EC3353-

ELECTRONICDEVICESANDCIRCUITSUNIT-I
PN JUNCTION DEVICES
PART-B
PNjunctiondiode:structure,operation&V-Icharacteristics
1. WithaneatdiagramexplaintheworkingofaPNjunctiondiodeinforwardbias And
reverse bias and show the effects of temperature on its VI characteristics
(NOV/DEC 2012), (May / June 2016), (Nov / Dec 2015)
(OR)
Outline the charge carrier diffusion phenomenon across a PN junction. Explain the effect of
forward and reverse biasing on the depletion region. (Nov/Dec 2018 R-13)(April / May 2019-R17)

A PN junction is formed from a piece of semiconductor (Ge or Si) by diffusing p-typematerial(Acceptor

impurity Atoms) to one half side and N type material to (Donar Impurity Atoms) other half side. The
plane dividing the two zones is known as 'Junction'.

The P-region of the semiconductor contains a large number of holes and N region, contains a large
number of electrons. A PN junction just immediately formed is shown in Fig.

When PN junction is formed, there is a tendency for the electrons in the N-region to diffuse into the p-
region, and holes from P-region to N-region. This process is called diffusion. While crossing the junction,
the electrons and holes recombines with each other, leaving the immobile ions in the neighborhood of the
junction neutralized as shown in Fig.

These immobile + ve and –veions, set up a potential across the junction. This potential is called potential
barrier or junction barrier. Due to the potential barrier no further diffusion of electrons and holes takes
place across the junction. Potential barrier is defined as a potential difference built up across the PN
junction which restricts further movement of charge carriers across the junction. The potential barrier fora
silicon PN junction is about 0.7 volt, whereas for Germanium PN junction is approximately 0.3 volt.

Symbolof Diode:
ThesymbolofPNjunctiondiodeisshownin Fig. TheP-typeand N-typeregionsarereferred toasAnode and
Cathode respectively.The arrowhead shows the conventional direction of current flow when the diode is
forward biased.
WorkingofPNJunction Diode:

ForwardBias:
When the positive terminal of the external battery is connected to the P-region and negative terminal
tothe N-region, the PN junction is said to be forward biased as shown in Fig.

Whenthejunctionisforwardbiased,theholesin thep-regionarerepelledby the

positiveterminal ofthebatteryand areforced to movetowardsthe junction. similarly, theelectrons in the N-
region arerepelled bythe negative terminal of the batteryand areforced to move towards the-junction.

This reduces the width of the depletion layer and barrier potential. If the applied voltage is greater than the
potential barrier vr, then the majority carriersnamely holes in P-region and electrons in N-region, cross the
barrier. During crossing some of the charges get neutralized the remaining chargesafter crossing, reach
the other side and constitute current in the forward direction. The PN junction offers very low resistance
under forward biased condition.

Since the barrier potential is very small (nearly 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for Germanium junction), a
small forward voltage is enough to completely eliminate the barrier. once the potential barrier is
eliminated by the forward voltage, a large current start flowing through the PN junction.

ReverseBias:

When the positive terminal of the external battery is connected to the N-region and negative terminal to
thep-region, thePNjunction is saidto bereversebiased. When thejunction is reversebiased, theholesin the P-
region are attractedby the negative terminal of the battery.Similarly, the electrons in the N-region
are attracted by the positive terminal of the external battery. This increases the width of the depletionlayer
and barrier potential (Vs).

The increased barrier potential makes it very difficult for the majority carriers to diffuse across the
junction. Thus, thereis no current dueto majoritycarriersin areversebiased PNjunction.In otherwords, the
PN junction offers very high resistance under reverse biased condition.

In a reverse biased PN junction, a small amount of current (in µA) flows through the junction because of
minority carriers. ( i.e., electrons in the P-region and holes in the N region).The reverse current is small
because the number of majority carrier in both regions is small.

V-lcharacteristicsof PN-JunctionDiode:

A graph between the voltage applied across the PN junction and the current flowing through the junction
is called the V-I characteristics of PN junction diode. Fig. shows the V-I characteristics of PN junction
diode.

ForwardCharacteristics:
Fig. (a) shows the circuit arrangement for drawing the forward V-I characteristics of PN junction diode.
To apply a forward bias, the +ve terminal of the battery is connected to Anode (A) and the negative
terminal of the battery is connected to Cathode (K). Now, when supply voltage is increased the circuit
current increases very slowly and the curve is nonlinear (region-OA).

The slow rise in current in this region is because the external applied voltage is used to overcome the
barrier potential (0.7 V for Si; 0.3V for Ge ) of the PN junction' However once the potential barrier is
eliminated and the external supply voltage is increased further, the current flowing through the PN
junction diode increasesrapidly (region AB). This region of the curve is almost linear. The applied voltage
should not be increased beyond a certain safe limit, otherwise the diode will burnout.

TheforwardvoltageatwhichthecurrentthroughthePNjunctionstartsincreasingrapidlyiscalledby
kneevoltage.ItisdenotedbytheletterVB.
 ReverseCharacteristics:

Fig (b)shows the circuit arrangement fordrawing the reverseV-I characteristics of PN junction diode. To
apply a reverse bias, the +ve terminal of the battery is connected to cathode (K) and - ve terminal of the
battery is connected to anode (A).

Under this condition the potential buried at the junction is increased. Therefore, the junction resistance
becomes very high and practically no. current flows through the circuit. However, in actual practice, a
very small current (of the order of µA) flows in the circuit. This current is called reverse current and isdue
to minority carriers. It is also called as reverse saturation current (I). The reverse current increases slightly
with the increase in reverse bias supply voltage.

If the reverse voltage is increased continuously at one state (marked by point C on the reverse
characteristics) breakdown of junction occurs and the resistance of the barrier regions falls suddenly.
Consequently, the reverse current increases rapidly (as shown by the curve CD in the current) to a large
value. This may destroy the junction permanently. The reverse voltage at which the PN junction breaks is
called as break down voltage.

Temperatureeffects
Thecutinvoltagedecreases asthetemperatureincreases.Thereversesaturation currentincreases.
𝐼=(∆𝑇⁄
022 10)𝐼01

𝐼01,𝐼02arethereversecurrentatT1◦C,T◦C
∆𝑇=T2- T1.
2

ThevoltageequivalentoftemperatureVTalsoincreases.Thereversebreakdown voltageincreases.

2. DerivethePNdiodecurrentequation.

Theappliedvoltageandcurrentthoughdiodeare relatedbythe equation

𝑉⁄
𝐼=𝐼0(𝑒 𝑦 𝑇 −1)
𝑉

Where,

Io=Reversesaturationcurrent V
= Applied voltage
I=Diodecurrent
VT=Volt equivalent temperature

𝑘̅ 𝑇
𝑉𝑇
= 𝑞
̅
𝑘=1.38*10 -23
J/K
T=temperatureofthediodejunction I =
diode current
Q=changeofelectron1.602*10-19C At
any temperature
 𝑘̅ 𝑇 1.38× 10−23 𝑇
𝑉𝑇= = =
𝑞 1.602×10 −19 11600

300
Atroom temperature

𝑉𝑇= =26𝑚𝑉
11600
Thevalueofη=1 forgermaniumand 2 for silicon.

Forforwardbiasvoltagethecurrentequationreducesto
𝑉⁄
𝐼=𝐼(𝑒
0 𝑦𝑉 𝑇 )

Atroomtemperatureforgermaniumtransistor
𝐼=𝐼0(𝑒40)
Whenthe diodeis reversebiased
𝑉
𝐼=𝐼0(𝑒 ⁄𝑦 𝑇
−1)
𝑉

𝐼≅𝐼0

Diffusionandtransientcapacitance
3. Explaindiffusionandtransition capacitanceof diode

Depletion layer capacitance (or) transition capacitance (or) space charge capacitance (May / June
2016)(Nov/Dec 2016)(May 2017)

• When a PN junction is reverse biased, a layer of positive and negative immobile ions, called depletion
layer,is formedon either sideofthejunction. It is also knownas depletion-region, space-charge region or
transition region. The depletion-layer acts as a dielectric (i.e., non-conductive) medium between P-region
and N-region. We know that the P-region and N-region on either side of the junction, has alowresistance.
Therefore, these regions act as two plates of a capacitor, separated by a dielectric (i.e., depletion layer) as
shown in Fig.

The capacitance formed in a junction area is called depletion layer capacitance. It is also called depletion
region-capacitance, space charge capacitance, transition region capacitance or simply junctioncapacitance.

• Since the depletion layer width (d) increases with the increase in reverse bias voltage, the resulting
depletion layer capacitance will decrease with the increased reverse bias.

• The depletion layer capacitance depends upon the nature of a PN junction, semiconductor material and
magnitude of the applied reverse voltage. It is given by the relation,
Where
K=Aconstant,dependinguponthenatureofsemiconductormaterial VB =
barrier voltage. 0.6V for silicon and 0.3V for germanium
V=appliedreversevoltage
naconstantdependinguponthenatureofjunction. The
value of the K is

• Thevalue of‘n’is takenas1/2 forsteporabruptjunction, 1/3 forlinearlygraded junction.

• It is the evident from the above relation that the value of depletion layer capacitance (CT) can be
controlled by varying the applied reverse voltage. This property of variable capacitance, possessed by
reverse biased PN junction, is used in the concentration of a device called varactor.
Reversebiased.

Derivation:

DopinglessinPside(NA)
Connection P side is less

Nside (ND)

NA<Nd2DV
Potential&changedensityRelation

dX 2 1

𝜀→𝜀𝑜𝜀𝑟
Integrating2 X–distancemeasuredfromjunction

N<N
d2 V
=qND-------------------------2
A DdX2 𝗌

d2V qND
∫ 2=∫
dx ε
dv qNAX
=
dx ε
dv wqNAX
Togetpotential from0tow
VB

∫ =∫ dx
WhereV=VB o dx o ε

X=w
 V= ×
qNA w2---------------------------------
3
B 𝗌 2
W=√VB

=(NA×volume)×q
Q=Noofchangeparticle×changeon each particle

Q=qNAAW____________2
qNA w2
Diff3w.r.to V

VB= ×
× 2w
qNA 1dw
1= ε 2
𝗌 2dv
dw ε
=
dv qNAw
dQ dw
Diff2

=qNAA
dv ε dv Aε
CT=qNAA =
qNw
A w

Ex:Varactordiode(or)Tuningdiode

Diffusioncapacitance𝐂𝐃:(May 2017)
Thejunction behaves likeacapacitor.Thecapacitance, which exists in aforward-biased junction is called a
diffusion or storage capacitance. It is different from the transition or depletion layer capacitance, which
exists in a reverse-biased junction. The diffusion capacitance arises due to the arrangement of minority
carrier density. And its value is much larger than the depletion layer capacitance.
Widthofdepletionregion↓Asappliedvoltage↑,theconcentrationofinjectedchargedparticlealso increases. This rate of

𝑟=meanlifetimeofthecarrier I
change of injected change with applied voltage is capacitance.

𝜂=Aconstant(1forGeand2forSi)
= value of forward current

VT=voltequivalent of temperature.

C=
dQ
D dv

CDis
>CTI=Ipn(0)+I
np(0)
Ipn(0)→holediffusioncurrentnregion
Inp(0)→electrondiffusioncurrentinpregion
 Inp(0)⋍ 0

dpn
Psideheavilydoped

Jp(X)=−qDp
dx
dpn------------------------- I
Ip(X)=−qADp J=
A
1
dX
Pn(X)=Pn(0)e−X/LP----------------------------2
Holeconcentrationintherightsideofpmaterial Pn(0)iejunction Diff 2

1
Ip(X)=−qADpPn(0)e−X/LP.- dpn(x)=P e−X/LP( )
1/LPAt x=0 Ip(X)=Ipn(0)=I dx LP
n(0)

QADP
I= Pn(0)
LP
Pn(0)=
ILP

QADP
A
Nowtheexcessminoritychargeexistsonlyonnsideandgivenby Q=∞ Aq
(00)e−X/LPdx
Pn∫
∞
=AqPn(0)[ ]
e−X/LP
−
1P
L
0
=AqLpPn(0)[e−∞−e−0]
Q=−AqLpPn(0)Q=AqLpPn
(0 )
-----------------------------------
B
Put A in B
= .I
AqLpILP LP2
qADp Dp
Q=

LP2
Assume
=𝑟
Dp
Q=𝑟I⇒ =𝑟
dQ

dI

dQ dI
CD= .
W.K.T

dI dV
dI
CD=𝑟.
dVT)
I=Io(eV/DV
dI
=I 1
. ηV
dV T
I
CD=𝑟.
ηV
 T
Itisevidentfromtheaboverelation,thatdiffusioncapa citanceisdirectlyproportionaltotheforward
current(I).
 Rectifiers–HalfWaveandFullWave

HalfWave
4. What is halfwave rectifier? Explain the working principle with neat sketch? (Nov / Dec 2015)
(Nov/Dec 2016)
Rectifiers are a class of circuits whose purpose is to convert ac waveforms (usually sinusoidaland
with zero average value) into a waveform that has a significant non-zero average value (dc component) .
Simply stated, rectifiers are ac-to-dc energy converter circuits. Most rectifier circuits employ diodes as the
principal elements in the energy conversion process; thus, the almost inseparable notions of diodes and
rectifiers.

Uncontrolled rectifier: uncontrolled refers to the absence of any control signal necessary to operate the
primaryswitching elements (diodes)in therectifier circuit. (Thediscussion ofcontrolled rectifier circuits,
and the controlled switches themselves, is more appropriate in the context of power electronics
applications). Rectifiers are the fundamental building block in dc power supplies of all types and in dc
power transmission used by some electric utilities.

Therearetwotypes ofrectifiers:

(a)HalfWave(HW)rectifier (b)Full Wave(FW) rectifier

Half-waveRectifier:
It consists of a single diode in series with a load resistor. The input to half wave rectifier is supplied from
the 50 Hz a.c supply. The circuit diagram for halfwave rectifier is shown in fig.

Positivehalfcycle:
During the positive half cycle of the input signal the anode of the diode becomes positive with respect to
the cathode and hence the diode D conducts. For an ideal to the cathode and hence the diode D conducts.
For an ideal diode, the forward voltage drop is zero. So the whole-input voltage will appear across load
resistance RL.
Negativehalf cycle:
During negative half cycle of the input signal, the anode of the diode becomes negative with respective to
the cathode and hence the diode D does not contact. For an ideal diode the impedance by the diode is
infinity. So the whole input voltage appears across the diode D. hence the voltage drop across R, is zero.

AnalysisofHalfwaverectifier:

Let Vibetheinput voltagetotherectifier

𝑉𝑖=𝑉𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑉𝑚=Maximumvalueoftheinputvoltage.
Where,

𝐼𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟0≤𝜔𝑡≤𝜋
LetIbethecurrentflowingthough thecircuit when thediodeis conducting.

𝑖={ }
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝜋≤𝜔𝑡≤2𝜋
Where
0
𝐼𝑚=𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑚 =
𝑅 +𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝐹-Forwarddynamicresistanceofdiode.
𝐹
Where

𝑅𝐿-Loadresistance.
(a)
AverageorDCvalueof outputcurrent(Idc):
From Fig., it is seen that the output current is not steady but contains fluctuations even though it is DC
current. The average value of this fluctuating current is called DC current (I dc). It can be calculated as
follows.

