivatives of the vector-valued function r to find the

aft
object’s velocity and acceleration. Recall from Physics that velocity and
acceleration are both vector quantities having magnitude and direction.

To find the velocity and acceleration vectors at a given time t, consider a

point say Q(x (t + ∆t), y (t + ∆t)) that is approaching the point
P(x (t), y (t)) along the plane curve C given by
Dr r(t) = x (t)i + y (t)j,
−→
as shown in Figure 13. As ∆t → 0, the direction of the vector PQ
(denoted by ∆r) approaches the direction of motion at time t.

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 ∆r = r(t + ∆t) − r(t)
∆r r(t + ∆t) − r(t)
=
∆t ∆t

aft
∆r r(t + ∆t) − r(t)
lim = lim
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t

When this limit exists, it is defined as the velocity vector or tangent

vector to the curve at point P. Note that this is the same limit used to
define r0 (t). So, the direction of r0 (t) gives the direction of motion at time
t. Moreover, the magnitude of the vector r0 (t)
Dr q
0 0
r (t) = x (t)i + y (t)j = 0
[x 0 (t)]2 + [y 0 (t)]2

gives the speed of the object at time t.

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 82 / 195
 aft
Dr
Figure 13: As ∆t −→ 0, ∆r
∆t approaches the velocity vector

Similar the way r0 (t) is used to find velocity, you can use r00 (t) to find
acceleration, as indicated in the next definitions below.

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 83 / 195

 Definition 29 (Velocity and Acceleration Vector)
If x and y are twice-differentiable functions of t, and r is a vector-valued
function given by r(t) = x (t)i + y (t)j, then the velocity vector,

aft
acceleration vector, and speed at time t are defined by:

Velocity = v(t) = r0 (t) = x 0 (t)i + y 0 (t)j

Acceleration = a(t) = r00 (t) = x 00 (t)i + y 00 (t)j
q
Speed = kv(t)k = r0 (t) = [x 0 (t)]2 + [y 0 (t)]2

For motion along a space curve, we have for r(t) = x (t)i + y (t)j + z(t)k
Dr
that have:

Velocity = v(t) = r0 (t) = x 0 (t)i + y 0 (t)j + z 0 (t)k

Acceleration = a(t) = r00 (t) = x 00 (t)i + y 00 (t)j + z 00 (t)k
q
Speed = kv(t)k = r (t) = 0
[x 0 (t)]2 + [y 0 (t)]2 + [z 0 (t)]2 .

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 84 / 195

 Example 30 (Finding Velocity and Acceleration Along a Plane
Curve)
The position vector of an object moving in a plane is given by

aft
r(t) = t 3 i + t 2 j.
Find its velocity, speed, and acceleration when t = 1 and illustrate
geometrically.

Solution.
The velocity and acceleration at time t are
Dr v(t) = r0 (t) = 3t 2 i + 2tj
a(t) = r00 (t) = 6ti + 2j
and the speed is
q
(3t 2 )2 + (2t)2 =
p
|v(t)| = 9t 4 + 4t 2

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 85 / 195

 Solution Contin’d.
When t = 1, we have
√
v(1) = 3i + 2j a(1) = 6i + 2j and |v(1)| = 13.

aft
These velocity and acceleration vectors are shown in Figure 14.

Dr
Figure 14
Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 86 / 195
 Example 31 (Finding Velocity and Acceleration Along a Space
Curve)
Find the velocity, acceleration, and speed of a particle with position vector
r(t) = t 2 i + e t j + te t k.

aft
Proof.
Form the position vector r(t) = t 2 i + e t j + te t k, we have

velocity vector is

Dr v(t) = r0 (t) = 2t, e t , (1 + t)e t

Acceleration vector is

a(t) = v0 (t) = 2, e t , (2 + t)e t

and the speed is
q
|v(t)| = 4t 2 + e 2t + (1 + t)2 e 2t

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 87 / 195

 Proof Contin’d.

aft
Dr
Figure 15: Path of the particle with the velocity and acceleration vectors when
t=1

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 Example 32 (Sketching Velocity and Acceleration Vectors in
the Plane)
Sketch the path of an object moving along the plane curve given by

aft
 
r(t) = t 2 − 4 i + tj

and find the velocity and acceleration vectors when t = 0 and t = 2.

Solution.
Using the parametric equations x = t 2 − 4 and y = t, you can determine
Dr
that the curve is a parabola given by x = y 2 − 4, as shown in Figure 16.
The velocity vector (at any time) is

v(t) = r0 (t) = 2ti + j

and the acceleration vector (at any time) is

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 Solution.

aft
a(t) = r00 (t) = 2i.

 When t = 0, the velocity and acceleration vectors are given by

v(0) = 2(0)i + j = j and a(0) = 2i.

 When t = 2, the velocity and acceleration vectors are given by

Dr v(2) = 2(2)i + j = 4i + j and a(2) = 2i.

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 Solution Contin’d.

aft
Dr
Figure 16: At each point on the curve, the acceleration vector points to the right.
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 So far in this section, we have concentrated on finding the velocity and

aft
acceleration by differentiating the position function. Many practical
applications involve the reverse problem-finding the position function for a
given velocity or acceleration. Henceforth, generally vector integrals allow
us to recover velocity when acceleration is known and position function
when velocity is known:

Z t Z t
v(t) = v(to ) + a(u)du and r(t) = r(to ) + v(u)du.
Dr to to

This is demonstrated in the next example.