Averagevalue=(Areaunder thecurve/ Period )

Idc= 1
∫i2 d(ωt)
π

2π π0
1
Idc=[∫Im∗sinωtd(ωt)]
2π
I 1 I 0
I I
= [−cosωt]π= [−cosπ−(−cos0)]= [−(−1) −(−1)]=
m m m

dc
2π 0 2π
2π
π
Vm
Idc=
π(RF+RL)

(b)
AverageorDCoutputvoltage(Vo):
Im Vm
Vdc= ×RL=
π π

1− cos2ωt
(c)
RMSvalueofoutputcurrent(Irms):

𝑰 =√ 1 ∫i2d(ωt)=√ 1 ∫Im2sin2ωt∗ d(ωt)=√

2
∫( )∗d(ωt)
π

I2π
π π

2π 0 2
𝒓𝒎𝒔
2 0
π m
0
 I2 I2 sin2ωtπ
=√m∫d(ωt)−∫cos2(ωt)∗d(ωt)=√m[ωt−( )]
π π
π

4 π0 0 4π 2 0

sin2π Im 2 Im
I2 0
sin0
I 2
=√m[(π−0)−( − )]=√m[(π−0)−0]=√ =
4π 2 2 4π 4π 2

(d)
RectificationEfficiency(η):
I2
I2×R m
×R
= 4=0.406
2 2

= =
Rectificationefficiency(η)=dc 2
L π Im2
/π×RL
L
2
Im
Irms×RL ×R Im/4×RL π2
2 L

(e)
RippleFactor(γ):

I′ I2 −I2 I 2 Irms/22 π2
𝗒 =rms=√rms dc √ rms −1=√(
= ( ) )−1=√ −1=𝟏.𝟐𝟏
Idc Id
2 Idc Im/π 4
c
(f)
PeakinverseVoltage(PIV):
Peakinversevoltageisdefinedasthemaximumvoltagethatisappliedacrossthe Diode when
the diode is reverse biased. [n case of half wave rectifier, maximum Voltage across

𝑷𝑰𝑽=𝑽𝒎
the diode when it is not conducting is equal to Vm.
(g)
Fromfactor:

𝑟𝑚𝑠𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝜋
𝐹𝐹= = =1.57
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑙 2
(h)
Peakfactor: 𝑢𝑒
𝑉𝑚
𝑃𝐹= 𝑉 =2
(𝑚 )
2

𝑃𝑑𝑐
(i)
Transformerutilizationfactor:

𝑇𝑈𝐹= (𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑)=0.287
𝑃𝑎𝑐

DisadvantagesofHWR:
 Lowoutputbecauseone halfcycleonlydelivers output
 A.C.component moreinthe output
 RequiresheavyfiltercircuitstosmoothouttheoutputPeakinverseVoltage.
Rectifiers–FullWaveusingcentertapTransformer
5. Explain the operation of full wave rectifier with center tap transformer. Also derive the
followingfor this rectifier. (Apr/May 2018)

i) DC output voltage (average value) ii)DCoutputcurrent(averagevalue)iii)RMS output

voltage.

In FWR, current flows through the load during both half cycles of the input a.c. supply. Like the
halfwavecircuit,afullwaverectifiercircuitproducesanoutputvoltage or currentwhichispurely DCor has
somespecified DC component. Full wave rectifiers have some fundamental advantages over their half
wave rectifier counterparts. The average (DC) output voltage is higher than for half wave, the output ofthe
full wave rectifier has much less ripple than that of the half wave rectifier producing a smootheroutput
waveform.

FullWaveRectifier:

A full wave rectifier is an electronic circuit which converts AC voltage into a pulsating DC voltage using
both half cycles of the applied AC voltage. A full wave rectifier is a circuit which allows a unidirectional
current to flow through the load during the entire input cycle as shown in fig. The result of full wave
rectification is a d.c. output voltage that pulsates every half-cycle of the input. On the other hand a half
wave rectifier allows the current to flow through the load during positive half-cycle only.

Positivehalfcycle:

The circuit uses two diodes which are connected to secondary winding ofthe transformer. The input signal is
applied to the primary winding of the transformer. Du ring the positive input half cycle, the polarities of
the secondary voltage is shown in fig. This forward bias the diode D, and reverse biases the diode D1. As
a result of this, the diode D, conducts some current whereas the diode D, is off.

The current through load R1is as indicated in through D 1, and the voltage Drop across RLwill the fig. The
load current flows be equal to the input voltage.
Negativehalf cycle:

During the negative input half cycle, the polarities of the secondary voltage are interchanged. The reverse-
bias the diode D, and forward Biases the diode D 2. As a result of this, the diode D 1 is OFF and the diode
D2conducts some current. The current through the load R, is an indicated in the fig. The load current
flows through D2 and the voltage drop across R1 will be equal to the input voltage. The maximum
efficiency of a fall-wave rectifier is 8l,2℅Vo and ripple factor is 0.48.

𝑉𝑖=𝑉𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
Analysisof FullWaveRectifier:

𝑉𝑚=Maximumvalueoftheinputvoltage.
Let Vibetheinputvoltagetothe rectifier,
Where,

𝐼𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟0≤𝜔𝑡≤𝜋
LetIbethecurrent flowingthoughthecircuit when thediodeis conducting.

𝑖
={ 0 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝜋≤𝜔𝑡≤2𝜋}
Where,𝐼𝑚=𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡;
= 𝑅𝑚𝐹+𝑅𝐿
𝑉
𝐼𝑚
Where,𝑅𝐹-Forwarddynamic resistanceofdiode;𝑅𝐿-Loadresistance.

Inputandoutputwaveforms:
(a) AverageorDCvalueofoutputcurrent(Idc):

Averagevalue=(Areaunder thecurve/ Period )

1 π
Idc= ∫id(ωt)
π 0
1
Idc= [∫I0m∗sinωt d(ωt)]
π

1 Im π 2Im
Im
I = [−cosωt]= [−cosπ− (−cos0)]= [−(−1) − (−1)]=
π

dc
π 0 π π π
2Vm
Idc=
π(R F +RL)

(b) AverageorDCvalueofoutputvoltage(Vdc) :
2Im 2Vm
Vdc=
×RL=
π π

2 π1 − cos2ωt
(c) RMSvalueofoutputcurrent (Irms):
1 π 1 π
I
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 =√ ∫i2d(ωt)=√ ∫Im sin ωt∗d(ωt)=√ ∫(
m
)∗d(ωt)
2 2

π0 0 π 0 2

sin2ωtπ
π
I2 I2
=√m∫d(ωt)−∫cos2(ωt)∗d(ωt)=√m[ωt−( )]
π π
π

2 π0 0 2π 2 0

sin2π Im 2 Im
I2 0
sin0
√Im2
= √m[(π − 0) − ( − )] = [(π − 0) − 0] = √ =
2π 2 2 2π 2 √2

(d) RectificationEfficiency(η):
I2×R
2Im2
×R 0.812=81.2%
=π
2 2
Rectificationefficiency(η)=dc L 4Im/π×RL

=I =
L
2 2 RF
Irms ×RL Im ×
2
m /2×RL (1+ )
L
R
√2 RL

(e) RippleFactor (γ):

𝗒=
=√( )
rms

RMSvalueofAc component I I/√22

2 −1=√(m )
 −1=√ −1=𝟎.𝟒𝟖
π2
Dcvalueofwav Idc 2Im/π 8
e

(f) PeakinverseVoltage (PlV):

Peakinversevoltageisthemaximumpossible voltageacrossadiodewhenitisnot
conducting. During positive half cycle of the AC input voltage Diode D1, is conducting and Diode D, is
not conducting. In this case a voltage V, is developed across the load resistor R 1. Now the voltage across
the non-conducting Diode D, is the sum of the voltage across R1 and voltage across the lower half of
transformer secondary Vm.
Hence, PIV of Diode D2 = Vm + Vm =
2VmSimilary,PIVofDiodeD1=Vm+Vm=2Vm
 Advantages:
1. TheD.cload voltageandcurrentaremorethan halfwave.
2. NoD.ccurrentthrotransformerwindingshencenopossibilityofsaturation.
3. TUFis better.
4. Efficiencyis higher.
5. Ripplefactor less.

Disadvantages:
1. PIVratingofdiodeis higher
2. HigherPIVdiodesarelargerin sizead costlier.
3. Costoftransformerishigh.

Rectifiers–FullWaveBridgetype
6. (a) Draw the circuit diagram and explain the working of full wave bridge rectifier & derive the
expansion for average amount current & rectification efficiency. (May 2017) (Nov/Dec 2017)
(Nov/Dec 2018)

Bridgerectifier(Full WaveBridgerectifier):

Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full wave rectifier circuit
above is that of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This type of single-phase rectifier uses four individual
rectifying diodes connected in a closed loop "bridge" configuration to produce the desired output. The
main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require a special center tapped transformer,
thereby reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode
bridge network and the load to the other side as shown below.

The four diodes labeled D1 to D4 are arranged in "series pairs" with only two diodes conducting
current during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in
series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown below.

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but diodes D1
and D2 switch of as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is the same
direction as before. As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed
across the load is also unidirectional the same as for the previous two diode full-wave rectifier.
 Positivehalf cycle

Negativehalf cycle

Waveform:
Analysisof FullWaveRectifier:

Let Vibetheinputvoltagetothe rectifier, 𝑉𝑖=𝑉𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

𝑉𝑚=Maximumvalueoftheinputvoltage.
Where,

𝐼𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟0≤𝜔𝑡≤𝜋
LetIbethecurrent flowingthoughthecircuit when thediodeis conducting.

𝑖={ }
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝜋≤𝜔𝑡≤2𝜋

0
Where

𝐼𝑚=𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑚 =
𝑅 +𝑅𝐿
𝐹
Where,𝑅𝐹-Forward dynamicresistanceof diode;𝑅𝐿-Loadresistance.

(a)
AverageorDCvalueofoutputcurrent(Idc):

Averagevalue=(Areaunder thecurve/ Period )

1 π 1 π
Idc= ∫id(ωt) Idc= [∫Im∗sinωt d(ωt)]
π 0 π 0
1 Im Im
I = [−cosωt]π= [−cosπ− (−cos0)] = [−(−1)− (−1)]
2Imdc
= π 0 π
π π
2Vm
Idc =
π(R+R)
F L

= ×R
2Im

=
(b)
AverageorDCvalueofoutputvoltage(Vdc ): 2Vm

L
π π

Vdc
2 π1 − cos2ωt
(c)
RMSvalueofoutputcurrent (Irms):
1 π 1 π
I
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 =√ ∫i2d(ωt)=√ ∫Im2sin2ωt∗d(ωt)=√m∫( )∗d(ωt)
π0 0 π 0 2

sin2ωtπ
π
I2 I2
=√m∫d(ωt)−∫cos2(ωt)∗d(ωt)=√m[ωt−( )]
π π
π

2 π0 0 2π 2 0

sin2π Im 2 Im
I2 0
sin0
I2
= √m[(π − 0) − ( − )] = √m[(π − 0) − 0] = √ =
2π 2 2 2π 2 √2
(d)
RectificationEfficiency(η):
I2×R
2Im2
×R 2 2
 0.812=81.2%
Rectificationefficiency(η)=dc L
=π 4Im/π×RL

=(1+RF)
L
2 2
Irms ×RL
=
2
Im × Im /2×R
L
R L
√2 RL
(e)
RippleFactor (γ):

𝗒= RMSvalueofAc component I I/√22

√ ) −1=√
π2
2 −1= (m
−1=𝟎.𝟒𝟖
=√(I )
rms
Dcvalueofwav dc 2Im/π 8
e
(f)PeakinverseVoltage (PlV):

Peakinversevoltageisthemaximumpossible voltageacrossadiodewhenitisnot
Conducting. During positive half cycle of the AC input voltage Diode D1, is conducting and Diode D, is
not conducting. In this case a voltage V, is developed across the load resistor R 1. Now the voltage across
the non-conducting Diode D, is the sum of the voltage across R1 and voltage across the lower half of
transformer secondary Vm.
Hence, PIV of Diode D2 = Vm + Vm =
2VmSimilary,PIVofDiodeD1=Vm+Vm=2Vm

Advantages:

1. TheD.cload voltageandcurrentaremorethan half wave.

2. NoD.ccurrentthrotransformerwindingshencenopossibilityof saturation.
3. TUFis better.
4. Efficiencyis higher.
5. Ripplefactor less.
6. Nocentretappedisrequired.

Disadvantages:

4diodesareusedthereforevoltagedropacross thediodeisincreased.Thisreducesoutputvoltage.

Applications:
1. Inpowersupplycircuits.
2. UsedasrectifierinpowercircuitstoconvertA.CtoD.C

(b)Inabridgerectifiercircuit,inputsupplyis230V,50Hz.Primarytosecondary
turnsratiois4:1,loadresistanceis200Ω.Thediodesareideal.FindDCoutput voltage, PIV and
output signal frequency. (Nov 𝑵/ Dec𝟏 2018-R17)
Solution: 𝑬 (𝒓𝒎𝒔)=𝟐𝟑𝟎𝑽, 𝟐= ,𝑹=𝟐𝟎𝟎Ω 𝑹=𝑹=𝟎Ω𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒍
𝒑𝒚 𝑵𝟏 𝟒 𝑳 𝒇 𝒔
𝑵𝟏
𝑬𝒑𝒚(𝒓𝒎𝒔) 𝑵𝟏 𝑿𝑬(𝒓𝒎𝒔)=𝟏𝑿 𝟐𝟑𝟎=𝟓𝟕.𝟓𝑽,
= ,𝑬 (𝒓𝒎𝒔)=
𝑬 (𝒓𝒎𝒔) 𝒔𝒚
𝒑𝒚 𝟒
𝒔𝒚 𝑵𝟐
��
�

𝑬𝒔𝒚(𝒎𝒂𝒙)=√𝟐𝑬𝒑𝒚(𝒓𝒎𝒔)=√𝟐𝑿𝟓𝟕.𝟓=𝟖𝟏.𝟑𝟏𝑽

𝑰 = 𝑬𝒔𝒎=𝟖𝟏.𝟑𝟏=𝟎.𝟒𝟎𝟔𝟓 𝑨𝑰 𝟐𝑰𝒎 𝟐𝑿𝟎.𝟒𝟎𝟔𝟓

𝑫𝑪=
𝒎 +𝟐𝑹 +𝑹 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝝅= 𝝅 =𝟎.𝟐𝟓𝟖𝟕𝑨

𝑹𝒔 𝒇 𝑳

𝑬𝑫𝑪=𝑰𝑫𝑪𝑹𝑳= 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟖𝟕 𝑿 𝟐𝟎𝟎 = 𝟓𝟏.

𝟕𝟒 𝑽 PIV = 𝑬𝒔𝒎= 81.31V (for full wave

rectifier)

Outputsignalfrequency=2fs=2X50=100Hz

𝐑𝐢𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐞𝐅𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫(𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐅𝐮𝐥𝐥𝐁𝐫𝐢𝐝𝐠𝐞𝐑𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐟𝐢𝐞𝐫)=𝟎.𝟒𝟖𝟐,
 𝑨𝑪
𝐑𝐢𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐞𝐅𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫=
𝒓𝒎𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑹𝒊𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝑹𝒊𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆
=
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝟎.𝟒𝟖𝟐= 𝟓𝟏.𝟕𝟒
𝑫𝑪 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑬𝑫𝑪

i.e.Ripplevoltage=51.74X0.482=24.94V
 7. Comparedifferenttypesofrectifiers?

Type HW CT FW FWBR

Noofdiodes used 1 2 4

Needof transformer Not necessary Necessary Not necessary

Ripplefactor 1.21 0.48 0.48

Efficiency 40.6% 81.2% 81.2%

PIV Vm 2Vm Vm

TUF 0.287 0.812 0.693

Fromfactor 1.57 1.11 1.11

Peakfactor 2 √2 √2
Ripplefrequency f 2f 2f

Displaydevices-LED
8. Discuss the working principle, characteristics and application of LED in detail. (NOV/DEC 2012)
(Apr/May 2018)
Explainthe principleandoperationof light emittingdiode (LED) withnecessaryexpressions for
current densities and efficiency of light generation. (April / May 2019-R17)

A light-emitting diode(LED) is a semiconductor light source LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many
devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Introduced as a practical electronic component in
1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the visible,
ultraviolet, and infraredwavelengths, with very high brightness.

When a light-emitting diode is forward-biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with
electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called
electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined
by the energy gap of the semiconductor.

LEDs are often small in area (less than 1 mm 2), and integrated optical components may be used to
shape its radiation pattern.[5] LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including
lowerenergyconsumption,longerlifetime,improvedrobustness,smallersize,and fasterswitching. LEDs
powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise current and
heatmanagement than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.

Light Emitting Diodes are made from exotic semiconductor compounds such as Gallium Arsenide
(GaAs), Gallium Phosphide (GaP), Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP), Silicon Carbide (SiC) or Gallium
IndiumNitride(GaInN)allmixedtogetheratdifferentratiostoproduceadistinctwavelengthofcolour.
Different LED compounds emit light in specific regions of the visible light spectrum and therefore
producedifferent intensity levels.

 GalliumArsenidePhosphide(GaAsP)-redtoinfra-red,orange
 AluminiumGalliumArsenidePhosphide(AlGaAsP)-high-brightnessred,orange-red,orange,and yellow
 GalliumPhosphide(GaP)-red,yellowandgreen
 AluminiumGalliumPhosphide(AlGaP)-green
 GalliumNitride(GaN)-green,emerald green
 GalliumIndiumNitride(GaInN)-nearultraviolet,bluish-greenandblue
 SiliconCarbide(SiC)-blueasasubstrate
 ZincSelenide(ZnSe)- blue
 AluminiumGalliumNitride(AlGaN)-ultraviolet

Light-emitting diodesare used in applications as diverseas aviation lighting, automotivelighting,

advertising, general lighting, and traffic signals. LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, live video,
and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in advanced communications
technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many commercial products
including televisions, DVD players, and other domestic appliances.
Laserdiodes

9. ExplainindetailaboutLASERDIODE? (May/June2016) (April/May 2018)

Thetermlasercomesfromtheacronymforlightamplificationforstimulatedemissionof radiation. The
laser medium can be a gas, liquid, amorphous solid or semiconductor.

LaserAction
The light travelling through a semiconductor, then a single photon is able to generate an identical second
photon. This photon multiplication is the key physical mechanism of lasing. The carrier inversion is the
firstrequirementoflasing.ItisachievedatthePNjunctionbyprovidingtheconductionbandwith electrons from
the N-doped side and the valence band with holes from the P-doped side as shown in Fig.
Thephotonenergyisgivenbythebandgap,whichdependsonthesemiconductormaterial.Theoptical
feedbackandtheconfinementofphotoninanopticalresonatorarethesecondbasicrequirementof lasing.

PNHomojunctionLaser
It has the material GaAs on both sides of the junction. A pair of parallel planes perpendicular to the plane of the
junctionareclearedandpolishedunder appropriatebiasinginoffcondition,laser lightisemittedfrom theseplanes. The
other two sides are deliberately roughened to prevent lasing in those directions. Such a cavity is called a Fabryperot
resonant cavitywith a typical cavity length of 300 |J.m. It is a thin layer of material with a narrow band gap. GaAs
is sandwiched between layers of a material with band gap. This is usually realized by epitaxy. In such a structure
the carrier are better confined in the active region due to the heterojunction barriers. Optical confinementis also
better in DH laser. The propagation of the electromagnetic radiation is confined in a direction parallel to the

StimulationEmissionRegion

layer interface. The current density required for lasing in lower forDH lasers compared to homojunction lasers. The
double preferred for continuous operation at room temperature.
CharacteristicsofLaserDiode

The Ideal light output against current characteristics forsemiconductorlaseris shownin Fig.4.28.
The solid line represents the laser characteristics. It may be observed that the device gives low lightoutput
in the region, the threshold with corresponds to spontaneous emission only within the structure. After the
threshold current value the light output increases substantially for small increases in current through the
device.
 ZENERDIODE
10. Explaintheconstruction&workingprincipleofZenerdiode.
ExplaintheBreakdownmechanismsinsemiconductordevices. (May/June2016),(Nov/Dec2015) (OR)
Explain the Concept of Zener Breakdown and its VI characteristics. (Nov/Dec 2018-R-13)

ZENER DIODE:
TheZenerDiodeisaPN junction semiconductor device.
Itisfabricatedwithprecisebreakdownvoltages,bycontrollingthedopinglevelduringmanufacturing.
Practically, Zener Diodes are operated in reverse biased mode.

Fig.20ZenerDiode

CHARACTERISITCSOFZENER DIODE:

FORWARDCHARACTERISITCS:

In forwardbiasedcondition, thenormalrectifierdiodeandtheZenerdiodeoperateinsimilarfashion.
(Refer:PNdiodeforwardcharacteristics)

Zenerreversecharacteristics
REVERSECHARACTERISITCS:

Zenerdiodeisdesigned tooperatein thereversebiased condition.

In reversebiased condition, the diode carries reverse saturation current till the reversevoltage applied is
less than the reverse breakdown voltage.

When the reverse voltage exceeds reverse breakdown voltage, the current through it changes drastically
but the voltage across it remains almost constant.

SuchabreakdownregionisanormaloperatingregionforaZener diode.

Thenormaloperatingregionsforboth diodeand Zenerareshown inbelowFig.

 Fig.Thenormaloperatingregion forarectifierdiodeandZenerdiode
When theapplied reverse voltageisincreased then, thecurrent throughitisvery small (few µA)and it is called Reverse
Leakage Current (Io)
Atcertainreversevoltage,thecurrentwillincreaserapidly.Thebreakdownoccursandthecurrentatthispoint (knee or
Zener knee) is called Zener knee current (IZKor IZmin).
Zener knee current is the minimum Zener current which is must to carry out the operate in Reverse Breakdown
Region.
Thereversevoltageatwhichthebreakdownoccursiscalled ZenerBreakdownVoltageorZenerVoltage(VZ). The VZ is
set by controlling the doping level during manufacturing process.

Belowtheknee,thereversebreakdownvoltageincreasesslightlyasZenercurrent(IZ)increasesbut,remains almost
CONSTANT.
ThecurrentatwhichthenominalZenerbreakdownvoltageisspecifiediscalledZenerTestCurrent(IZT).

As the current increases, the power dissipation (PZ = VZ IZ) will be increased and if this power dissipation is
increasedbeyondacertaincurrentvalue,theZenerdiodemayget damaged.So,thereisamaximum currentthat a Zener
diode can carry safely is called Zener Maximum Current (IZMor IZmax).

Inpracticalcircuits,acurrent limitingresistorisusedinserieswithZenerdiodeinordertolimitthecurrent between IZminto

IZmax.

ThecompleteVIcharacteristicsofZenerDiodeisshowninFig.

Fig.VIcharacteristicsofZener Diode
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OFZENER DIODE:

When the breakdown occurs then I Z may increase from IZmin to IZmax but voltage across Zener remains
almost constant. The internal impedance decreases as current increases in Zener region. But this
impedance is very small and hence ideally Zener diode is indicated by a battery of voltage V Z. This
VZremains almost constant in the Zener region which is shown in Fig.

Fig.Idealequivalent circuitof Zenerdiode

In practical circuit, the Zener internal resistance is to be considered (even though it is very small) and
called as Zener Dynamic Resistance ZZ. Due to this resistance the Zener region is not exactly vertical,
i.e., for the small change in the Zener current ∆I Zproduces a small change in Zener voltage∆V Z. The ratio
of VZto IZis called Zener resistance ZZ.
Hence, the practical Zener diode equivalent circuit should be indicated with a battery of V Z along with
series resistance ZZas shown in Fig.

DynamicResistance, 𝑍=∆𝑉𝑍=1
𝑍 ∆𝐼
∆𝐼𝑍 [∆𝑉𝑍
𝑍]
1
𝑍𝑍=
[𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛]
BREAKDOWNMECHANISMINZENER DIODE:

Twodistinctbreakdownmechanism:
 Zener Breakdown
 AvalancheBreakdown

Fordeviceswithbreakdownvoltagelessthan5V-ZenerBreakdown
Fordeviceswithbreakdownvoltage between5Vand8V-ZenerBreakdownandAvalancheBreakdown
Fordeviceswithbreakdownvoltageabove8V-Avalanche Breakdown

ZENERBREAKDOWN:
ZenerbreakdownoccursatReversebiasedconditionbecauseofheavydoping;
Practically,ZenerbreakdownisobservedintheZenerdiodeswithbreakdownvoltagelessthan6V.
InZenerbreakdown,thevalueofthebreakdownvoltagedecreasesasPNjunctiontemperatureincreases,i.e. Negative
Temperature Coefficient (NTC)

For applied reverse biased voltage of less than 6V causes a high magnitude electric
field (3 X 105 V/cm) across the depletion region, at the PN junction.
This electric field applies a large force on the valence electron of the atom, tending it
to separate them from their respective nuclei.Electron-hole pairs are generated in large
numbers and there will be a sudden increase in current. (To limit this current, a
current limiting resistor is used in order to protect the Zener diode from being
destroyed because of excessive heating at the junction)

AVALANCHEBREAKDOWN:
Avalanche Breakdown occurs at Reverse biased condition due to ionization of electron and hole pairs
Practically,AvalanchebreakdownisobservedintheZenerdiodeswithbreakdownvoltagegreaterthan6V.
In avalanche breakdown, the value of the breakdown voltage increases as PN junction temperature increases, i.e.
Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC)

For applied reverse biased voltage of greaterthan 6V causes increased acceleration of

minority charge particles. Thus, collision between accelerated chargeparticles with
high velocity and kinetic energy with adjacent atom is involved in breaking the
covalent bonds of the crystal structure. This process is called CarrierMultiplication.
At this stage, junction is said to be in breakdown and currentstarts increasing rapidly.
To limit this current below IZmax, a current limiting resistor is necessary.

Fig.BreakdownMechanisminZenerDiode
 ZENERASREGULATOR
11. (a)ExplaintheworkingofaZenerdiodeasaregulator?(May2017)(Nov/Dec2017)(Nov/Dec2018 – R17)

TheZenerDiodeisusedto regulatetheLoadVoltage.Here,theZenerisusedinreversebiasedcondition.

Fig.ZenerDiodeasashunt regulator

{Underreversebiasedcondition,thecurrentthroughthezener diode is
very small of the order of few µA, up to certain limit.
When enough reverse bias voltage is applied, electricalbreakdown
occurs and large current flows through the zener diode. The
voltage at which the breakdown occurs is called
ZenerVoltage (VZ). Fig.VIcharacteristicsofZenerDiode
Under this condition, whatever maybethe current, the voltage across the Zener is constant and equal to
VZ}

Since,voltageacrosstheZenerDiodeisCONSTANT&equaltoVZ,itisconnected acrosstheload.
⸫TheLoad Voltage(Vo)is equal to ZenerVoltage(VZ).
i.e. The Zener Diode acts as an ideal voltage source which maintains a constant load voltage,
independent of the current.

REGULATIONWITHVARYINGINPUTVOLTAGE(LineRegulation)
ZenerRegulatorundervaryinginputvoltageconditionis
shown in Fig.

𝑉𝑍
IL=𝑉𝑜= =𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Vo=VZis constant

𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿
And𝐼=𝐼𝑍+𝐼𝐿
Fig.Varying input condition

As long 𝑰𝒁is between 𝑰𝒁𝒎𝒊𝒏and𝑰𝒁𝒎𝒂𝒙, theVZ i.e.output voltageVois constant. Thus, the changes

𝑷𝑫=𝑽𝒁𝑰𝒁𝒎𝒂𝒙
in the input voltage is get compensated and output is maintained constant.
Themaximumpowerdissipationforthezenerdiodeisfixed,
REGULATIONWITHVARYINGLOAD(LoadRegulation)

ZenerRegulatorundervaryingloadcondition(RLisvariable)andconstantinputvoltage(Vin isconstant) is shown

in Fig.

Fig.Varying load condition

Vo=VZisconstantandVinisConstant,thenforconstantR,thecurrent(I)is constant.
+𝐼𝑍
I𝑉=−𝑉
𝑖 (constant);
𝑍
𝑅 I=𝐼𝐿

As long 𝑰𝒁is between 𝑰𝒁𝒎𝒊𝒏and𝑰𝒁𝒎𝒂𝒙, theVZ i.e.output voltageVois constant. Thus, the changes
in the load is get compensated and output is maintained constant.

(b) For the following circuit, find the maximum and minimum values of Zener diode
current. (Nov/Dec 2018 – R17)

Solution:𝑉𝑖𝑛(𝑚𝑖𝑛)=80𝑉,𝑉𝑖𝑛(𝑚𝑎𝑥)=120𝑉,𝑉𝑍=50𝑉,𝑅𝐿=10𝐾Ω, 𝑅=5𝐾Ω
𝐼= 𝑉𝑍 50
=5 𝑋10−3=5𝑚𝐴
=
𝐿 𝑅𝐿 10 𝑋103
𝑉𝑖𝑛(𝑚𝑖𝑛)=𝑉𝑍+𝐼𝑅𝑉𝑖𝑛(𝑚𝑎𝑥)=𝑉𝑍+ 𝐼𝑅

𝐼= 𝑉𝑖𝑛(min) 𝑉𝑖𝑛(max)−𝑉𝑍
𝐼=
−𝑉𝑍 𝑅
𝑅
80−50 120−50
𝐼(𝑚𝑖𝑛) = = 6𝑚𝐴𝐼(𝑚𝑎𝑥)= 3
=14𝑚𝐴 5 𝑋 10 5𝑋
103

𝐼𝑍(𝑚𝑖𝑛)=𝐼(𝑚𝑖𝑛)−𝐼𝐿 𝐼𝑍(𝑚𝑎𝑥)=𝐼(𝑚𝑎𝑥)−𝐼𝐿
𝐼𝑍(𝑚𝑖𝑛)=6 𝑋10−3−5𝑋10−3=1𝑚𝐴 𝐼𝑍(𝑚𝑎𝑥)=14𝑋10−3−5𝑋10−3=9𝑚𝐴
⸫𝑴𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎𝒛𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕,𝑰𝒁(𝒎𝒊𝒏)=𝟏𝒎𝑨⸫
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎𝒛𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕,𝑰𝒁(𝒎𝒂𝒙)=𝟗𝒎𝑨
Problems:(AnnaUniversityExam-SolvedProblems)

1. For the zener regulatorshown in Fig. 5,calculate the range ofinput voltage for which outputwill

𝑰𝒁(𝒎𝒊𝒏)=𝟐.𝟓𝒎𝑨, 𝑰𝒁(𝒎𝒂𝒙)=𝟐𝟓𝒎𝑨, 𝑽𝒁=𝟔.𝟏𝑽, 𝒓𝒁=𝟎 𝑲Ω

remain constant.

𝐼𝑍(𝑚𝑖𝑛)=2.5𝑚𝐴,𝐼𝑍(𝑚𝑖𝑛)=25𝑚𝐴, 𝑉𝑍=6.1𝑉, 𝑟𝑍=0𝐾Ω, 𝑅=2.2𝐾Ω, 𝑅𝐿=1𝐾Ω

Solution:

𝐼= 𝑉𝑍 6. =6.1𝑋10−3=6.1𝑚𝐴 (𝑪𝑶𝑵𝑺𝑻𝑨𝑵𝑻)
= 1
𝐿 𝑅𝐿 1𝑋103
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑉𝑖𝑛(𝑚𝑖𝑛); 𝐼(𝑚𝑖𝑛)=𝐼𝑧(𝑚𝑖𝑛)+𝐼𝐿 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑉𝑖𝑛(𝑚𝑧𝑥); 𝐼(𝑚𝑎𝑥)=𝐼𝑍(𝑚𝑎𝑥)+ 𝐼𝐿
𝐼=2.5𝑋10−3+6.1𝑋10−3=8.6𝑚𝐴 𝐼=25𝑋10−3+6.1𝑋10−3=31.1𝑚𝐴
𝑉𝑖𝑛(𝑚𝑖𝑛)=𝑉𝑍+𝐼𝑅𝑉𝑖𝑛(𝑚𝑎𝑥)=𝑉𝑍+ 𝐼𝑅

𝑉𝑖𝑛(𝑚𝑖𝑛)=6.1+8.6𝑋10−3𝑋2.2𝑋10−3=25.02𝑉 𝑉𝑖𝑛(𝑚𝑖𝑛)=6.1+31.1𝑋10−3𝑋2.2𝑋10−3=74.52𝑉
⸫𝑽𝒊𝒏(𝒎𝒊𝒏)=𝟐𝟓.𝟎𝟐𝑽 ⸫𝑽𝒊𝒏(𝒎𝒂𝒙)=𝟕𝟒.𝟓𝟐𝑽

2. Asilicondiodehasasaturationcurrent7.5𝝁Aatroomtemperature300K.Findthesaturation current at
400k.Io1=7.5 x 10-6 A at T1=300⁰ K=27⁰ C and T2=400 ⁰K=127⁰ C. (Nov/Dec 2016 – R13)Solution: The
saturation current at 400⁰K is
∆𝑇

𝐼02=𝐼01×210 =7.5X10-6X2(127-27)/10 =7.68mA

3. FindthecurrentIinthefollowingcircuit.(Nov/Dec2017–R13)

Assumethediodesto beofsilicon andforwardresistanceofdiodes tobezero.

I=(E1-E2)/R I=(24-4)/2000
I=1 mA CurrentIis1mA.