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 Example 33 (Finding a Position Function by Integration)
A moving particle starts at an initial position r(0) = h1, 0, 0i = i with
initial velocity v(0) = i − j + k. Its acceleration is a(t) = 4ti + 6tj + k.
Find its velocity and position function at time t.

aft
Solution.
Since a(t) = v0 (t), we have
Z Z
v(t) = a(t)dt = (4ti + 6tj + k)dt
Dr = 2t 2 i + 3t 2 j + tk + C

where C = C1 i + C2 j + C3 k. To determine the value of the constant vector

C, we use the fact that v(0) = i − j + k. The preceding equation gives
v(0) = C:

i − j + k = 2(0)2 i + 3(0)2 j + (0)k + C = C1 i + C2 j + C3 k

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 Solution Contin’d.
so that, C1 = 1, C2 = −1 and C3 = 1. Hence, C = i − j + k. Therefore,

aft
v(t) = 2t 2 i + 3t 2 j + tk + i − j + k
   
= 2t 2 + 1 i + 3t 2 − 1 j + (t + 1)k

Since v(t) = r0 (t), we have

Z
r(t) = v(t)dt
Dr
=
Z h


2 3
 



 
2t 2 + 1 i + 3t 2 − 1 j + (t + 1)k dt

1 2

i

= t + t i + t3 − t j + t +t k+D
3 2

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 Solution Contin’d.
with the vector D = D1 i + D2 j + D3 k. Putting t = 0, we have that,

2 3 1 2
     

aft
i = r (0) = (0) + 0 i + 03 − 0 j + (0) + 0 k + D
3 2

giving D1 = 1, D2 = 0 and D3 = 0 and so,

D = D1 i + D2 j + D3 k = i.

Thus, the position at time t is given by

Dr
r(t) =

2 3
 
t + t + 1 i + t3 − t j +

1 2

t +t k
3 2

See Figure 17

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 Solution Contin’d.

aft
Dr
Figure 17: r(t) that we have obtained used to plot the path of the particle for
0 ≤ t ≤ 3.

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 Example 34 (Finding a Position Function by Integration)
An object starts from rest at the point P(1, 2, 0) and moves with an
acceleration of

aft
a(t) = j + 2k

where ka(t)k is measured in meters per square seconds. Find the location
of the object after t = 2 seconds.

Proof. Dr
From the description of the object’s motion, you can deduce the following
initial conditions.

Because the object starts from rest, we have

v(0) = 0 = 0i + 0j + 0k.

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 Solution Contin’d.
Moreover, because the object starts at the point (x , y , z) = (1, 2, 0), we
have

aft
r(0) = x (0)i + y (0)j + z(0)k
= 1i + 2j + 0k
= i + 2j

To find the position function, you should integrate twice, each time using
one of the initial conditions to solve for the constant of integration. The
velocity vector is Dr Z Z
v(t) = a(t)dt = (j + 2k)dt
= tj + 2tk + C

where C = C1 i + C2 j + C3 k. Letting t = 0 and applying the initial

condition v(0) = 0 = 0i + 0j + 0k, we obtain
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 Solution Contin’d.
0i + 0j + 0k = 0 = v(0) = (0)j + 2(0)k + C = C1 i + C2 j + C3 k.
giving

aft
C1 = C2 = C3 = 0

So, the velocity at any time t is

v(t) = tj + 2tk
Dr
Integrating once more produces

r(t) =
Z
v(t)dt =
Z
(tj + 2tk)dt
t2
= j + t 2k + D
2

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 Solution Contin’d.
where D = D1 i + D2 j + D3 k. Letting t = 0 and applying the initial
condition r(0) = i + 2j, we have

aft
(0)2
i + 2j = r(0) = j + (0)2 k + D = D1 i + D2 j + D3 k
2
and so, D1 = 1, D2 = 2 and D3 = 0. Thus, the position vector is

t2 t2
r(t) = j + t 2 k + D = j + t 2 k + [D1 i + D2 j + D3 k]
Dr 2 2
t2
= j + t 2 k + (i + 2j + 0k)
2 !
t2
=i+ + 2 j + t 2 k.
2

The location of the object after t = 2 seconds is given by

r(2) = i + 4j + 4k, as shown in Figure 18.
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 Solution Contin’d.

aft
Dr
Figure 18: The object takes 2 seconds to move from point (1, 2, 0) to point
(1, 4, 4) along C

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 4.2 Projectile Motion

aft
We now have the machinery to derive the parametric equations for the
path of a projectile. Assume that gravity is the only force acting on the
projectile after it is launched. So, the motion occurs in a vertical plane,
which can be represented by the coordinate system with the origin as a
point on Earth’s surface, as shown in Figure 19.
Dr
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 aft
Dr
Figure 19: Acceleration of projectile

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 For a projectile of mass m, the force due to gravity at time t is

F(t) = −mgj

aft
where the acceleration due to gravity is g = 9.81 meters per second per
second.
On the other hand, if the force that acts on a particle is known, then the
acceleration can be found from Newton’s Second Law of Motion. The
vector version of this law states that if, at any time t, a force F(t) acts on
an object of mass m producing an acceleration a(t), then
Dr F(t) = ma(t)

Consequently, the acceleration of the projectile is given by am = −mgj

which implies that

a = −gj
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 Example 35
An object with mass m that moves in a circular path with constant
angular speed ω has position vector r(t) = α cos ωti + α sin ωtj. Find the
force acting on the object and show that it is directed toward the origin.

aft
Solution.
To find the force, we first need to know the acceleration. Now, from the
position function

r(t) = α cos ωti + α sin ωtj

we have,
Dr v(t) = r0 (t) = −αω sin ωti + αω cos ωtj,
giving

a(t) = v0 (t) = −αω 2 cos ωti − αω 2 sin ωtj

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 Solution Contin’d.
Therefore Newton’s Second Law gives the force as

aft
F(t) = ma(t) = −mω 2 (α cos ωti + α sin ωtj)

Notice that

F(t) = −mω 2 r(t).

Dr
This shows that the force acts in the direction opposite to the radius
vector r(t) and therefore points toward the origin, see Figure 20. Such a
force is called a centripetal (center-seeking) force.

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 Solution Contin’d.

aft
Dr
Figure 20: Figure of the angular speed of the object moving with position P is
omega = dθdt , where θ is the angle.

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 Example 36
A projectile is fired with angle of elevation α and initial velocity vo . See
Figure 21. Assuming that air resistance is negligible and the only external
force is due to gravity, find the position function r(t) of the projectile.

aft
What value of α maximizes the range (the horizontal distance traveled)?