4. AnACvoltageof peak value20Visconnected in serieswitha silicondiodeandload resistanceof 500Ω.

If the forward resistance of diode is 10Ω find the peak current through thediode. (Nov/Dec 2018-

Solution:𝐸𝑚=20𝑉, 𝑅𝐿=500Ω, 𝑅𝑓=10Ω

R17)

𝐼𝑚 = 𝐸𝑚 𝐿
𝑅
𝑓 +𝑅
20 𝐼 =
500+ 10
⸫𝐼𝑚=39.22𝑚𝐴
5. (a) Determinethepeakoutputvoltage ofahalfwave rectifier,ifthe diodehasVF = 0.7V and
the AC input is 22V. (April / May 2019-R17)

Solution:𝑉𝑝𝑜= 𝑉𝑝𝑖−𝑉𝐹
𝑉𝐹=0.7𝑉, 𝑉𝑝𝑖=√2𝑉𝑖=√2𝑋22, 𝑉𝑝𝑖=31.1𝑉
𝑉𝑝𝑜=31.1−0.7, 𝑉𝑝𝑜=30.4𝑉

Solution:𝑅=500Ω 𝐼 𝑉𝑝𝑜 30.4 𝐼=60.8𝑚𝐴

𝑝= 𝑅 =
(b) Ifloadresistanceisgivenas500Ω,calculatepeakoutputcurrentoftheabovegivenhalfwave rectifier.
𝐿 𝑝
𝐿 500
(c) Determinethediodepeakreversevoltage(PIV). PIV =𝑉𝑝𝑖=31.1 V

6. What value of series resistor is required to limit the current through a LED to 20 mA with a forward
voltage drop of 1.6 V when connected to a 10V supply? (Nov/Dec 2017)

7. In a semiconductor at room temperature(300oK), the intrinsic carrier concentration andresistivityare1.5

* 1016/cm3 and 2 *103Ω-mrespectively. It is to an extrinsic semiconductor with a doping concentration of
1020/cm3 for the extrinsic semiconductor.
Calculate (a) Majority carrier concentration, (b) Shift in fermilevel due to doping (c) Minority carrier
concentration when its temperature is increased to a value at which the intrinsic concentration ‘n i’
doubles. (NOV/DEC 2012)

AssumethemobilityofmajorityandminoritycarriersaresameandKT=26meTatroomtemperature.
2
ni
Dopingconcentration
a) Minoritycarrierconcentration=

(1.5×1016) 12atoms
1020 =2.25×10 m
Weknowσ=nq(μn+μp)
=
σ
or(μn +μ )= 1
n = ρnq
p q
1 1
=) 4.8
=(2×103)(1.5×1016)(1.6×10−19
1 m2
Inthiscasetheconcentrationofmajorityandminoritycarriersaresame,thus

μn+μp=2μn= orμn=o.1042
4.8 Volt−sec

σ=qnμn=(1.6×10−19)(1020)(0.10242)=1.6672
b) Becauseofdopingconcentration>>minorityconcentrationconductivity.

Thus resistivityR=1=0.599Ωcm
σ
ShiftintermlevelEFcomputedas follows

C) E no
=KTloge =0.026log
A
−E ni
1020
( 16×15
10 )
i
e

=0.229eV. dopingconcentrat ]
)
ion
ThusEFlies0.229eVabovefromfermilevel.
[2(1.5 1020
=
2
(2ni) 2
d)Minoritycarrierconcentration= ×1016
 9×1032
= =9×1012atom
s/cm3.
1020
 AdditionalQuestions:PART-A
1. Definevalenceelectron.
Electrons that are in shells close to nucleus are tightly bounced to the atom and have low energy. Whereas
electrons that are in shells farther from the nucleus have large energy and less tightly bound to the atom.
Electrons with highest energy level exist in the outermost shell of an atom. These electrons determine the
electrical and chemical characteristic of each particular type of atom. These electrons are known as valence
electrons.

2. Whatismeantbyenergyband?
In a single isolated atom, the electron in any orbit possesses define energy. Due to an interaction between atoms
the electrons in a particular orbit of one atom have slightly different energy levels from electrons in the same
orbit of an adjoining atom. This is due to the fact that no two electrons see exactly the same pattern of
surrounding charges. Since there are billions of electrons in any orbit, slightly different energy levels form a
cluster or band known as energy band.

3. Defineconductionband&valenceband.
o Theconductionbandisdefinedastherangeofenergiespossessedbyconductionelectrons.
o Valencebandisdefinedastherangeofenergiespossessedbyvalenceelectros.

4. Whatareconductors,Insulatorsandsemiconductors?
o A conductor is a material, which easily allows the flow of electric current. The best conductors are copper,
silver, gold and aluminum.
o An Insulator is a material that does not conduct electric current. In these materials valence electrons are
tightly bound to the atoms.
o A semiconductor is a material that has an electrical conductivity that lies between conductorsand insulators.
A semiconductor in it’s pure state is neither a good conductor not a good insulator. The most common
semiconductors are silicon, Germanium, and carbon.

5. Whataretheclassificationsof semiconductors?
Semiconductorsareclassifiedasintrinsicandextrinsicsemiconductors.Apuresemiconductoriscalled intrinsic
semiconductor. A doped semiconductor is called extrinsic semiconductor.

6. Whatismeantbydoping?Howtheextrinsicsemiconductorsareclassified?
Theprocessofaddingimpuritiestoasemiconductorisknownas doping.
o n-typesemiconductor
o p-typesemiconductor

7. Howan-typesemiconductor&p-typesemiconductorcanbeobtained?
o A n-type semiconductor can be obtained by adding pentavalent impurities to an intrinsic
semiconductor. These are atoms with five valence electrons. Typical examples for pentavalent atoms
are Arsenic. Phosphorous, Bismuth and Antimony.

o A p-type semiconductor can be obtained by adding trivalent impurities to an intrinsic semiconductor.

These are atoms with three valence electrons. Typical examples for trivalent atoms are boron(B),
indium (In) and gallium (Ga).

8. DefineFermilevel.
Fermilevelistheenergyatwhichtheprobabilityofoccupationbyanelectronisexactly0.5.

9. WhatistheenergybandgapofsiliconandGermaniumat300°K?
ForGermanium:0.66eandforSilicon:1.12ev
10. Whatarethedifferenttypesofvoltageregulators?
Basedonhowregulatingelementisconnectedtotheload, voltageregulatorsareclassifiedas
o Seriesregulator
o Shunt regulator
o Switch-moderegulatorsorswitchedmodepowersupply(SMPS)
AdditionalQuestions(PART-B)
1. Drawandexplaintheenergybanddiagramforthefollowing
(i) conductors(ii) Insulators (iii)semiconductors
Insulators :
The materials in which the condition band and valence bands are seperated by a wide energy gap (≈ 15 eV) as shown in
figure.
A wide energy gap means that a large amount of energy is required, to free the electrons, by moving them from the
valence band into the condition band ;
Since at room temperature, the valence electrons of an insulator do not have enough energy to jump in to the
condition, therefore insulator do not have an ability to conduct current. Thus insulators have very high resistively
(or extremely low conductivity) at room temperatures.
However if the temperature is raised, some of the valence electrons may acquire energy and jump in to the
conduction band. It causesthe resistivelyofinsulatorsto decrease.Thereforeaninsulatorhave negativetemperature co-
efficient of resistance.

Conductors:-
The materials in which conduction and valence bands overlap as shown in figure are called conductors.The
overlapping indicates a large number of electrons available for conduction.Hence the application of a small amount
of voltage results a large amount of current.

Semiconductors:-
The materials, in which the conduction and valence bands are separeated by a small energy gap (1eV) as
shown in figure are called semiconductors.
Siliconandgermaniumarethecommonlyusedsemiconductors.
A small energy gap means that a small amount of energy is required to free the elctrons by moving them from the
valence band in to the conduction band.
Thesemiconductorsbehave4likeinsulatorsat0K,becausenoelectronsareavailableintheconductionband.
If the temperature is further increased, more valence elctrons will acquire energy to jump into the conduction
band.Thus like insulators, semiconductors also have negative temperature co-efficient of resistance. It means that
conductivity of semiconductors increases with the increases tempertature.

2. Explaintheclassificationofsemi-conducteurs.
Classification of semi-conducteurs :-
Semiconductorsareclassifiedintotwotypes
o IntrinsicSemiconductors
o Exterinsicsemi-conducteurs
 n-typesemi-conductor
 p-typesemi-conductor

o Intrinsicseiconductor
A semiconductor in an extremely pure form is known as an intrinic semiconductor. An Intrinsic
semiconductor, even at room temperature, hole-electron pairs all created. When electric field is applied across an
semiconductor intrinisic semiconductor, the current conduction takes place by two process, namely byfree electrons
and holes.
 Freeelectronsareproducedduetothebreedingupoffomeco-valent bondsbythermal energy.At thesame time
holes are created in the co-valent bond itself.When electric field is applied across the semi-conducteurs material
electrons will move towards the positive terminal of supply, holes will move towards negative terminal of the
supply.
Thuscurrentconductioninsidethisintrinisicsemiconductormaterialisduetomovementofholes&electrons.
But the current in the external wire is only because of electrons. Since while applying electric field, holes
are attracted towards negative terminal. There one new electron is introduced. This electron will combine with the
hole, thus cancelling them.
At the same time electrons are moving towards positive terminal,while leacing from this intrinisicmaterial
it leaves a hole. Again this holes are attracted towards negative terminal.

o Extrinisicsemiconductor:

The current conduction capability of intrinisic semiconductor is very low at rom temperature. So we can
not use it in electric devices.
Hence the current conduction capability must be increased. This can be achieved by adding impurities to the
intrinisic semiconductor. So that it become impurity semiconductor (or) Extrinisic semiconductor.The process of
adding impurity is known as doping.
The amount & type of impurities have to be closely controlled during the preparation of extrinisic
semiconductor. Generally, for 108 atoms of semiconductor, one impurity atom is added.
The purpose of adding impurity is to increase either the number of free electrons or holes in the semiconductor
crystal. If the pentavalent impurity is adding to the semiconductor, a large number of free electrons are produced in
the semiconductor.
On the other hand if the trivalent impurtiy is added it introdued large number of holes. Depending upon the type of
impurity added, extrisic semiconductors are classified into

 n–typeSemiconductor
 p–typeSemiconductor

n–typeSemiconductor:

The number of free electrons in an instrinsic silicon can be increased by adding a pentavalent atom to it.
These are atoms with five valence electrons. Typical example for pentavalent atoms are Arsenic, Phosphorous,
Bismuth and Antimony.

Four of the pentavalent atoms valence electrons form covalent bond with the valence electrons of Silicon
atom, leaving an extra electron. Since valence orbit cannot hold no more than eight electrons the extra electron
becomes a conduction electron.
 EnggTree.co
m
Since the pentavalent atom donnates this extra conduction electron it is often called as a donor atom. For
eachpentavalent atom added,onefreeelectronexistsinasiliconcrystal.Asmallamount ofpentavalent impurityis enough
to get more number of free electrons is greater than the nuumber of holes this extrinsic semiconductor is known as
an n type semiconductor.
When a pentavalent atom is added a number of conduction band electrons are produced. Only a few holes
exist in the valence band, created by thermal energy. Therefore in an n-type semiconductor, electrons are majority
carriers and holes are minority carriers.

p-typesemiconductor

A p-type semiconductor (pfor Positive) is obtained bycarrying out a process of dopingby adding a certain
type of atoms (acceptors) to the semiconductorin order to increase the number of free charge carriers(in this case
positive holes).

When the doping material is added, it takes away (accepts) weakly bound outer electronsfrom the
semiconductor atoms. This type of doping agent is also known as an acceptor material and the vacancy left behind
by the electron is known as a hole.

The purpose of p-type doping is to create an abundance of holes. In the case of silicon, a trivalent atom
(typically from Group 13of the periodic table, such as boronor aluminium) is substituted into the crystal lattice. The
result isthat oneelectron ismissingfrom one ofthe four covalent bondsnormal forthesiliconlattice.Thusthe dopant
atom can accept an electron from a neighboring atom's covalent bond to complete the fourth bond. This is why such
dopants are called acceptors.

The dopant atom accepts an electron, causing the loss of half of one bond from the neighboring atom and
resulting in the formation of a "hole". Each hole is associated with a nearby negatively charged dopant ion, and the
semiconductor remains electrically neutralas a whole. However, once each hole has wandered away into thelattice,
one proton in the atom at the hole's location will be "exposed" and no longer cancelled by an electron.

This atom will have 3 electrons and 1 hole surrounding a particular nucleus with 4 protons. For this reasona
hole behaves as a positive charge. When a sufficiently large number ofacceptoratoms are added, the holesgreatly
outnumber thermal excitedelectrons. Thus, holes arethe majority carriers,while electrons become minoritycarriersin
p-type materials.

34

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EC8353-ELECTRONICDEVICESAND
m CIRCUITS

UNIT-II

TRANSISTORS&THYRIS
TORSPART – A
BJT(BipolarJunction Transistor)

1. What is transistor (BJT)?What arethe types of circuit connectionsknown asconfigurations, for operating a
transistor?
Transistor(BJT)isathree-terminaldevice: Base(B),Emitter(E)&Collector(C).
Transistor canbeoperatedinthreeconfigurationsCommonBase(CB),CommonEmitter(CE)&Common Collector (CC).
Accordingtoconfigurationitcanbeusedfor voltageaswellascurrentamplification.

2. Briefthetypesoftransistors?
1. UJT (Unipolar Junction Transistor): In unipolar transistor, the current conduction is only due to one type
of charge carriers (majority carriers).
2. BJT(BipolarJunctionTransistor):Inbipolartransistor,thecurrentconductionisonlyduetoboththe types of
charge carriers (Holes and Electrons).

3. Whyanordinarytransistoriscalled bipolar?
Becausethetransistoroperationiscarriedoutbytwotypeschargecarriers(bothmajorityandminority carriers).

4. WhatarethetypesofBJT?
TypesofBJT:
1. NPN
2. PNP

5. BrieftheconstructionofBJT.DrawthesymbolandstructureandofBJT.
BJTisathree-layersemiconductordeviceconsistingoftwoPNjunctions.
If a layerofP-typematerialissandwichedbetweentwolayers of N-typethetransistorisknownas NPN transistor.

Fig.SymbolofBJT(NPNtype) Fig.StructureofBJT(NPNtype)

Ontheotherhand,ifalayerofN-typematerialissandwichedbetweentwolayersofP-type,thetransistorisknown as PNP
transistor.

Fig.Symbolof BJT(PNPtype) Fig.StructureofBJT(PNPtype)

6. Whycollectorismadelargerthanemitterandbase?
Collectorismadephysicallylargerthanemitterandbasebecausecollectoristodissipatemuch power.

7. WhythewidthofthebaseregionofatransistoriskeptverySmallascomparedtootherregions?
Baseregionofatransistoriskeptverysmallandlightlydopedsoastopassmostoftheinjectedcharge carriers to the collector.

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8. Howtransistorisusedasanamplifier?(OR)Explainthewordtransistor.
m
The amplification in the transistor is achieved by passing input current signal from a region of low resistance to a
region of high resistance.
{ThisconceptoftransferofresistancehasgiventheTRANSfer-resISTOR(TRANSISTOR)}

9. Whysiliconispreferredtogermaniumwhilemanufacturingsemiconductordevices?

Astheknee voltageofsiliconishigher(0.7V) than thekneevoltageofgermanium (0.3V), siliconwillbe more stable for

temperature variation than germanium.

10. Whytransistor(BJT)iscalledcurrentcontrolled device?

The output voltage, current or power is controlled by the input current in a transistor. So, it is called the Current
Controlled device.

11. Statetheadvantagesofatransistor.
1. Lowoperatingvoltage
2. Higherefficiency
3. Smallsizeandruggedness
4. 4.Doesnotrequireanyfilamentpower

12. Compare the performance of a transistor in three different configurations. (Nov/Dec 2012)(OR) Compare the
input resistance, output resistance and voltage gain of CB, CC and CE configuration. (OR) Compare the
performance of CE and CC configuration. (May 2017)

Property CB CE CC
Inputresistance Low(about 100) Moderate(about750) High(about 750k)
Outputresistance High(about 450) Moderate(about45) Low(about 25)
Current gain 1 High High
Voltagegain About150 About500 Lessthan1
Phaseshift 0or 360o 180o 0or 360o
Betweeninput&output For high frequency For audio frequency Forimpedance matching
voltages Applications circuits circuits

13. DefineEarlyeffect?(Nov/Dec 2016)

As the collector voltage VCCis made to increase the reverse bias, the space charge width between collector and
base tends to increase, with the result that the effective width of the base decreases. This known as early effect or
base width modulation.

14. WhatispeakpointVoltage?
When VEE exceeds the value (VD+ɳVBB), the diode is forward biased and starts to conduct. The value of emitter
voltage which makes diode to conduct is called Peak Point Voltage.
Vp=(VD+ɳVBB)

JFET(JunctionFieldEffectnTransistor)

15. WhatarethedifferenttypesofFET?
Types of FET:
1. JunctionFieldEffectTransistor(JFET)
2. MetalOxideSemiconductorFieldEffectTransistor(MOSFET)

16. DrawthesymbolandstructureofJFET.

Fig.Structureandforn-channel JFET Fig.Structureandforp-channelJFET

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17. Whatarethefeaturesof JFET?
m
a) TheoperationofJFETdependsupontheflowofmajoritycarriersonly.
b) TheinputimpedanceofJFETisveryhigh,intheorderof MΩ.
c) TheJFETisless noisythanBJT.
d) Itexhibitsnooffsetvoltageatzerodraincurrent.
e) Itissimpletofabricate.
F)Itoccupieslessspaceinanintegratedcircuit.