Dr
Figure 21
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 Solution.
We set up the axes so that the projectile starts at the origin. Since the
force due to gravity acts downward, we have

aft
F = ma = −mgj

where g = |a| ≈ 9.8 m/s2 . Thus

a = −gj
Dr
Since v0 (t) = a, we have

v(t) = −gtj + C

where C = v(0) = vo . Therefore

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 Solution Contin’d.
r0 (t) = v(t) = −gtj + vo

aft
Integrating again, we obtain
1
r(t) = − gt 2 j + tv0 + D
2

But D = r(0) = 0, so the position vector of the projectile is given by

1
Dr r(t) = − gt 2 j + tvo
2
(4.1)

If we write |vo | = vo (the initial speed of the projectile), then

vo = vo cos αi + vo sin αj

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 Solution Contin’d.
and Equation 4.1 becomes

1
 
r(t) = (vo cos α) ti + (vo sin α) t − gt 2 j

aft
2

The parametric equations of the trajectory are therefore

1
x = (vo cos α) t and y = (vo sin α) t − gt 2 (4.2)
2
Dr
The horizontal distance d is the value of x when y = 0. Setting y = 0, we
obtain t = 0 or t = (2vo sin α) /g. This second value of t then gives

2vo sin α v 2 (2 sin α cos α) v 2 sin 2α

d = x = (vo cos α) = o = o
g g g

Clearly, d has its maximum value when sin 2α = 1, that is, α = π/4.
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 Example 37 (Derivation of the Position Function for a
Projectile)
A projectile of mass m is launched from an initial position ro with an
initial velocity vo . Find its position vector as a function of time.

aft
Solution.
Begin with the acceleration a(t) = −gj and integrate twice.
Z Z
v(t) = a(t)dt = (−g)jdt = −gtj + C1
1
Z Z
r(t) = v(t)dt = (−gtj + C1 ) dt = − gt 2 j + C1 t + C2
Dr 2
You can use the facts that v(0) = v0 and r(0) = r0 to solve for the
constant vectors C1 and C2 . Doing this produces C1 = v0 and C2 = r0 .
Therefore, the position vector is
1
r(t) = − gt 2 j + tv0 + r0 . Position vector
2

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 5 The Unit Tangent, Normal and Binormal Vector

aft
In the preceding section, we learned that the velocity vector points in the
direction of motion. This observation leads to the next definition, which
applies to any smooth curve-not just to those for which the parameter
represents time. Dr
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 5.1 The Unit Tangent Vector

aft
Definition 40 (Unit Tangent Vector)
Let C be a smooth curve represented by r on an open interval I. The unit
tangent vector T(t) at t is defined as

r0 (t)
T(t) = , r0 (t) 6= 0.
Dr kr0 (t)k

Recall that a curve is smooth on an interval when r0 is continuous and

nonzero on the interval. So, "smoothness" is sufficient to guarantee that a
curve has a unit tangent vector.

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 Example 41 (Finding the Unit Tangent Vector)
Find the unit tangent vector to the curve given by

aft
r(t) = ti + t 2 j
when t = 1.

Solution.
The derivative of r(t) is

Dr r0 (t) = i + 2tj.
So, the unit tangent vector is

r0 (t)
T(t) = Definition of T(t)
kr0 (t)k
1
=√ (i + 2tj). Substitute for r0 (t).
1 + 4t 2

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 Solution Contin’d.
When t = 1, the unit tangent vector is
1
T(1) = √ (i + 2j)

aft
5
as shown in Figure 24.

Dr
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 aft
Recall that, the tangent line to a curve at a point is the line that passes
through the point and is parallel to the unit tangent vector. In Example
42, the unit tangent vector is used to find the tangent line at a point on a
helix.
Dr
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 Example 42 (Finding the Tangent Line at a Point on a Curve)
Find T(t) and then find a set of parametric equations for the tangent line
to the helix given by

aft
r(t) = 2 cos ti + 2 sin tj + tk
√ √ 
at the point 2, 2, π4 .

Solution.
The derivative of r(t) is
Dr r0 (t) = −2 sin ti + 2 cos tj + k
which implies that

0
q √
r (t) = 4 sin2 t + 4 cos2 t + 1 = 5.
Therefore, the unit tangent vector is
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 Solution Contin’d.
r0 (t)
T(t) =
kr0 (t)k

aft
1
= √ (−2 sin ti + 2 cos tj + k). Unit tangent vector
5

√ √
At the point ( 2, 2, π/4), t = π/4 and the unit tangent vector is
√ √ !
π 1 2 2
 
T = √ −2 i+2 j+k
4 5 2 2
√ √
Dr 1
= √ (− 2i + 2j + k).
5

√ √
Using the direction√ √ numbers a = − 2, b = 2, and c = 1, and the point
(x1 , y1 , z1 ) = ( 2, 2, π/4), you can obtain the parametric equations
(given with parameter s) listed below.

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 aft
Solution Contin’d.
√ √
x = x1 + as = 2 − 2s
√ √
y = y1 + bs = 2 + 2s
π
z = z1 + cs = + s
4

This tangent line is shown in Figure 25.

Dr
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 Solution Contin’d.

aft
Dr
Figure 25: The tangent line to a curve at a point is determined by the unit
tangent vector at the point.

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 5.3 The Unit Normal and Binormal Vector

At a given point on a smooth space curve r(t), there are infinitely many

aft
vectors that are orthogonal to the unit tangent vector T(t). One of these
is the vector T0 (t). This follows from Property 7 of Theorem 20. That is,
we single one out by observing that, because kT(t)k = 1 for all t, we have

T(t) · T(t) = kT(t)k2 = 1 =⇒ T(t) · T0 (t) = 0.

Dr
And, so T0 (t) is orthogonal to T(t). Note that, T0 (t) is itself not a unit
vector. But if r0 is also smooth, we can normalizing the vector T0 (t), and
obtain a special vector called the principal unit normal vector N(t) (or
simply unit normal). This observation leads to the next definitions, which
applies to any smooth curve-not just to those for which the parameter
represents time.