18. Drawthetransferand drain characteristics curvesofJFET?(May/June2016)

DrainCharacteristics:
TransferCharacteristics:

Fig.DrainVIcharacteristicsofn-channelJFET

Fig.Transfercharacteristicsofn-channelJFET

DrainCharacteristics: TransferCharacteristics:

Fig.DrainVIcharacteristicsofp-channel JFET

Fig.Transfercharacteristicsofp-channelJFET

19. Definepinch-offvoltageofaFET?(Nov/Dec-2012,May/June-2013)
Pinch-offvoltage(VP)is definedasthedraintosourcevoltageabovewhichdraincurrentbecomes almost constant.

20. MentionthedisadvantagesofFETcomparedtoBJT.(Nov/Dec-2012)
GainbandwidthproductofFETisrelativelysmallascomparedtoBJT.

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21. Definedrain resistance.
m
The drainresistanceoroutput(rd) isdefinedastheratiobetweenchangeindrain-source voltage(VDS) and
change in drain current (ID) at constant gate-source voltage (VGS).

rd=𝜕𝑉𝐷𝑆𝑉
𝜕𝑖𝐷 𝐺𝑆

22. DifferentiateFETandBJT(Nov/Dec2018)

S.No FET BJT

Unipolardevice(thatiscurrentconductionbyonlyone type Bipolardevice(currentconductionbyboth
1
of either electron or hole). electron and hole).
2 Highinputimpedanceduetoreversebias. Lowinputimpedanceduetoforwardbias.
Gainischaracterizedbyvoltage gain.
3 Gainischaracterizedbytransconductance
4 Lownoise level Highnoiselevel

23. Whataretheapplicationsof JFET?

a) JFET isusedasa bufferinmeasuring instrumentssince ithashighinputimpedanceandlowoutput
impedance.
b) JFETisusedinRFamplifierinFMtunersandcommunication equipment.
c) JFETisusedindigital circuit’siicomputersandmemorycircuitsbecauseofitssmallsize.
d) Itisusedoscillatorsbecausethefrequencydriftislow.

24. FEThaslowerthermalnoisethanBJT-Justify.(April/May2019-R17)
The FET has high gate-to-main current resistance, on the order of 100MΩ or more providing a
high degree of isolation between control and flow. Because base current noise will increase with shaping
time, a FET typically produces less noise than a Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT).
Thus, found in noise-sensitive electronics such as tuners and low noise amplifiers for VHF and satellite
receivers. It is relatively immune to radiation.

25. WhatisthedifferencebetweenBJTandJFET?(Nov/Dec2017)(Apr/May2018)(Nov/Dec2018-R17)

S.
Bipolarjunctiontransistor(BJT) Junctionfieldeffecttransistor (JFET)
No.
Bipolar device (current conduction is by Unipolardevice(current is byonlyonetype of
1
both electrons and holes) carrier-either electrons or holes)
2 Lowinput impedanceduetoforwardbias Highinput impedanceduetoreverse bias
3 Currentcontrol device Voltagecontrol device
4 Gainischaracterized byvoltagegain GainischaracterizedbyTran conductance.
5 Highnoiselevel Lownoiselevel

MOSFET
26. WhatarethedifferenttypesofMOSFET?(May/June-2012,2013)
ThemodesofoperationoftheMOSFETaredividedintotwotypes.
a) DepletionmodeMOSFET
b) EnhancementmodeMOSFET

27. WhatistheothernameforMOSFET?(May/June-2012, 2013)

MetalOxideSemiconductorFieldEffectTransistor(MOSFET)isalsocalledasInsulatedGateFieldEffect Transistor (IGFET)

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28. If the gate-to-source voltage in an Enhancement MOSFET is zero, what is the current from drain to source?
m
In an Enhancement MOSFET if the gate-to-source voltage is zero, then the current from drain to source is alsozero.

29. WhatisthemajordifferenceinconstructionoftheD-MOSFETandtheE-MOSFET?
ThedepletionMOSFEThasastructuralchannel,whereastheenhancement-MOSFETdoesnot.

30. Ifthegate-to-sourcevoltageindepletionMOSFETiszero,whatisthecurrentfromdraintosource?
Whengate–sourcevoltageiszerofordepletionMOSFET,thedrain-sourcecurrentisequaltoI DSS.(ID_IDSS)

31. WhataretheprecautionstobetakenwhenhandlingMOSFET?
a) MOSFETshouldbeshippedandstoredinaconductionfoamrubber.
b) Priortosoldering,thetechnicianshoulduseashortingstraptodischargehisstaticelectricity.
c) Thesolderingirontiptobegrounded.d)MOSFETsshouldneverbe insertedintoorremovedfrom acircuitwith the power
on.
e) Theassemblershouldwearantistaticclothesandgroundwristbeads.
f) AlltheinstrumentsandmetalbenchesusedtotesttheMOSdevicesshouldbeconnectedto ground.
g) Alwaysavoidtouchingthedeviceterminalsandpickupthetransistorbyitscasing.

32. WhataretheapplicationsofMOSFET?
a) Itcanbeusedasinputamplifiersinoscilloscope,electricvoltmeters etc.
b) Itisusedinlogiccircuits.
c) Itisusedincomputer memories.
d) Itisusedinphaseshiftoscillators.
e) ItisusedinFMandTVreceivers.

33. Depletion MOSFETiscommonlyknownas“Normally-ON”MOSFETwhy?

ThedepletionMOSFETcanconductevenifthegatetosourcevoltage(VGS)iszero.Becauseofthis reason
depletion MOSFET is community known as “Normally-ON” MOSFET.

34. WhatisthedifferencebetweenJFETandMOSFET?(May/Jun2016)

S.No. JFET MOSFET

1 Reversebiasforgate Positiveornegativegatevoltage
2 Gateisformedasa diode Gateisformedasacapacitor
3 Operationonlydepletionmode Canbeoperatedeitherindepletionmodeorinenhancementmode.
4 Highinputimpedance Veryhighinputimpedanceduetocapacitiveeffect.

UJT
35. DrawthestructureofUJT.(Nov/Dec2017)

B2 B2

Eta-point +
B2
RB2
Eta-point
RB2
p-type
E
E VBB
A A
E +
RB1
n-type RB1 V
Ve Ie BB

- -
B1 B1 B1
5

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36. WhatisUJT?
m
Uni junction transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device consisting of only one PN junction. It differs from
ordinary PN diode in the sense that it has three terminals namely Emitter, Base 1 and Base 2.

37. DescribetheconstructionofUJT?
UJTconsistsoflightlydopedTVtypeissemiconductorbarwithaheavilydopedPtype material.
Ntype bar is called base and Ptype region is called emitter. Hence PNjunction is formed between emitter andbase
region.
Sincebaseislightlydopedtheresistivityofthebasematerialisveryhigh.
The direction of arrowhead in the UJT symbol represents the conventional direction of current flowwhen UJT is in
conduction state.

38. StatetwoapplicationsofUJT.(Nov/Dec 2018)

1. UJTisusedtotriggerother deviceslikeSCR.
2. Alsousedinsawtoothwavegeneratorsandsometimingcircuits.
3. Itisusedasrelaxationoscillatortoobtainshortpulsesfortriggeringof SCR.

39. WhatisintrinsicstandOFFratioofUJTanditsequivalentcircuit? (May2017)

The intrinsic stand OFF radio (r|) is defined as the ratio between the internal dynamic resistance (RBl) and
the inter base resistance (RBB)-
𝑹𝑩𝟏
η= 𝑹𝑩𝟐
Where,
RBB=RB1+RB2
RB1–internaldynamicresistance
RB2– inter base resistance

40. Whatarethedifferentregionsin characteristics ofUJT?

 CutoffRegion
 NegativeResistanceRegion
 SaturationRegion

THYRISTOR
41. DescribethebasicstructureofSCR?
SCRconsistoffour semiconductorlayersformingaPNPNstructure.IthasthreePNjunctionsnamely J 1, J2anode (A),
cathode ( K) and the gate (G).

42. WhatarethedifferentmethodsusedtoturnONSCR?
1. Gatetriggering
2. Forwardbreakover voltage
3. Light triggering
4. Rate-effect(or) triggering

43. Whatisforwardbreakovervoltage?(Apr/May2018)
SCR is forward bias with a small voltage, it is in 'OFF' and no current flows through the SCR.
Theapplied forward voltage is increased, a certain critical voltage called forward break over voltage (VB0 ).

44. Defineholdingcurrent?WhatisthelatchingcurrentinSCR?(April/May2019-R17)
HoldingcurrentisthecurrentbelowwhichtheSCRswitchesfromtheconductionstate(ONstate)to
theforward blockingstate.
LatchingCurrentistheminimumcurrent requiredtotriggerthedevicefromitsOFFstatetoONstate.
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45. Whatistheforwardblocking region?
ThisregioncorrespondingtotheOFFcondition oftheSCRwhenanodeis positives.
46. WhatistheturnOFFmechanismused forSCR?
ToturnOFFaSCR, thefollowingmethodsare applied.
(i) Reversing polarity of anode-to-cathode voltage called as Gate turn OFF
switch (GTO).
(ii)The second method is anode current interruption. Changing anode current
by means of momentarily series or parallel switching arrangement.
(iii)Third method is forced commutation. In this, the current through SCR
is reduced below the holding current

47. GivetheapplicationsofSCR.
MainapplicationsofanSCRareasapowercontroldevice.Commonareasofapplicationsinclude
(a). As over lightdetector (f).Batterycharges
(b). Relaycontrol (g).Heatercontrols
(c). Regulatedpowersupplies (h).Phase controls
(d). Staticswitches (i).For speedcontrol of DC shunts motor.
(e). Motorcontrol

48. Whataretheadvantagesof SCR?

> SCRcontrols largecurrentinthe loadbymeansofasmall gate current.
> SCRsize is verycompact.
> Switchingspeedis high.

49. Show how an SCR canbe triggered on by the application of apulse tothegateterminal. (Nov / Dec
2015)
SCR is forward bias with a small voltage, it is in 'OFF' and no current flows through the SCR. The
appliedforwardvoltageisincreased,acertaincriticalvoltagecalledforwardbreakovervoltage
(V B0 ).Theforwardbreakovervoltageisreducedbyapplicationofgatepulses.

IGBT,DIAC&TRIAC

50. IGBTisavoltagecontrolleddevice.Why?
Becausethecontrollingparameterisgate-emitter voltage.
51. WhyIGBTisverypopularnowadays?MAY/JUNE-2012
1. Lowergaterequirements 2.Lowerswitchinglosses 3.Smallersnubbedcircuitrequirements

52. Whatis DIAC?

ADIACistwoterminal semiconductordeviceandthree-layerbidirectionaldevice,whichcanbe switched from
of its OFF to ON state for either negative or positive polarity of applied voltage.

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53. Whataretheapplicationsof DIAC?
TheDIACisusedasatriggeringdevice;itisnotacontroldevice.Itisusedin.
 Temperaturecontrol
 TriggeringofTRIAC
 Lightdimingcircuits
 Motorspeedcontrol
54. Whatis TRIAC?
TRIAC is a three terminal semiconductor switching device which can conduct in either forward or
reverse direction. The TRIAC is the combination of two SCR's connected in parallel but in opposite
direction.

55. Whataretheapplicationsof TRIAC?

 Heatercontrol
 Phasecontrol
 Lightdimming control
 StaticswitchtoturnA.CpowerONandOFF.
 Speedcontrolofmotor.

PART-B
BJT-Structure,Operation& Characteristics
1. Explainaboutthetransistor(BJT)operation.

Structure:

Symbol:

Two-diodetransistoranalogy

Applying external voltage to a transistor is called biasing. In order to operate transistor properly as an
amplifier, it is necessary to correctly bias the two PN junctions with external voltages. Depending upon
external bias voltage polarities used, the transistor works in one of the three regions.

1.Activeregion 2.Cut-offregion 3.Saturation region

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S.No. Region Emitter Base CollectorBase Operationofa transistor
m
1 Active Forwardbiased Reversebiased Actsasanamplifier
2 Cut off Reversebiased Reversebiased Actsasanopenswitch
3 Saturation Forwardbiased Forwardbiased Actsasaclosedswitch

To bias the transistor in its active region the emitter base junction is forward biased, while the collector-
base junction in reverse-biased as shown in Fig. The Fig. shows the circuit connections for active region
for both NPN and PNP transistors.

OperationofNPNtransistor:

As shown in fig. the forward bias applied to the emitter base junction of an NPN transistor causesa
lot of electronsfrom the emitter region to cross over to the base region. As the base is lightly dopedwith P-
type impurity, the number of holes in the base region is very small and hence the number of electrons that
combine with holes in the P – type base region is also very small. Hence a few electrons combine with
holes to constitute a base current I B. The remaining electrons (more than 95%) crossover into the collector
region to constitute a collector current I C. Thus the base and collector current summedup give the emitter
current i.e. IE=-(IC+IB).

Fig.CurrentinNPN transistor

In the external circuit of the NPN bipolar junction transistor, the magnitudes of the emitter current I E, the
base current IBand the collector current ICare related by IE=IC+IB.

Operation ofPNPtransistor:

As shown in fig. the forward bias applied to the emitter – base junction of a PNP transistor causes
a lot of hoses from the emitter regions to cross over to the base region as the base is lightly doped with N-
type impurity. The number of electrons in the base regions is very small and hence the number of holes
combined with electrons in the N – type base region is also very small. Hence a few holes combined with
electrons to constitute a base current IB.

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Fig.Currentin PNPtransistor

The remaining holes (more than 95%) cross over into the collector region to constitute a collector
current IC. Thus, the collector and base current when summed up gives the emitter current.

i.e.IE=-(IC+IB).

In the external circuit of the PNP bipolar junction transistor, the magnitudes of the emitter current
IE, the base current IBand the collector current ICare related by

IE=IC+IB

The equation gives the fundamental relationship between the currents ina bipolar transistor circuit.
Also, this fundamental equation shows that there are current amplification factors and  in common base
transistor configuration and common emitter transistor configuration respectively for the static (d.c)
currents, and for small changes in the currents.

Large – signal current gain (). The large signal current gain of a common base transistor is
defined as the ratio of the negative of the collector – current increment to the emitter – current change
from cut off (IE=0) to IE,i.e.


IcICBO
IE0

where ICBO (or ICO) is the reverse saturation current flowing through the reverse biased collector –
base junction. i.e. the collector to base leakage current with emitter open. As the magnitude of I CBO is
negligible when compared to IE, the above expression can be written as

I
C
IE

Since IC and IE are flowing in opposite directions,  is always positive. Typical value of  ranges
from 0.90 to 0.995. Also,  is not a constant but varies with emitter current I E, collector voltage VCB and
the temperature.

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2. (a) Explain various characteristicsmof BJT in Common Base configuration with neat
diagram.
CommonBaseConfiguration(CB configuration):

Thisconfigurationisalsocalledthegroundedbase configuration.Inthis case the

input is connected between emitter and base while the output is taken across the collector and base. Thus
the base of the transistor is common to both input and output circuits and hence the name, common base
configuration. The common base circuit arrangement for NPN transistors is shown in Fig.

CurrentAmplificationFactor(α):

The current amplification factor is defined as the ratio of changes in Collector current (∆I C) to the change
in emitter current (∆IE) when the collector to base voltage (VCB) is maintained at a constant value.
α=(∆IC)/(∆IE)(atconstant VCB)

Thevalueofαisalwayslessthanunity.Thepractical valueoftransistorsliebetween0.95and 0.99.

Characteristicsof CommonBaseConfiguration:

Thecircuitarrangement fordeterminingthecharacteristicsofacommonbaseNPNtransistorsisshownin Fig.In

this circuit, the collector to base voltage (VCB) can be
varied by adjusting the potentiometer R2. The emitter to base voltage (VEB) can be varied by adjusting the
potentiometer Rl. The DC voltmeters and DC milliammeters are connected in the emitter and collector
circuits to measure the voltages and currents.

a). InputCharacteristics:

The curve plotted between the emitter current (I E) and the emitter to base voltage (V EB) at constant
collector to base voltage (VCB) are known as input characteristics of a transistor in common base
configuration.

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InputResistance(Ri):

It is the ratio of change in emitter to base voltage (∆V EB) to the corresponding change in emitter
current (∆IE) for a constant collector to base voltage (VCB).

b). Output Characteristics:

Thecurveplottedbetween thecollectorcurrent(IC)andthecollectortobasevoltage
(VCB) at constant emitter current (IE) are known as output characteristics of a transistor is common
baseconfiguration.

The output characteristics are as shown in Fig. and it can be divided into three
importantregionsnamely(i)Saturationregion(ii)Activeregion(iii)Cut-offregion.

(i). SaturationRegion:

In this region, collector to base voltage (VCB) is negative for a NPN transistor. A small change in
collector to base voltage (VCB) results in a large valve of collector current.

(ii). ActiveRegion:

Inthisregionthecollectorcurrent(IC)isalmostequaltotheemittercurrent (IE).The
transistor is always operated in this region. In the active region, the curves are almost flat. A very
large change in VCB produces only a very small change in I C. It means that the circuit has very high
output resistance about 500 K Ω.

(iii). Cut-offRegion:

It is the region along the X-axis as shown byshaded or dotted portion. This corresponds to the curve
marked IE=0. In the cut-off region both the junctions of a
Transistorarereversebiased.Asmallcollectorcurrentflowsevenwhentheemitter Current
(IE) is equal to zero.
If the collector to base voltage (VCB) is increased beyond a certain large value, the
collectorcurrent(IC)increasesrapidlyduetoavalanchebreakdownandthetransistor action
is lost. This region is called breakdown region.

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(b) ForatransistorconnectedinCEconfiguration,sketchthetypicaloutputandinput
m
characteristics and explain the shape of characteristics.

CommonEmitterConfiguration(CEConfiguration):

Thisconfigurationisalsocalledthegroundedemitterconfiguration. Inthiscase the

input is connected between base and emitter, while the output is taken across the collector and emitter.
Thus emitter of the transistor is common to both input and output circuits and hence the name, common
emitter configuration. The common emitter arrangement for NPN transistor is as shown in Fig.

BaseCurrentAmplificationFactor(β):

Thebasecurrentamplification factorisdefinedastheratioofchangeincollector
current (∆IC) to the change in emitter current (∆I E) when the collector to emitter voltage(V CE) is
maintained at a constant value.

Thevalueofβisalwaysgreaterthenunity.Practicalvalueofβincommercial transistors lie

between 20 to 500.

CharacteristicsofcommonEmitterconfiguration:

The circuit arrangement for determining the characteristics of a common emitter NPN transistor is shown
inFig.Inthiscircuit,thecollectorto emittervoltage(VEC)can bevaried by adjustingthepotentiometerR2.
Thebase toemittervoltage(VBE)canbevariedbyadjustingthepotentiometerR1.TheDCvoltmetersand
milliammeters are connected in the base and collector circuits to measure the voltages and currents.

1. InputCharacteristics:

The curve plotted between the base current (I B) and the base to emitter voltage (V BE) at constant
collector to emitter voltage (V CE) at constant collector to emitter voltage (V CE )are known as input
characteristics of a transistor in common emitter configuration.
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Input Resistance (Ri): It is the ratio of change in base to emitter voltage (VBE) to the
Correspondingchangeinbasecurrent(∆IB)foraconstantcollectortoemittervoltage
(vCE).

When the collector to emitter voltage (VCE) is increased, the value of base current (IB) decreased slightly
as shown in Fig.

2. Output Characteristics:

The curves plotter between the collector current (I C) and the collector to emitter
Voltage(VCE)atconstantbasecurrent(IB)isknownasoutputcharacteristicofa
transistor in common emitter configuration.
Theoutputcharacteristicmaybedividedintothreeimportantregionsnamely
saturation region, active region, and cut-off region.

(i) SaturationRegion:
Inthisregion(shownbydottedarea)asmallchangeincollectortoemittervoltage (V CE)
results in a large value of collector current.

(ii) ActiveRegion:
It istheregionbetweensaturationand cut-offregion.In thisregionthecurvesare almost flat.Whenthecollectorto emitter
voltage (VCE) is increased. Further, the collector current I. slightly increases. The slope of the curve is little bit more
than the output characteristics of common base configuration. Therefore, the output resistance (R o) of this
configuration is less as compared to common base configuration.

(iii) Cut-offRegion:
It is the region along the X-axis is shown by shaded area. This corresponds to the curve marked I B = 0. In the cut-
offregionboththejunctionsof a transistorarereversebiased.Asmall collectorcurrent flowsevenwhenthebase current
(IB) is equal to zero. It is the reverse leakage current (ICEo)that flows in the collector circuit.

Ifthecollectortoemittervoltage(VCE)isincreased beyondacertainlargecollectorcurrent (I C)increasesrapidly due to

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avalanche breakdown and the action is lost. This
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(c) Explain various characteristicsmof BJT in Common Collector configuration with
neat diagram.
Commoncollectorconfiguration(CCconfiguration):

This configuration is also called the grounded collector configuration' In this case the input is common
between base and Collector. While the output is taken across the emitter and collector. Thus the collector
of the transistor is common to both input and output circuits and hence the name common collector
configuration. The common collector circuit arrangement for NPN transistor as shown in Fig.

CurrentAmplificationFactor(γ):

Thecurrent amplificationisdefined astheratioofchangein emittercurrent (∆I E)to the

change in base current (∆IB). It is generally denoted by γ.

Thevalue of γisnearlyequal to β.

Characteristics of common Collector configuration:

The circuit arrangement for determining the characteristics of a common collector
NPNtransistorisshowninFig.Inthiscircuit,theemittertocollectorvoltage(VEC)
can be varied by adjusting the potentiometer R 2. The base to collector voltage (VBC) can be varied by
adjusting the potentiometer R1. The DC voltmeter and millimeters are connected in the base and emitter
circuits to measure the voltages and currents.

1. InputCharacteristics:

The curves plotted between the base current (I B) and the base tocollectorvoltage (VBC) at constant
emitter to collector voltage (VEC) are known as input characteristics of a transistor in common
collector configuration.

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2. Output Characteristics:

The curves plotted between the emitter current (I E) and the emitter to collector voltage (V EC) at
constant base current (IB) are known as output characteristics of a transistor is common collector
configuration.

3. Explaintheemitterbiasmethodusedin transistoramplifiercircuits.(Nov/Dec2017)

Emitter Bias
This biasing network uses two supply voltages, VCC and VEE, which are
equal but opposite in polarity. Here VEE forward biases the base-emitter
junction through RE while VCC reverse biases the collector-base junction.
Moreover

Inthiskindofbiasing,ICcanbemadeindependentofbothβandVBEbychoosingRE>>RB/βandVEE
>>VBE,respectively; whichresultsin astableoperatingpoint.

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4. ExplaintheselectionofQ pointfortransistorbiascircuitsanddiscussthelimitationsontheoutput
m voltage
swing. (Nov / Dec 2015)

Thedcloadlineforatransistorcircuitisastraight linedrawnonthetransistoroutput characteristics. For a

commonemitter CE circuit. Theloadlineis agraph of collectorcurrent versus collector emittervoltagefor a given
value of collector resistance and a given supply voltage. The load lines show all corresponding levels of I cand
VCEthat can exist in a particular circuit.

Considerthecommonemitter circuitinfig.Notethatthepolaritiesofthetransistorterminal voltagearesuchthat

thebaseemitterjunctionisforwardbiasedandthecollectorbasejunctionisreversebiased.Thesearethenormal bias
polarities for the transistor junctions. The dc load line for the circuits in fig drawn on the device common emitter
characteristics in fig.

VCE=(Supplyvoltage)–(VoltagedropacrossRC) VCE=

VCC- ICRC

Ifthebaseemittervoltageiszero,thetransistorisnotconductingandIC=0.SubstitutingtheV CCandRCvalues from fig into

equal 5-1

VCE=20V–(0*10kohms)=20V

Plot point Aonthecommon emitter characteristicsinfig.5-2at I c=0andVCE=20V.Thisisonepointonthedc load line.

Nowassumeacollectorcurrentof2mA,andcalculatethecorrespondingcollectoremittervoltagelevel. V CE= 20V-

(2mA*10k ohms) =0V

Plot point B fig 5-2 at VCE = 0 and IC = 2mA. The straight line drawn though point A and point B is the dc load
lineforRC=10kohmsandVCC=20V.Ifeitherofthesetwoquantitiesischanged,anewloadlinemustbedrawn.

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As already stated the dc load line represents mall corresponding IC and VCElevels that can exist in the
circuitasrepresentedbyEq.5-1forexampleapointplottedatVCE=16Vand IC=1.5mAonfig5-2 does not appear
on theload line. This combination of voltage and current cannot exist in this particularcircuit. Knowing
any one of IB, IC, or VCE, it is easy to determine the other two from a dc load line drawn on the device
characteristics. It is not always necessary to have the device characteristics in order to draw the dc load
line. A simple graph of ICversus VCEcan be used as demonstrated in example 5-1.

Limitationon theoutputvoltageswing:

The maximum possible transistor collector emitter voltage swing for a given circuit can be
determined without using the transistor characteristics. For convenience, it may be assumed that I c can be
driven to zero at one extreme and to Vcc / Rc at the other extreme, [see fig]. This changes the collector

load line, the maximum possible collector voltage swing is seen to be approximately ∓𝑉𝑐𝑐/2.
emitter voltage from VCE = Vcc to VCE = 0, as illustrated in fig. thus with the Q point at the center of the

JFET-Structure,Operation &Characteristics

5. (a)ExplainconstructionandoperationofJunctionFieldEffectTransistor(JFET)?(NOV/DEC 2012)
(May/June-2012)
(b)Explaindrain andtransfercharacteristicsofJFET? (May2017)

(a) Constructionandoperation:
The basic construction of an n-channel JFET is shown in fig. It consists of an n-type silicon bar
referred as thechannel. Twosmall pieces ofp-typematerial areattached to its sides forming pn junctions. If
the bar is of n-type the JFET is called as on n-channel JFET, and if the bar is of p-type it is called a p-
type channel JFET fig shows schematic diagram of both types of FET’s with their symbols.

N-channelJFET Symbol

The channel ends are designated as source(S) and drain (D). The source S is the terminal through
which the majority carriers enters the bar and drain D is the terminal through which the majority carriers
leave the bar. The two p-regions, which are formed by alloying or by diffusion, are connectedtogether and
their terminal is called gate. When no bias applied to JFET, depletion regions are formed at two pn
junctions as shownin fig. Recall that depletion region is aregion depleted ofchargecarriersand therefore
behaves insulators

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P-channelJFET

OperationofN-channelJFET
WhenVdsis ofsome fixedpositivevalueand reversebiasonVgs increasing.

OperationofN-channelJFET
Let us assume that the gate is not biased and a fixed positive voltage is applied between the drain
and source terminals as shown in fig. Due to this applied voltage will move through the n-type
channel from source to drain. When the gate is negative biased with respect to source, the pn
junction are reverse biased and the depletion region are formed. Since the channel is lightly doped
compared to heavily doped p-region, the depletion region penetrates deeply into the channel. As a
result, the effective channel resistance significantly and reduces the drain current I D. If the reverse
biased on the gate is increased further the depletion will cover the entire width of the channel and
ID is cut off completely fig.

2.VGS=0,VDSisvaried
First assume that the gate source voltage (V GS) is set to the zero. When the drain source voltage
VDS is also zero, the current flowing through FET is also zero that is I D=0.The instant the voltage
VDS is applied, electrons starts flowing from source to drain terminals establishing the current
IDunder this condition the channel between drain and source act as a resistance.

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(b) Characteristicsof JFET:-
m
Thecircuit diagramtoobtainthecharacteristicsofJFETisshowninfig.

Thecharacteristics thatweconsiderare
i) Draincharacteristics ii)Transfercharacteristics
Indrain characteristicstherelationbetween Id and VDSfordifferentvalues ofVGSisplotted. Intransfer
characteristics the relation between ID and VDGS for constant is plotted.

(i)
DraincharacteristicswithVGS=0(May2017)
The drain characteristics for VGS=0 is shown in fig. To plot this characteristic the gate to source
voltage is kept at zero and VDS is varied from zero. When VDS is zero the drain current IDis also zero.
When VDSis increased the drain, current starts flowing through the channel and FET behaves like a
resistor till point A. That is for low values of V DS, current varies directly with voltage following ohm’s
law. The portion of characteristics where the FET behaves like a resistor is known as ohms region. The
FET can be used as a voltage variable resistor in this region if we increase V DS, a stage is reached atwhich
pinch off occurs and the drain current reaches a saturation level. The drain to source voltage at which
pinch off occurs is known as pinch off voltage V P, and corresponding ID is known asIDSS. Thepoint B at
which pinch-offoccurs is shown in fig. Even if weincrease V DS above VP the drain current VDSabove Vp
the drain current does not increase. The region where the drain current is constant inspite of the variation
in VDS is known as pinch-off region. If we increase V DS for there a stage is reached at which the gate
channel junction FET breakdown and increase rapidly. This region in the characteristics is known as
breakdown region. When a bias (-1V) is applied between gate source the pinch off occurs at less drain
current less than IDSS. The drain characteristics for different values of VGSshown fig.

Characteristicsof JFET forVGS=0

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CharacteristicsofJFET fordifferentvalues ofVGS

(ii)
Transfercharacteristics
It is a plot of drain current Id versus V GS constant values. To plot the characteristics V DS is kept
constant and VGS is varied. When VGS= the current flowing the FET is Equal to I DSS and when
VGS=VGS(off), the drain current is zero.
Shockley’sequation:-
The relation between VGS and ID can be represented by Shockley’s equation
ID =IDSS(1-VGS/Vp)2______________________________3.1
Usingthismathematicallyexpression,wecandeveloptheplotofIDversusVGSforanyJFET,
providethetwoparametersIDSSandVpareknown.

Transfercharacteristicsof JFET.

MOSFET-Structure,Operation&Characteristics

6. Withneatdiagramexplaintheconstruction&workingofdepletionMOSFETandenhancement
MOSFET withitsnecessary characteristics curve. (Nov/Dec 2018 R-13)(May/June 2016) (Apr/May 2018)
OR
Brief about the construction and operation of n-channel depletion type MOSFET with a neat
diagram. Enumerate the characteristics of depletion type MOSFET with a suitable
graph.(April/May 2019-R17)

DepletionMOSFET:
• TheconstructionofanN-channeldepletionMOSFETisshowninfig.Ifconsistsofalightly dopedp-
typesubstrateinwhichtwohighlydopedn-regionsarediffused.Thetwoheavilydopedn-
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regions act as the source and drain. A lightly
m doped n-type channel is introduced between the two heavily
doped source and drain. A thin layer of (1µm thick) silicon dioxide is coated on the surface. Holes are
cut in the oxide layer to make contact with n-regions due to sio 2 layer the gate is completely insulated
from the channel. This permits operation with gate source or gate channel voltages above and below
zero. In addition the insulated layer of sio 2 accounts for very high input impedance of MOSFET. In
some MOSFETS the p-type substrate is internally connected to source, whereas in many discrete
devices an additional terminal is provided for substrate labeled SS.

SS substrate
Basic operation:
In fig a voltage VDS is applied between the drain and source terminals and the gate to source
voltage is set to zer. As a result, current is established from drain to source (conventional direction)similar
to JFET like in JFET, the satuarated drain current IDSS flow during pinch-off and it is labeled as IDSS.

Ifanegativevoltageis applied to gatewith repeat to source. Theseholesrecombinewith electrons and

reduce the number of free electrons in the n-channel available for conduction. The more negative the b ias,
lesser the number of free electrons in the channel. Since the negative voltage on the gate deplete channel,
the device is referred to as depletion MOSFET. The depletion mode of operation is similar to JFET
operation. When sufficient negative voltage is applied to gatethe channel may be completely cut off and
the corresponding VGSis called (VGS (OFF)).
If a positive voltage is applied to gate with respect to source then the electrons are induced in the
channel. The induced electrons constitute additional currentfrom source to drain.If we increase
VGSmoreinpositivedirectionmorenumberofelectronsisinducedandhencethedraincurrentincreases.

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That is, the application of a positive gate –to
m –source voltage has enhanced the number of charge carriers
compared to that of when VGS=0v. For this reason the mode in which theMOSFET. Operates for positive
values of gate-to-source voltage is known as enhancement mode.

It is a plot of drain current versus drain source voltage for various value of gate-source voltage. The drain
characteristics of depletion MOSFET is shown ii fig. Note that for negative of V GS the characteristics of
depletion MOSFET is similar to those N-channel JFET. If the gate is made positive additional carrier are
introduced in the channel and the channel conductivity increases. Therefore the depletion MOSFET
consists of two regions of operation
.
Thetransfer characteristics of deletion MOSFET is shown in fig. Thegeneral shape of the transfer
characteristics is similar to those for the JFET. However the deletion MOSFET can be operated with
VGS>0. As a result IDSS is not maximum drain current as it is for JFET. The equation fior transfer
characteristics curve of depletion MOSFET is same as that of JFET.

Thethreecircuitsymbolsforn-channelMOSFETandp-channel MOSFETareshowninfig.