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 Definition 43 (Principal Unit Normal Vector)
Let C be a smooth curve represented by r on an open interval I. If
T0 (t) 6= 0, then the principal unit normal vector at t is defined as

aft
T0 (t)
N(t) = .
kT0 (t)k
See Figure 26

Dr
Figure 26: We can think of the normal vector as indicating the direction in which
the curve is turning at each point
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 Example 44 (Finding the Principal Unit Normal Vector)
Find N(t) and N(1) for the curve represented by r(t) = 3ti + 2t 2 j.

aft
Solution.
By differentiating r(t), we obtain

r0 (t) = 3i + 4tj
which implies that
p
Dr r0 (t) = 9 + 16t 2 .

So, the unit tangent vector is

r0 (t) 1
T(t) = 0
=√ (3i + 4tj).
kr (t)k 9 + 16t 2

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 Solution Contin’d.
Using Theorem 20 (3), differentiate T(t) with respect to t to obtain

aft
1 16t
T0 (t) = √ (4j) − (3i + 4tj)
9 + 16t 2
(9 + 16t 2 )3/2
12
= (−4ti + 3j)
(9 + 16t 2 )3/2

which implies that Dr s

0 9 + 16t 2 12
T (t) = 12 = .
(9 + 16t 2 )3 9 + 16t 2

Therefore,

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 Solution Contin’d.
 The principal unit normal vector is

aft
T0 (t)
N(t) =
kT0 (t)k
1
=√ (−4ti + 3j).
9 + 16t 2

 When t = 1, the principal unit normal vector is

Dr 1
N(1) = (−4i + 3j)
5

as shown in Figure 27.

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 Solution Contin’d.

aft
Dr
Figure 27: The principal unit normal vector of r(t) = 3ti + 2t 2 j points toward the
concave side of the curve

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 The principal unit normal vector can be difficult to evaluate algebraically.
For plane curves, you can simplify the algebra by finding

aft
T(t) = x (t)i + y (t)j Unit tangent vector

and observing that N(t) must be either

N1 (t) = y (t)i − x (t)j or N2 (t) = −y (t)i + x (t)j.

q
Dr
Because [x (t)]2 + [y (t)]2 = 1, it follows that both N1 (t) and N2 (t) are
unit normal vectors. The principal unit normal vector N is the one that
points toward the concave side of the curve, as shown in Figure 27. This
also holds for curves in space. That is, for an object moving along a curve
C in space, the vector T(t) points in the direction the object is moving,
whereas the vector N(t) is orthogonal to T(t) and points in the direction
in which the object is turning, as shown in Figure 28.
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 aft
Dr
Figure 28: At any point on a curve, a unit normal vector is orthogonal to the unit
tangent vector. The principal unit normal vector points in the direction in which
the curve is turning.
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 Example 45 (Finding the Principal Unit Normal Vector)
Find the principal unit normal vector for the helix

aft
r(t) = 2 cos ti + 2 sin tj + tk.

Solution.
From Example 2, you know that the unit tangent vector is
1
T(t) = √ (−2 sin ti + 2 cos tj + k). Unit tangent vector
5Dr
So, T0 (t) is given by
1
T0 (t) = √ (−2 cos ti − 2 sin tj).
5

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 Solution Contin’d.

aft
√
Because kT0 (t)k = 2/ 5, it follows that the principal unit normal vector is

T0 (t)
N(t) =
kT0 (t)k
1
= (−2 cos ti − 2 sin tj)
Dr2
= − cos ti − sin tj. Principal unit normal vector

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 Solution Contin’d.
Note that this vector is horizontal
and points toward the z-axis, as

aft
shown in Figure 29.

Dr Figure 29: N(t) is horizontal and

points toward the z-axis.

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 Next we look at the unit binormal vector.

aft
Definition 46 (Binormal Vector)
Let C be a smooth curve represented by r on an open interval I. If
T0 (t) 6= 0, then the binormal vector at t is defined as

B(t) = T(t) × N(t).

Dr
It is perpendicular to both T and N and is also a unit vector. See Figure 30

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 aft
Dr
Figure 30: We can think of the normal vector as indicating the direction in which
the curve is turning at each point

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 Example 47 (Finding the Principal Unit Normal Binomal
Vectors)
Find the unit normal and binormal vectors for the circular helix

aft
r(t) = cos ti + sin tj + tk.

Solution.
We first compute the ingredients needed for the unit normal vector:

 Differentiating r(t) give

Dr r0 (t) = − sin ti + cos tj + k

and the norm of r0 (t)

√
kr0 (t)k = 2

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 Solution contin’d.
Hence, the unit normal vector is:

r0 (t) 1

aft
T(t) = = √ (− sin ti + cos tj + k)
kr0 (t)k 2

 Differentiating T(t) gives

1
T0 (t) = √ (− cos ti − sin tj)
2

And the norm of T0 (t) is

Dr 1
kT0 (t)k = √ .
2

Consequently,

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 Solution Contin’d.
The unity Normal vector is

T0 (t)

aft
N(t) = = − cos ti − sin tj = h− cos t, − sin t, 0i
kT0 (t)k
This shows that the normal vector at a point on the helix is horizontal
and points toward the z-axis.

The binormal vector is

 
i j k
Dr 1 
B(t) = T(t) × N(t) = √  − sin t cos t 1 

1
2 − cos t − sin t 0


= √ hsin t, − cos t, 1i
2

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 Figure 31 illustrates Example 47 by
showing the vectors T, N and B at

aft
two locations on the helix. In
general, the vectors T, N and B,
starting at the various points on a
curve, form a set of orthogonal
vectors, called the TNB-frame, that
moves along the curve as t varies.
This TNB-frame plays an
important role in the branch of
Dr
mathematics known as differential
geometry and in its applications to
the motion of spacecraft Figure 31: The TNB-frame

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 138 / 195

 The plane determined by the normal and binormal vectors N and B at a
point P on a curve C is called the normal plane of C at P. It consists of

aft
all lines that are orthogonal to the tangent vector T. The plane determined
by the vectors T and N is called the osculating plane of C at P. The
name comes from the Latin osculum, meaning “kiss.” It is the plane that
comes closest to containing the part of the curve near P. (For a plane
curve, the osculating plane is simply the plane that contains the curve.)

The circle that lies in the osculating plane of C at P , has the same
Dr
tangent as C at P, lies on the concave side of (toward which N points),
and has radius ρ = k1 (the reciprocal of the curvature) is called the
osculating circle (or the circle of curvature) of C at P. It is the circle
that best describes how C behaves near P; it shares the same tangent,
normal, and curvature at P.