SymbolofN-channelandP-channelMOSFET’S

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N-channel enhancement MOSFET
m(May/June-2013), (May/June2016), (Nov/Dec2015) (May
2017) (Apr/May 2018)
• The construction of n-channel enhancement MOSFET is shown in fig. like depletion MOSFET it also
consists of a p-type substrate and two heavily doped n-regions that act as sourceand drain. The sio 2 layer is present
to isolate the gate from the region between the drain and source. The source and drain terminals are connected
through metallic contacts to n-doped regions. But the enhancement MOSFET does not contain diffused channel
MOSFET does not contain diffused channel between the source and drain

When the drain is made positive with repeat to source and no potential is applied to gate due to absence of the
channel, a small drain current (ie., a reverse leakage current) flows. The we apply a positive voltage to thatgate with
respect to source and substrate, negative charge carriers are induced in the substrate the negative charge carriers
which are minority carriers in the p-type substrate form an “inversion layer”. As the gate potential is increased
more and more negative charge carriers are induced. There negative carriers that areaccumulated between source
and drain current flows from source to drain through the induced channel. The magnetized of the drain current
depends on the gate potential. Since the conduction of the channel is enhanced by the positive bias voltage on the
gate the device known as enhancement MOSFET.

Draincharacteristics:
Thedraincharacteristics ofenhancement MOSFETisshowninfig.
The currentIDSS for VGS=0 is very small of the order of nano amperes shown in fig. Note that
the drain current increases with positive increases with positive increase in gate source have voltage.

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Transfercharacteristics:
m

The n-channel enhancement MOSFET requires a positive gate to source voltage for its operation fig shows
the general transfer characteristics of an n-channel MOSFET. Since the drain current is zero for VGS=0, the IDSSis
zero for this device. As VGS is made positive the current ID increases slowly at first and then more rapidly with an
increase in VGS. The gate source voltage at which there is significant increase in drain current is called the
threshold voltage and is referred to as VT or VGS the equation for the transfer characteristics of enhancement

𝐼𝐷=K(𝑉
MOSFETdiffersasthecurvestatesatVGS(th)ratherthanatVGS.Theequationfortransfercharacteristicsis
𝐺𝑆−𝐺𝑆(𝑡ℎ))
𝑉
2

UJT(UNIJUNCTIONFIELDEFFECT TRANSISTOR)

7. (a)Explain the construction operation andcharacteristicsof UJT?(May/June2016),(Nov/Dec2015)

(Nov/Dec 2018)
(b)DescribetheoperationofUJTasarelaxationoscillatorandderiveitsfrequencyofoscillation? (Nov/Dec
2016)

(A) UNI-JUNCTIONTRANSISTOR(UJT)
Construction: B2 B2
Eta-point +
B 2
RB2
Eta-point
RB2
p-type
E
E A A V BB
E +
RB1
n-type RB1
Ve I e VBB

- -

B1 B1 B1
(a) (b) (c)

Fig.:(a)BasicstructureofUJT (b)Symbolicrepresentation (c)Equivalentcircuit

UJT is an n-type silicon bar in which p-type emitter is embedded. It has three terminals base1, base2 and
emitter ‘E’. BetweenB1andB2 UJT behaves like ordinary resistor and the internal resistances are given
asRB1andRB2with emitter openRBBRB1RB2.Usuallythep-regionisheavilydopedandn-regionislightlydoped.
TheequivalentcircuitofUJTisasshown.WhenVBBisappliedacrossB1andB2 ,wefindthatpotentialatAis
V R V  RB1 
V  BB B1  
AB1 BB R R
RB1 R B2
 B1 B2

isintrinsicstandoffratioofUJTandrangesbetween0.51and0.82.Resistor 10K. RB2isbetween5to

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OPERATION
m
WhenvoltageVBBisappliedbetweenemitter‘E’withbase1B1asreferenceandtheemittervoltageVE
islessthanVDVBEtheUJTdoesnotconduct.VDVBBisdesignatedasVPwhichisthevalueof

voltagerequired to turnonthe UJT. OnceVE isequaltoVPVBEVD,thenUJTisforwardbiased and

itconducts.

The peak point is the point at which peak current IPflows and the peak voltage VPis across the UJT. After
peak point the current increases but voltage across device drops, this is due to the fact that emitter starts to
inject holes into the lower doped n-region. Sincep-region is heavily doped compared to n-region. Also
holes have a longer life time, therefore number of carriers in the base region increases rapidly. Thus
potential at ‘A’ falls but currentIEincreasesrapidly.RB1 Acts as a decreasing resistance.

The negative resistance region of UJT is between peak point and valley point. After valley point, the
device acts as a normal diode since the base region is saturated andRB1does not decrease again.
NegativeResistance Region
CutoffVe
Saturation region
region
VBB
Vp R loadline
PeakPoint

ValleyPoint

Vv

0Ip Iv Ie

Fig.:V-ICharacteristicsofUJT

(B) OperationofUJTasarelaxation oscillatoranditsderivation-frequency ofoscillation.(Nov2016)

UJT as a relaxation oscillator consists of UJT and a capacitor C Ewhich is charged through REas the supply
voltage VBBis switched ON.The voltage across the capacitor increases exponentially and when the
capacitor voltage reaches the peak point voltage V p, the UJT starts conducting and the capacitor voltage is
discharged rapidly through EB1 and R1.After the peak point voltage of UJT is reached, it provides
negative resistance to the discharge path which is useful in working of the relaxation oscillator. As the
capacitor voltage reaches zero the device then cuts off and capacitor C E starts to charge again. This cycle
is repeated continuously generating a saw tooth waveform across CE.

The inclusion of external resistors R2 and R1 in series with B2 and B1 provides spike waveform. When the
UJT fires, the sudden surge of current through B 1 causes drop across R1,which provides positive spikes.
At the time of firing fall of V EB1causes I2to increases rapidly which generates negative going spikes
across R2.

BychangingthevalueofREandCEthefrequencyofoscillation changes.

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Frequencyofoscillation:

Vc=VBB(1-e−t/RECE)
Voltageacrossthecapacitancepriorto breakdownisgiven by

RECE-Chargingtimeconstant
C
Dischargeofcapacitoroccurs whenVCisequaltothepeakpoint voltageVp,
Vp=𝜂VBB=VBB(1-e−t/RE E)

Where𝜂 =(1-
e−t/RECE)
e−t/RECE=1- 𝜂
t 1
=log
Taking Logonboth side

R EC E
e
(1−𝜂)
1
t=RECEln
(1−
1 𝜂)
f=1/t= RCln 1
EE (1−𝜂)

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THYRISTOR(SCR)
8. DRAW AND EXPLAIN THE V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF THYRISTOR (SCR) (or) DISCUSS THE
DIFFERENT MODES OF OPERATION OF THYRISTOR WITH THE HELP OF ITS STATIC V-I
CHARACTERISTICS. (Nov/Dec 2017) (Apr/May 2018) (OR)
Outline the structure of SCR and explain its operation. Also, illustrate its V-I characteristics.
(Apr/May 2019-R17)

RL

VAA K
VGG

Circuitdiagram

Fig:V-ICharacteristicsofSCR

A typical V-I characteristics of a thyristor is shown above. In the reverse direction the thyristor appears similar to a
reverse biased diode which conducts very little current until avalanche breakdown occurs. In the forward direction
the thyristor has two stable states or modes of operation that are connected together by an unstable mode that
appears as a negative resistance on the V-I characteristics. The low current high voltage region is the forward
blocking state or the off state and the low voltage high current mode is the on state. For the forward blocking state
the quantity of interest is the forward blocking voltage VBOwhich is defined for zero gate current. If a positive gate
current is applied to a thyristor then the transition or break over to the on state will occur at smaller values of anode
to cathode voltage as shown. Although not indicated the gate current does not have to be a dc current but instead
can be a pulse of current having some minimum time duration. This ability to switch the thyristor by means of a
current pulse is the reason for wide spread applications of the device.

However once the thyristor is in the on state the gate cannot be used to turn the device off. Theonly way to turn off
the thyristor is for the external circuit to force the current through the device to beless than theholding current fora
minimum specified time period.

HOLDINGCURRENTIH

After an SCR has been switched to the on state a certain minimum value of anode current is required to maintainthe
thyristor in this low impedance state. If the anode current is reduced below the critical holding current value,the
thyristor cannot maintain the current through it and reverts to its off state usually Iis associated with turn off the
device.

LATCHINGCURRENTIL

After the SCR has switched on, there is a minimum current required tosustain conduction. This current is
calledthelatching current.ILassociated with turn on and is usually greater than holding current.
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Fig.:Effectsongatecurrentonforwardblockingvoltage

9. SketchthefourlayerconstructionofanSCRandthetwotransistorequivalentcircuitexplainsthe device
operation. (Non / Dec 2016)(May 2017)
A thyristor is the most important type of power semiconductor devices. They are extensively used in
power electronic circuits. They are operated as bi-stable switches from non-conducting to conducting
state.
A thyristor is a four layer, semiconductor of p-n-p-n structure with three p-n junctions. It has three
terminals, the anode, cathode and the gate.
The word thyristor is coined from thyratron and transistor. It was invented in the year 1957 at Bell Labs.
The Different types of Thyristors are

 SiliconControlledRectifier(SCR).
 TRIAC
 DIAC
 GateTurnOffThyristor (GTO)

SILICONCONTROLLEDRECTIFIER(SCR)
TheSCRisafourlayerthreeterminaldevicewithjunctionsJ1,J2,J3as shown. The construction of SCR shows
that the gate terminal is kept nearer the cathode. The approximate thickness of each layer and doping
densities are as indicated in the figure. In terms of their lateral dimensions Thyristors are the largest
semiconductor devices made. A complete silicon wafer as large as ten centimeter in diameter may be used
to make a single high power thyristor.

Twotransistormodel ofSCR

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OPERATION
m
When the anode is made positive with respectthe cathode junctions𝐽1& 𝐽3 are forward biased and
junctionJ2is reverse biased. With anode to cathode voltage VAKbeingsmall,onlyleakagecurrentflows
throughthedevice.TheSCRisthensaidtobeintheforwardblockingstate. IfVAKisfurtherincreasedto
alargevalue,the reverse biasedjunctionJ2will breakdown due to avalanche effect resulting in a large
current through the device. The voltage at which this phenomenon occurs is calledtheforward breakdown
voltageVBO . Since the other junctions 𝐽1& 𝐽3are already forward biased, there will be free movement of
carriers across all three junctions resulting in a large forward anode current. Once the SCRis switched on,
the voltage drop across it is very small, typically 1 to 1.5V. The anode current is limited only by the
external impedance present in the circuit.

Fig.:Simplifiedmodelofathyristor

Although an SCR can be turned on by increasing the forward voltage beyond VBO , in practice, the forward
voltage is maintained well below VBOand the SCR is turned on by applying a positive voltage between
gate and cathode. With the application of positive gate voltage, the leakage current through the
junctionJ2is increased. This is because the resulting gate current consists mainly of electron flow from
cathode to gate. Since the bottom end layer is heavily doped as compared to the p-layer, due to
theappliedvoltage,some of these electrons reach junction J2andaddtotheminoritycarrierconcentration in the
p-layer. This raises the reverse leakage current and results in breakdown of junction J 2 eventhough the
applied forward voltage is less than the breakdown voltage VBO . With increase in gate current breakdown
occurs earlier.

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DIAC
m

10. ExplainindetailaboutDIACandits characteristics?

 The DIAC can be turned ON onlywhen the applied voltage across it is main terminal reaches the
break - over voltage.
 TheM.T.2ispositivewithrespecttoM.T.1,theDIACpassescurrentthroughtheDIAC
P1N1P2N2fromM.T.2to
 M.T.1 as shown in Fig. 5.12 (a). The DIAC turn 'ON' the applied voltage makes M.T.2
negativewith respect to the M.T.1, the DIAC current through the diode
 Whenthecurrentdropsbelowthe holdingvalue. It isusedas atriggering device.

CharacteristicsofaDIAC
The DIAC is operated with M.T.2 positive with respect to M.T.1, the VIcharacteristics obtained is as
shown in Fig. 5.13 by the curve marked OAB. Similarly the DIAC is operated with its M.T.2 negative
with respect to M.T.I, the V-l characteristics obtained as shown in Fig. 5.13 by the curve marked OCD.
Applications
TheDIACisusedasatriggeringdevice;it isnotacontroldevice.Itisused in,
• Temperaturecontrol
• TriggeringofTRIAC
• Lightdimingcircuits
• Motorspeedcontrol

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TRIAC
11. EXPLAINTHE CONSTRUCTION,OPERATION&STATICCHARACTERISTICSOFTRIAC
A triac is a three terminal bi-directional switching thyristor device. It can conduct in both directions when it is
triggered into the conduction state. The triac is equivalent to two SCRs connected in anti-parallel with a common
gate.Figurebelowshowsthetriacstructure.Itconsistsofthreeterminalsviz., MT2,MT1andgateG.

MT1

G N2
MT2

P2
N3
P2
N1

N1
P1 G MT1

P1
N4

MT2

Fig.TRIAC Structure Fig.TRIACSymbol

The gate terminal G is near the MT1terminal. Figure above shows the triac symbol. MT1is the referenceterminal to
obtain the characteristics of the triac. A triac can be operated in four different modes depending uponthe polarity of
the voltage on the terminalMT2withrespecttoMT1and based on the gate current polarity.

ThecharacteristicsofatriacaresimilartothatofanSCR,bothinblockingandconductingstates.ASCRcan conduct in only

one direction whereas triac can conduct in both directions.

MODE1:MT2positive,Positivegatecurrent(Imode ofoperation)

WhenMT2and gate current are positive with respect to MT 1, the gate current flows through P2-N2 junction as
shown in figure below. The junction P1-N1 and P2-N2 are forward biased but junction N1-P2 is reverse biased.
When sufficient number ofcharge carriersis injected in P 2 layer by the gate current the junction N1-P2 breakdown
andtriacstartsconductingthroughP1N1P2N2layers.Oncetriacstartsconducting the current increasesandit’s V-I
characteristics is similar to that of thyristor. Triac in this mode operates in the first-quadrant.
MT2(+)

P1

N1

Ig P2
N2

MT1()
G
V
(+
) Ig

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MODE2:MT2positive,Negativegatecurrent(Im
modeof operation)

MT2(+)

P1

Initialco Final
nduction N1 conduction
P2
N3 N2

MT1()
G
V

Ig

When MT2 is positive and gate G is negative with respect toMT 1 the gate current flows throughP2-N3 junction as
shown in figure above. The junction P 1-N1 and P2-N3 are forward biased but junction N 1-P2 is reverse biased.
Hence, the triac initially starts conducting through P 1N1P2N3 layers. As a result the potential of layer between P 2-
N3 rises towards the potential of MT 2. Thus, a potential gradient exists across thelayer P 2 with left hand region ata
higher potential than the right hand region. This results in a current flow in P 2 layer from left to right, forward
biasing the P2N2 junction. Now the right hand portion P1-N1 - P2-N2 starts conducting. The deviceoperates in first
quadrant. When compared to Mode 1, triac with MT 2 positive and negative gate current is less sensitive and
therefore requires higher gate current for triggering.

MODE3:MT2 negative,Positivegate current(IIImodeof operation)

When MT2 is negative and gate is positive with respect to MT 1 junction P2N2 is forward biased and junction P1-
N1 is reverse biased. N2 layer injects electrons into P2 layer as shown by arrows in figure below. This causes an
increase in current flow through junction P 2-N1. Resulting in breakdown of reverse biased junction N 1-P1. Nowthe
device conducts through layers P2N1P1N4 and the current starts increasing, which is limited by an externalload.

MT2()

N4

P1N1
P2

N2

G (+) MT1(+)

Ig

Thedeviceoperatesinthirdquadrantinthismode.Triacinthismodeislesssensitiveandrequireshighergate current for

triggering.

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MODE4:MT2negative,Negativegatecurrent (IIImodeofoperation)

MT2()

N4
P1N1

P2
N3

G (+) MT1(+)

Ig

In this mode both MT2 and gate G are negative with respect to MT 1, the gate current flows through P2N3 junction
as shown in figure above. Layer N3 injects electrons as shown by arrows into P2 layer. These results in increase in
current flow across P1N1 and the device will turn ON due to increased current in layer N 1. The current flows
through layers P2N1P1N4. Triac is more sensitive in this mode compared to turn ON with positive gate current.
(Mode 3).

Triac sensitivity is greatest in the first quadrant when turned ON with positive gate current and also in third
quadrant when turned ON with negative gate current. When MT2is positive with respect to MT1it is recommended

to turn on the triac by a positive gate current. When MT2is negative with respect toMT1it is recommended to turn
on the triac by negative gate current. Therefore Mode 1 and Mode 4 are the preferred modes of operation of a triac (
Imode andIIImode of operation are normally used).

TRIACCHARACTERISTICS
Figure below shows the circuit to obtain the characteristics of a triac. To obtain the characteristics in the third
quadrant the supply to gate and betweenMT2and MT1 are reversed.