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 Example 48
Find the equations of the normal plane and osculating plane of the helix

r(t) = cos ti + sin tj + tk.

aft
at the point P 0, 1, π2 .

Solution.
The normal plane at P has normal vector

r0 (π/2) = h−1, 0, 1i,

so an equation is
Dr
π π
 
−1(x − 0) + 0(y − 1) + 1 z − =0 or z =x+
2 2

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 Solution Contin’d.
The osculating plane at P contains the vectors T and N, so its normal

aft
vector is T × N = B. From Example 47, we have

1 π 1 1
   
B(t) = √ hsin t, − cos t, 1i B = √ , 0, √
2 2 2 2

A simpler normal vector is h1, 0, 1i, so an equation of the osculating plane

is
Dr
1(x − 0) + 0(y − 1) + 1 z −
π
2
 
=0 or z = −x +
π
2

See Figure 32

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 Solution Contin’d.

aft
Dr
Figure 32: The helix and the osculating plane

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 5.3 Tangential and Normal Components of Acceleration
In the preceding section, we considered the problem of describing the

aft
motion of an object along a curve. We saw that for an object traveling at
a constant speed, the velocity and acceleration vectors are perpendicular.
This seems reasonable, because the speed would not be constant if any
acceleration were acting in the direction of motion. You can verify this
observation by noting that

Dr r 00 (t) · r 0 (t) = 0

when kr 0 (t)k is a constant. (See Property 7 of Theorem 20.)

For an object traveling at a variable speed, however, the velocity and

acceleration vectors are not necessarily perpendicular. For instance, we
saw that the acceleration vector for a projectile always points down,
regardless of the direction of motion.
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 aft
In general, part of the acceleration (the tangential component) acts in the
line of motion, and part of it (the normal component) acts perpendicular
to the line of motion. In order to determine these two components, we can
use the unit vectors T(t) and N(t), which serve in much the same way as
do i and j in representing vectors in the plane.

The next theorem states that the acceleration vector lies in the plane
Dr
determined by T(t) and N(t).

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 Theorem 49 (Acceleration Vector)
If r(t) is the position vector for a smooth curve C and N(t) exists, then
the acceleration vector a(t) lies in the plane determined by T(t) and N(t).

aft
Proof.
To simplify the notation, write T for T(t), T0 for T0 (t), and so on.
Because T = r0 / kr0 k = v/kvk, it follows that

v = kvkT.
By differentiating, we obtain
Dr
a = v0
d
= dt
d
= dt
[kvk]T + kvkT0 
[kvk]T + kvkT0 kT
0k
0
kT k
 Product Rule

d
= dt [kvk]T + kvk kT0 k N. N = T0 / kT0 k
Because a is written as a linear combination of T and N, it follows that a
lies in the plane determined by T and N.
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 The coefficients of T and N in the proof of Theorem 49 are called the
tangential and normal components of acceleration and are denoted by

aft
d
aT = [kvk]
dt

and

aN = kvk T0 .

So, we can write

Dr a(t) = aT T(t) + aN N(t)

The next theorem lists some convenient formulas for aT and aN .

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 146 / 195

 Theorem 50 (Tangential and Normal Components of
Acceleration)
If r(t) is the position vector for a smooth curve C [for which N(t) exists],

aft
then the tangential and normal components of acceleration are as follows.

d v·a
aT = [kvk] = a · T =
dt kvk
and

kv × ak q
aN = kvk T0 = a · N = 2
= kak2 − aT
Dr kvk

Note that aN ≥ 0. The normal component of acceleration is also called

the centripetal component of acceleration.

Proof.
Note that “a" lies in the plane of T and N. So, you can use Figure 33
Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 147 / 195
 Proof Contin’d.
to conclude that, for any time t, the components of the projection of the
acceleration vector onto T and onto N are given by

aft
aT = a · T and aN = a · N,

respectively. Moreover, because a = v0 and T = v/kvk, we have

v v·a
aT = a · T = T · a = ·a= .
kvk kvk
Dr
Further, form a = v0 and T = v/kvk, we have

N=
T0
=
v0
kvk
=
v0 kvk
· 0 =
a
kT0 k v0 kvk kv k kak
kvk

Thus, we have
Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 148 / 195
 Proof Contin’d.

a a2

aft
aN = kvk T0 = a · N = a · =
kak kak
kv × ak q
= = kak2 − aT
kvk

And also,

a a2
aN = a · N = a ·
Dr kak
=

=
kak
kv × ak q
kvk
= kak2 − aT

The remaining part of the theorem are left as an exercise

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 149 / 195

 Proof Contin’d.

aft
Dr
Figure 33: The tangential and normal components of acceleration are obtained by
projecting a onto T and N.
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 Example 51 (Tangential and Normal Components of
Acceleration)
Find the tangential and normal components of acceleration for the
position vector given by

aft
r(t) = 3ti − tj + t 2 k.

Solution.
Begin by finding the velocity, speed, and acceleration.

v(t) = r0 (t) = 3i − j + 2tk

Dr
kv(t)k =
p
9 + 1 + 4t 2 =
p
Velocity vector

10 + 4t 2 Speed

a(t) = r00 (t) = 2k Acceleration vector

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 Solution Contin’d.
By Theorem 50, the tangential component of acceleration is

aft
v·a 4t
aT = =√
kvk 10 + 4t 2

and because

i j k
v×a= 3 −1 2t = −2i − 6j
0 0 2
Dr
the normal component of acceleration is
√ √
kv × ak 4 + 36 2 10
aN = =√ =√ .
kvk 10 + 4t 2 10 + 4t 2

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 Example 52 (Projectile Motion)
The position vector for the projectile shown in Figure 34 is given by
√  √ 
r(t) = (50 2t)i + 50 2t − 16t 2 j.

aft
Find
√ the tangential components of acceleration when t = 0, 1, and
25 2/16.

Dr
Figure 34: The path of a projectile
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 Solution.
√  √ 
From the position vector r(t) = (50 2t)i + 50 2t − 16t 2 j, we have
that

aft
√ √
v(t) = 50 2i + (50 2 − 32t)j Velocity vector

q √
kv(t)k = 2 502 − 16(50) 2t + 162 t 2 Speed

a(t) = −32j Acceleration vector

Dr
The tangential component of acceleration is

aT (t) =
v(t) · a(t)
= q
√
−32(50 2 − 32t)
.
kv(t)k √
2 502 − 16(50) 2t + 162 t 2

At the specified times, we have

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 Solution Contin’d.
√
−32(50 2) √
aT (0) = = −16 2 ≈ −22.6
100

aft
√
−32(50 2 − 32)
aT (1) = q √ ≈ −15.4
2 502 − 16(50) 2 + 162

√ ! √ √
25 2 −32(50 2 − 50 2)
aT = √ = 0.
Dr 16 50 2

We can√see from Figure 34 that, at the maximum height, when

t = 25 2/16, the tangential component is 0. This is reasonable because
the direction of motion is horizontal at the point and the tangential
component of the acceleration is equal to the horizontal component of the
acceleration.

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 6 Arc Length and Curvature
Recall that, the arc length of a smooth plane curve C with parametric

aft
equations x = f (t) and y = f (t), a ≤ t ≤ b as the limit of the sum of
lengths of inscribed polygons and for the case where f 0 and g 0 are
continuous, we arrived at the formula

s
Z bq Z b 2 2
dx dy
 
s= [f 0 (t)]2 + [g 0 (t)]2 dt = + dt.
a a dt dt
Dr
In vector form, where C is given by r(t) = f (t)i + g(t)j, we can rewrite
this equation for arc length as

Z b
s= r0 (t) dt
a

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 The formula for the arc length of a plane curve has a natural extension to
a smooth curve in space, see Figure 35,

aft
Dr
Figure 35: The length of a space curve is the limit of lengths of inscribed polygons

as indicated in the following definition.

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 6.1 Arc Length

aft
Definition 53 (Arc Length of a Plane and Spaces Curve)
If a smooth curve C is given by the vector equation
r(t) = f (t)i + g(t)j + h(t)k, on an interval [a, b] or by equivalently the
parametric equations x = f (t), y = g(t) and z = h(t), where f 0 , g 0 and h0
are continuous, then the arc length of C on this interval is

Z bq
[f 0 (t)]2 + [g 0 (t)]2 + [h0 (t)]2 dt
s=

=
a
Z b
Dr
s

dx
2
+

dy
2
+

dz
2
dt =
Z b
r0 (t) dt (6.1)
a dt dt dt a

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 Example 54 (Finding the Arc Length of a Curve in Space)
Find the length of the arc of the circular helix with vector equation
r(t) = cos ti + sin tj + tk from the point (1, 0, 0) to the point (1, 0, 2π).

aft
Solution.
Since r0 (t) = − sin ti + cos tj + k, we have
q √
r0 (t) = (− sin t)2 + cos2 t + 1 = 2

The arc from (1, 0, 0) to (1, 0, 2π) is described by the parameter interval
Dr
0 6 t 6 2π and so, the arc length from t = 0 to t = 2π is

Z 2π Z 2π √ √
0
s= kr (t)kdt = 2dt = 2 2π
0 0

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 Solution Contin’d.
See Figure 36

aft
Dr
√
Figure 36: The arc of the helix whose arc length is 2 2π.
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 Example 55 (Finding the Arc Length of a Curve in Space)
Find the arc length of the curve given by
4 1
r(t) = ti + t 3/2 j + t 2 k

aft
3 2
from t = 0 to t = 2, as shown in Figure 37.

Dr
Figure 37: As t increases from 0 to 2, the vector r(t) traces out a curve.

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 161 / 195

 Proof.

aft
Using x (t) = t, y (t) = 43 t 3/2 and z(t) = 21 t 2 , we obtain x 0 (t) = 1,
y 0 (t) = 2t 1/2 and z 0 (t) = t. So, the arc length from t = 0 to t = 2 is
given by
R q
s = 02 [x 0 (t)]2 + [y 0 (t)]2 + [z 0 (t)]2 dt
R √
= 02 q1 + 4t + t 2 dt
R2
= 0 (t + 2)2 − 3dt
h Dr q q i2
t+2
= (t + 2)2 − 3 − 32 ln (t + 2) + (t + 2)2 − 3
√2 √ 0
= 2 13 − 32 ln(4 + 13) − 1 + 32 ln 3 ≈ 4.816.

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 6.2 Arc Length Parameter
We have seen that curves can be represented by vector-valued functions in
different ways, depending on the choice of parameter. Indeed, a single

aft
curve C can be represented by more than one vector function. For
instance, the twisted cubic

D E
r1 (t) = ti + t 2 j + t 3 k = t, t 2 , t 3 16t62 (6.2)

Dr
could also be represented by the function

D E
r2 (u) = e u i + e 2u j + e 3u k = e u , e 2u , e 3u 0 6 u 6 ln 2 (6.3)

where the connection between the parameters t and u is given by t = e u .

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 aft
We say that Equations 6.2 and 6.3 are parametrizations of the curve C .
If we were to use Equation 6.1 to compute the length of C using
Equations 6.2 and 6.3, we would get the same answer. In general, it can
be shown that when Equation 6.1 is used to compute arc length, the
answer is independent of the parametrization that is used. Henceforth, for
studying the geometric properties of a curve, the convenient parameter is
often arc length s as in the next definition.
Dr
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 Definition 56 (Definition of Arc Length Function)

aft
Let C be a smooth curve given by r(t) defined on the closed interval [a, b].
For a ≤ t ≤ b, the arc length function is given by

Z t Z tq
s(t) = r0 (u) du = [x 0 (u)]2 + [y 0 (u)]2 + [z 0 (u)]2 du
a a
s
Z t 2 2 2
dx dy dz
  
= + + du. (6.4)
a du du du
Dr
The arc length s is called the arc length parameter. See Figure 38.

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 aft
Dr Figure 38: Arc Length Parameter s(t)

Remark 3
The arc length function s is nonnegative. It measures the distance along C
from the initial point (x (a), y (a), z(a)) to the point (x (t), y (t), z(t)).
Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 166 / 195
 Thus s(t) is the length of the part of C between r(a) and r(t). (See Figure
3.) Using the definition of the arc length function and if we differentiate
both sides of Equation 6.4 using the Second Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus, we can conclude that the derivative of arc length function is

aft
ds
= r0 (t) . (6.5)
dt

In differential form, we can write

Dr ds = r0 (t) dt

It is often useful to parametrize a curve with respect to arc length

because arc length arises naturally from the shape of the curve and does
not depend on a particular coordinate system. If a curve r(t) is already
given in terms of a parameter t and s(t) is the arc length function given
by Equation 6.4, then we may be able to solve for t as a function of s :
Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 167 / 195
 aft
t = t(s).

Then the curve can be reparametrized in terms of s by substituting for t:

r = r(t(s)).
Dr
Thus, if s = 3 for instance, r(t(3)) is the position vector of the point 3
units of length along the curve from its starting point.

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 aft
Example 57 (Finding the Arc Length Function for a Line)
Find the arc length function s(t) for the line segment given by

r(t) = (3 − 3t)i + 4tj, 0≤t≤1

and write r as a function of the parameter s, See Figure 39

Dr
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 aft
Dr
Figure 39: The line segment from (3, 0) to (0, 4) can be parametrized using the
arc length parameter s

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 Solution.
Form r(t) = (3 − 3t)i + 4tj, we have r0 (t) = −3i + 4j and so,
q
r0 (t) =

aft
(−3)2 + 42 = 5

Consequently, we obtain

Z t Z t
s(t) = kr0 (u)kdu = 5du = 5t.
0 0
Dr
Using s = 5t (or t = s/5), you can rewrite r using the arc length
parameter as follows.

3 4
 
r(s) = 3 − s i + sj, 0≤s≤5
5 5

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 One of the advantages of writing a vector-valued function in terms of the
arc length parameter is that kr0 (s)k = 1. For instance, in Example 57, we
have

aft
s
2  2
3 4

0
kr (s)k = − + =1
5 5

So, for a smooth curve C represented by r(s), where s is the arc length
parameter, the arc length between a and b is
Dr
Length of arc =
Z b

a
0
kr (s)kds =
Z b

a
1ds

=b−a
= length of interval.

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 Furthermore, if t is any parameter such that kr0 (t)k = 1, then t must be
the arc length parameter. These results are summarized in the following
theorem, which is stated without proof.

aft
Theorem 58 (Arc Length Parameter)
If C is a smooth curve given by

r(s) = x (s)i + y (s)j or r(s) = x (s)i + y (s)j + z(s)k

where s is the arc length parameter, then

kr0 (s)k = 1.
Dr
Moreover, if t is any parameter for the vector-valued function r such that
kr0 (t)k = 1, then t must be the arc length parameter.

Proof.
Proof is left as an exercise to the learner

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 Example 59 (Reparametrize the Vector Valued Function)
Reparametrize the helix r(t) = cos ti + sin tj + tk with respect to arc
length measured from (1, 0, 0) in the direction of increasing t.

aft
Solution.
The initial point (1, 0, 0) corresponds to the parameter value t = 0. Now,

r0 (t) = − sin ti + cos tj + k

and so,
Dr
ds q
= kr0 (t)k = (− sin t)2 + (cos t)2 + 12
dt √
= 2

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 Solution Contin’d.
and so

aft
Z t
s = s(t) = kr0 (u)kdu
0
Z t√
= 2du
0
√
= 2t

√
Dr
Therefore t = s/ 2 and the required reparametrization is obtained by
substituting for t :

√ √ √
r(t(s)) = cos(s/ 2)i + sin(s/ 2)j + (s/ 2)k

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 6.3 Curvature
An important use of the arc length parameter is to find curvature-the
measure of how sharply a curve bends. For instance, in Figure 40 the

aft
curve bends more sharply at P than at Q, and we can say that the
curvature is greater at P than at Q.

Dr
Figure 40: Curvature at P is greater than at Q
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 Before we to look at concept of curvature in details we first consider the
following:

aft
Definition 60 (Smooth parametrization and Curve)
A parametrization r(t) is called smooth on an interval I if

Dr r0 is continuous and r0 (t) 6= 0

on I. A curve is called smooth if it has a smooth parametrization. A

smooth curve has no sharp corners or cusps; when the tangent vector
turns, it does so continuously.

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 If C is a smooth curve defined by the vector function r, recall that the unit
tangent vector T(t) is given by

r0 (t)

aft
T(t) =
|r0 (t)|
and indicates the direction of the curve. From Figure 41 we can see that
T(t) changes direction very slowly when C is fairly straight, but it changes
direction more quickly when C bends or twists more sharply.

Dr
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 aft
The curvature of C at a given point is a measure of how quickly the curve
changes direction at that point.
Specifically, we define curvature to be the magnitude of the rate of change
of the unit tangent vector T with respect to arc length s as shown in
Figure 42.
Dr
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 aft
Dr
Figure 42: The magnitude of the rate of change of T with respect to the arc
length s is the curvature of a curve.

We use arc length so that the curvature will be independent of the

parametrization.

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 Definition 61 (Definition of Curvature)

aft
Let C be a smooth curve (in the plane or in space) given by r(s), where s
is the arc length parameter. The curvature κ at s is given by

dT
κ= = T0 (s) . (6.6)
ds

where T is the unit tangent vector.

Dr
The curvature is easier to compute if it is expressed in terms of the
parameter t instead of s, so we use the Chain Rule to write

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 181 / 195

 dT dT ds dT dT/dt
= and κ= =
dt ds dt ds ds/dt

aft
But ds/dt = kr0 (t)k from Equation 6.5, so

kT0 (t)k
κ(t) = (6.7)
kr0 (t)k
Dr
A circle has the same curvature at any point. Moreover, the curvature and
the radius of the circle are inversely related. That is, a circle with a large
radius has a small curvature, and a circle with a small radius has a large
curvature. This inverse relationship is made explicit in the following
example.

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 182 / 195

 aft
Example 62
Show that the curvature of a circle of radius r is κ = 1/r .

Solution.
Without loss of generality we can consider the circle to be centered at the
origin. Let (x , y ) be any point on the circle and let s be the length of the
arc from (r , 0) to (x , y ), as shown in Figure 43.
Dr
Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 183 / 195
 Solution Contin’d.

aft
Dr
Figure 43: The curvature of a circle is constant.
Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 184 / 195
 Solution Contin’d.
By letting θ be the central angle of the circle, we can represent the circle
by

aft
r(θ) = r cos θi + r sin θj. θ is the parameter.

Therefore r0 (θ) = −r sin θi + r cos θj and kr0 (θ)k = r so

r0 (θ)
T(θ) = = − sin θi + cos θj
kr0 (θ)k
and Dr T0 (θ) = − cos θi − sin θj

This gives kT0 (θ)k = 1, so using Equation 6.7, we have

kT0 (θ)k 1
κ(θ) = 0
=
kr (θ)k r

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 185 / 195

 aft
The result of Example 3 shows that small circles have large curvature and
large circles have small curvature, in accordance with our intuition. We
can see directly from the definition of curvature that the curvature of a
straight line is always 0 because the tangent vector is constant.
Although Formula 6.7 can be used in all cases to compute the curvature,
the formula given by the following theorem is often more convenient to
apply.
Dr
Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 186 / 195
 Theorem 63
The curvature of the curve given by the vector function r is

kr0 (t) × r00 (t)|

aft
κ(t) =
kr0 (t)k3

Proof.
Since T = r0 / kr0 k and kr0 k = ds/dt, we have

ds
r0 = r0 T = T
Dr
so the Product Rule gives

d 2s ds
dt

r00 = 2
T + T0 .
dt dt

Using the fact that T × T = 0, we have

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 187 / 195
 Proof Contin’d.
2
ds

0 00
T × T0


r ×r =
dt

aft
Now since T is a unit vector, kT(t)k = 1 for all t, so T and T0 are
orthogonal, and so,
2 2 2
ds ds ds
  
r0 × r00 = T × T0 = kTk T0 = T0
dt dt dt
Thus,

kr0 × r00 k kr0 × r00 k

T0 = = .

Consequently
Dr (ds/dt)2 kr0 k2

kT0 | kr0 × r00 k

κ= = .
kr0 k kr0 k3

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 188 / 195

 Example 64 (Finding Curvature of the Twisted Cubic)
Find the curvature of the twisted cubic r(t) = t, t 2 , t 3 at a general point
and at (0, 0, 0).

aft
Solution.
We first compute the required ingredients. Now, from r(t) = t, t 2 , t 3 ,
we have
D E
r0 (t) = 1, 2t, 3t 2 and r00 (t) = h0, 2, 6ti

and so,
Dr r0 (t) =
p
1 + 4t 2 + 9t 4

Thus

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 189 / 195

 Solution Contin’d.
i j k
r0 (t) × r00 (t) = 1 2t 3t 2 = 6t 2 i − 6tj + 2k

aft
0 2 6t

giving
p p
r0 (t) × r00 (t) = 36t 4 + 36t 2 + 4 = 2 9t 4 + 9t 2 + 1.

Theorem 63 then gives

Dr
κ(t) =
|r0 (t) × r00 (t)|
|r0 (t)|3
=
√
2 1 + 9t 2 + 9t 4
(1 + 4t 2 + 9t 4 )3/2

At the origin, where t = 0, the curvature is κ(0) = 2.

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 190 / 195

 For the special case of a plane curve with equation y = f (x ), we choose x

aft
as the parameter and write r(x ) = x i + f (x )j. Then r0 (x ) = i + f 0 (x )j and
r00 (x ) = f 00 (x )j. Since i × j = k and j × j = 0, weqhave
r0 (x ) × r00 (x ) = f 00 (x )k. We also have kr0 (x )k = 1 + [f 0 (x )]2 and so, by
Theorem 63,

kf 00 (x )k
κ(x ) = h (6.8)
Dr 1+ (f 0 (x ))2
i3/2

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 191 / 195

 Example 65
Find the curvature of the parabola y = x 2 at the points (0, 0), (1, 1) and
(2, 4).

aft
Solution.
Since y 0 = 2x and y 00 = 2, Formula 6.8 gives

ky 00 k 2
κ(x ) = h i3/2 = .
Dr 1 + (y 0 )2 (1 + 4x 2 )3/2

The curvature at (0, 0) is κ(0) = 2. At (1, 1) it is κ(1) = 2/53/2 ≈ 0.18.

At (2, 4) it is κ(2) = 2/173/2 ≈ 0.03. Observe from the expression for κ(x )
or the graph of κ in Figure 5 that κ(x ) → 0 as x → ±∞. This corresponds
to the fact that the parabola appears to become flatter as x → ±∞.

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 192 / 195

 Solution Contin’d.

aft
Dr
Figure 44: The parabola y = x 2 and its curvature function

Matindih L. K. (Mr.) (MU/SNAS/DMS) EGM 211-ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 2024/2025 193 / 195

 References

aft
[1] Goodman, A. W. (1969), Analytic Geometry and the Calculus, Second Edition,
Collier-Macmillan.
[2] Zill D. E. (1985), Calculus with Analytic Geometry. Prindle Welber and Shmidt,
Boston
[3] Larson B and B Edwards (2014), Calculus with CalcChart and CalcView. 11th
Edition, Cengage Learning, Boston-USA
[4] Larson R. and Bruce H. E. (2010), Calculus, 9th Edition Brooks/Cole, Belmont,
USA.
[5] Bird J.(2006), Higher Engineering Mathematics, 5th Edition. Elsevier Ltd
Dr
[6] Bird J.(2010), Higher Engineering Mathematics, 6th Edition. Elsevier Ltd
[7] Goodman A. W. (1969) Analytic Geometry and Calculus, 2nd Ed. Collier
Macmillan.
[8] Finney R. L. and G. B. Thomas (1983) Analytic Geometry and the Calculus, 2nd
Ed. Addison - Wesley.

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 .

aft
END OF LECTURE NOTES 3.
Dr
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