RL I+
-
A
MT2

Rg + +
+ -G
A MT1 V Vs
-
+ -
V gg
-

Figure below shows the V-I Characteristics of a triac. Triac is a bidirectional switching
device. Hence its characteristics are identical in the first and third quadrant. When gate
current is increased the break over voltage decreases.

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VB01,VB01
- Breakovervoltages
MT2(+)
G(+) Ig2 > Ig21

Ig2
I I
g1
VB02
V
V VB01

MT2()
G()

Fig.:TriacCharacteristic

Triaciswidelyusedtocontrolthespeedofsingle-phaseinductionmotors.Itisalsousedindomesticlamp dimmers and heat

control circuits, and full wave AC voltage controllers.

IGBT-Structure,Operation&Characteristics

12. EXPLAINTHECONSTRUCTION,OPERATION&STATICCHARACTERISTICSOFINSULATED GATE

BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR (IGBT). (NOV/DEC-2012) (May/June2016) (May 2017) (Nov/Dec 2018 R-13)

IGBT isa voltage-controlled device.Ithas highinputimpedancelikeaMOSFETandlowon-stateconduction losses

like a BJT.

Figurebelowshowsthebasicsiliconcross-sectionofanIGBT.ItsconstructionissameaspowerMOSFET except
that n layer at the drain in a power MOSFET is replaced by P+ substrate called collector.
+

Collector

p C
nBufferlayer nepi
p
nn
G

E
Gate
Gate

Emitter

Structure Symbol
Fig.:Insulated GateBipolar Transistor
IGBT has three terminals gate (G), collector (C) and emitter (E). With collector and gate voltage positive with
respect to emitter the device is in forward blocking mode. When gate to emitter voltage becomes greater than the
threshold voltage of IGBT, a n-channel is formed in the P-region. Now device is in forward conducting state. Inthis
state psubstrate injects holes into the epitaxial n layer. Increase in collector to emitter voltage will result in
increase of injected hole concentration and finally a forward current is established.

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CHARACTERISTICOFIGBT m
Figure below shows circuit diagram to obtain the characteristic of an IGBT. An output characteristic is a plot
ofcollectorcurrentICversus collector to emitter voltage VCEfor given values of gate toemitter voltageVGE.

IC
RC

RS G VCC
VCE

VG RGE VGE
E

Fig.:CircuitDiagramtoObtainCharacteristics
IC
VGE4

VGE3 VGE4>VGE3>VGE2>VGE1

VGE2

VGE1

VCE

Fig. OutputCharacteristics

A plotof collectorcurrentICversusgate-emittervoltageVGEforagivenvalueof VCEgivesthetransfer

characteristic. Figure below shows the transfer characteristic.

Note

Controlling parameter is the gate-emitter voltageVGEinIGBT.If VGEislessthanthethresholdvoltage VTthen IGBT

isin OFF state. IfVGEisgreaterthanthethresholdvoltage VTthen the IGBT is in ON state.

IGBTsareusedinmediumpowerapplicationssuchasacanddcmotordrives,powersuppliesandsolidstate relays.
IC

VGE
VT

Fig.TransferCharacteristic

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SolvedProblems: m

Stability factor S <3,𝖰=𝟓𝟎,𝑽𝑩𝑬=𝟎.𝟕𝑽,𝑽𝑪𝑪=𝟐𝟐.𝟓 𝑽 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹𝒄=𝟓.𝟔 𝑲Ω.

1. DesignavoltagedividerbiascircuitfortransistortoestablishthequiescentpointVCE=12v,Ic= 1.5mA,

(May2017)(Nov/Dec 2017)

𝛽=50, 𝑉𝐵𝐸=0.7𝑉, 𝑉𝐶𝐶=22.5𝑉, 𝑅𝐶=5.6𝑘𝛺, 𝑉𝐶𝐸=12𝑉, 𝐼𝐶=1.5𝑚𝐴, 𝑆≤3

𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒(𝑅𝐸)

𝑉𝐶𝐸=𝑉𝐶𝐶−𝐼𝐶(𝑅𝐶+𝑅𝐸)

12=22.5 −(1.5 × 10−3)(5.6×103+𝑅𝐸)=14.1−1.5 ×10−3𝑅𝐸

𝑅𝐸=1.4
×103𝛺=1.4𝑘𝛺

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑅1𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑅
2

50 + = 51
1
Stabilityfactor(s)
𝛽+ 1
3= = 1.4×103 70 ×103
𝑅𝐸
1+𝛽(𝑅 𝑡 + 𝐸) 1+ 50× 1+ +1.4×103
𝑡 +1.4×10 𝑅𝑡
3
ℎ 𝑅 ℎ ℎ
�
(𝑅𝑡ℎ+1.4× 103)+70×103
3[ ]=51
𝑅𝑡ℎ+1.4×103

3[(𝑅𝑡ℎ+1.4×103)]+(70×103)=51(𝑅𝑡ℎ+1.4×103)

48[𝑅𝑡ℎ+(1.4×103)]=210×103
(210×103)
𝑅𝑡ℎ +1.4×103= = 4375
48
𝑅𝑡ℎ=4375−1.4× 103;𝑅𝑡ℎ=2975𝛺;𝑅𝑡ℎ=2.98𝑘𝛺

Forgoodvoltagedivider thevalueof resistor

𝑅2=0.1𝛽.𝑅𝐸=0.1×50×(1.4 ×103)=7×103𝛺=7𝑘𝛺
Thevenin’sResistance(𝑅𝑡ℎ)
𝑅1.𝑅2 7𝑅1
2.98=𝑅1⃦𝑅2= =
𝑅 +𝑅 𝑅1+ 7
1 2

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2.98(𝑅1+7)=7𝑅1; 4.02𝑅
m1=20.86
EnggTree.co

20.86
𝑅1= =5.2𝑘𝛺
4.02

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2. ForannchannelsiliconFETwitha=3*10-4cmandN
m D=1015electronics/cm3find(a)thepinchoff voltage
and (b) the channel half width for VGS= ½ VP and ID= 0. (May / Jun 2016)

Solution:

Therelativedielectricconstantofsiliconisgivenintable5-1as12,andhence𝜖=12𝜖0.Usingthevalue of 𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝜖0from appendixes A and B, we have from Eq expressed in mks units,
1.60×10−19×1021×(3×10−6)2
𝑉𝑃= =6.8𝑉
2×12×(36𝜋×109)−1

b.Solution Eqforb,weobtainfor VGS=½VP

1/2 1
𝑉𝐺𝑆 12
𝑏=𝑎[1−( ) (
]= 3×1−4) [1−( ) ]=0.87×10−4𝑐𝑚
𝑉𝑃 2

HencethechannelwidthhasbeenreducedtoaboutonethirditsvalueforVGS=0

3. DeterminethebasecurrentfortheCBtransistorcircuitifIC =80mAand𝖰=170.(Nov/Dev 2016)

Given

𝛽=17𝐼0. 𝐼
IC=80mA

𝛽=𝑐= =𝑐=
−3 −3
80×10 80 ×10
=170∴𝐼 =0.4706mA
𝐼𝐵 𝐼𝐵 𝐵 𝛽 170

4. Drawthetwo-transistorequivalentcircuitofSCR?(May2017)

5. Atransistorhasatypical𝖰=100.Ifthecollectorcurrentis40mA.Whatisthevalueofemitter current? (May

𝛽=100 𝛽=
𝐼𝑐
2017)
Given: IC=40mA
𝐼𝐵
∴𝐼=
𝐼𝑐 −3
=40 ×10
𝐵
=0.0004A
𝛽 100

IE= IB+IC IE=0.0004+40×10−3=0.0404A

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6. Ifthecollectorcurrentis2mAandthebasecurrentis25µA,whatistheemitter current?
m
Solution: IC =2mA, IB=25µA,
IE=IB+IC =2mA+25µA ⸫IE=2.025mA

7. Calculate ICand IEfor a transistor that has 𝑎 =𝟎.𝟗𝟗 𝒂𝒏𝒅𝑰𝑩=𝟏𝟓𝟎𝝁𝑨.Determine the value of𝖰𝒅𝒄for the

𝛽=
𝛼
=99
=
transistor? (Nov / Dec 2015)
0.99
𝐼𝐶 1−𝛼 1−099
Solution:

𝛽= ;𝐼=𝛽×𝐼=99 × 150 𝜇𝐴=14𝑚𝐴

𝐼𝐵
𝐶 𝐵

𝐼𝐶
𝛼= ;𝐼 𝐼𝑐 14 =14.14𝑚𝐴
= =
𝐼𝐸 𝐸 𝛼 0.99

8. A germanium transistor is to beoperated at zero signal I C = 1mA.If the collector supply

voltageVCC = 12V, what is the value of RB in the base resistor method? Assume β = 100. If
anothertransistor of same batch with β = 50 is used, what will be new value of zero signal I Cfor
sameRB? Comment on the results. (Nov/Dec 2018-R17)(13 Marks)
Solution:

Comment: It is clear from the above example that with the change in transistor parameter β,the
zero-signal collector current has changed from 1mA to 0.5 mA. Therefore, the base resistor
method cannot provide stabilization.

9. The intrinsic stand-off ratio for a UJT is 0.6. If the inter base resistance is 10KΩ, what are
thevalue of RB1and RB2? (Nov/Dec 2018-R17) (4 Marks)

41

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10. When VGSof a JFET changes from -3.1m V to -3 V, the drain current changed from 1 mA to
1.3mA. Find the value of transconductance. (Nov/Dec 2018-R17) (2 Marks)

Solution:
(1.3−1)×10−3
𝑔𝑚 = (3.1−3) =3 𝑚𝐴/𝑉
∆𝐼𝐷
∆𝑉𝐺𝑆
=
11. Find the Q point ofthe transistor shown below. Also draw the DC load line. Give β =
100andVBE= 0.7V. (Nov/Dec 2018-R17) (15 Marks)

42

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12. In a self-bias n-channel JFET, the operating
m point is to be set at I D = 1.5mA and VDS =10V. The
parameters are IDSS = 5mA and VGS (off) = -2V. Find the values of R S and RD if VDD = 20V.

(Nov/Dec 2018-R17) (9 Marks)

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 EnggTree.co
m
EC8353-ELECTRONICDEVICESAND CIRCUITS

UNIT-IIIAMPLIFIERS

PART-A
BJTSmallSignal Model

1. WhichistheBJTconfigurationissuitableforimpedancematchingapplicationandwhy?
CCconfigurationissuitableforimpedancematching applicationbecauseofveryhighinputimpedanceandlow output
impedance.

2. Drawthehybridsmallsignalmodelof BJTdevice.(MAY/JUNE2016)

.
3. WhatarethetoolsusedforsmallsignalanalysisofBJT?
 h–Parametercircuitmodel.
 z–Parametercircuitmodel.
 y–Parametercircuitmodel.
 Trans-conductanceparametercircuitmodel.
 Physicalmodel
 T-model

4. Whatarethestepsusedforsmallsignal analysisofBJT?
 Drawtheactualcircuitdiagram
 Replacecouplingcapacitorsandemitterbypasscapacitorbyshortcircuit.
 Replacedcsourcebyashort circuit.Inother words, shortVCCandground lines.

5. State the phase relationship between input / output currents and phase relationship between the input /
output voltages of various transistors configurations. (Nov/Dec 2018)
Forall thetransistorconfigurations,input andoutputcurrentsareinphase.
The input and output voltages of both CB and CC configuration are in phase. But in common-emitter amplifier the
input and output voltages are 1800 out of phase.

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6. m
DrawthelowfrequencyhybridmodelofBJTincommonemitterconfiguration.

Vb=hieIb+hreVcIc=
hfeIb+ hoeVc

CE,CB,CCAmplifiers-Gainandfrequencyresponse

7. DrawthehybridsmallsignalmodelofCBconfiguration?(Apr/May2018)

8. Whyemitterisalwaysforwardbiasedandcollectorisalwaysreversebiasedwithrespecttobase?
To supply majority charge carrier to base and to remove the charge carriers away from the collector-base
junction.
9. WhyCEconfigurationismostpopularinamplifiercircuits?
Becauseit’scurrent,voltageandpowergainarequitehighandtheratioofoutputimpedanceandinputimpedance are quite
moderate.

10. Givethevoltagegain forCE configurationincludingsourceresistance.

Avs=Aix RL/RS+Ri
=(-hfe/ 1+ hoeRL)xRL/ (RS+Ri)

11. Definethehie andhfeforacommon emittertransistorconfiguration.

Fromtheh–parameterequivalentcircuitofthecommonemitterconfiguration. H ie = Δ
VBE/ Δ IB| VCE constant
Hfe=Δ IC/ΔIB|VCEconstant

12. Givethecurrentgainexpressionforacommonemittertransistorconfiguration.
Currentgainforcommonemitterconfiguration: Ai
= - IC/ Ib= - hfe/ 1 + hoeRL

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13. Whatistrans-conductance?Giveitsexpression forMOSFET.(Nov/Dec2017)

The trans-conductance is a ratio of output current to input voltage and hence it represents the gain of the
MOSFET.
TranconductanceexpressionforMOSFET
gm= 2 √ (KIDQ)
IDQ=K(VGSQ–VT)2

14. StatethevaluesofCgdand Cgsinvariousoperatingregionsof MOSFET.

ValuesofgatecapacitancesinTriodeRegion:
Cgs=Cgd= (WL Cox) ½
ValuesofgatecapacitancesinSaturationRegion:
Cgs= (WL Cox) 2/3
Cgd=0
ValuesofgatecapacitancesinCut-offRegion: Cgs
=Cgd=0
Cgd=WLCox
Cox–GateCapacitance.

15. Listvariousgatecapacitances inMOSFET.

TherearethreegatecapacitancesinMOSFET: Cgs
– gate source capacitance,
Cgd–gatedrainCapacitance,and
Cgb - gate body Capacitance.

CSandSourcefollower

16. ExplaintheeffectofsourceresistoronCSMOSFETamplifier.
ThesourceresistorisintroducedtostabilizetheQ–pointagainstvariationsintheMOSFETparameters.InBJTcircuits, a source
resistor reduces the small gain.

17. Whatissourcefollower?(Apr/May2018)
Acommon-drainamplifier,alsoknownasasourcefollower,isoneofthreebasicsingle-stagefieldeffecttransistor (FET)
amplifier topologies, typically used as a voltagebuffer.

Gainandfrequencyresponse

18. Whatisthesignificanceofoctavesanddecadesin frequencyresponse?

 OctavesandDecadesarethemeasureofchangeinfrequency.
 Ten times change in frequency is called a Decade. On the other hand, an Octave correspondstoa
doubling of the frequency.
 For example, an increasein frequency from 100Hz to 200Hz is an octave. Likewise, a decrease
infrequency from 100Hz to 50Hz is also an octave.
 Ifthe frequency is reduced to onehundredth of fc (from fcto 0.01fc), the dropin the voltage gain is –
40dB. In each decade the voltage gain drops by – 20 db.

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19. Drawgeneralfrequencyresponsecurve(oEr)nhgaglf-Tp roew ee r.cf roe qmu e n c i e s ofanamplifier.

 Intheabovediagramthefrequencyf2liesinhighfrequencyregion,whilethefrequencyf1liesinlowfrequencyregion.
 These two frequencies are also referred to as half power half – power frequencies since gain or output voltage drops
to70.7%ofmaximumvalueandthisrepresentsapower levelofonehalfthepoweratthereferencefrequencyinmid –
frequency region.

AdditionalQuestions
20. Whatistherelationbetweenαandβ ofthetransistor?
α=𝛽
𝛽+1

21. Whymustthebasebenarrowforthetransistoraction?
β is the ratio of IC to IB. IB becomes less if the base width is narrow. Higher value of β can be obtainedwithlowervalue
of base current.

22. Whatareemitterefficiencyandbasetransportfactorofatransistor?
Theratioofcurrentofinjectedcarriersatemitter junctiontothetotalemittercurrentiscalledtheemitterinjectionefficiency. Transport
Factor, β= IC / IB

23. Whatistherelationbetweenthecurrentof atransistor?

IE=IB+IC

24. Howmanyh-parametersarethereforatransistor?
 hr–reversevoltage gain
 ho–outputadmittance.
 hi,-inputimpedance
 hf-forwardcurrent gain

25. Whyh-parametersare calledhybridparameters?

Becausetheyhavedifferentunits aremixedwithother parameters.

26. Whataretheadvantagesoftheh-parameters?(Apr/May2011)
(1) Realnumbersuptoradiofrequencies
(2) Easytomeasure
(3) Determinedfromtransistorstaticcharacteristicscurve
(4) Convenienttouseinthecircuitanalysisanddesign
(5) Easilyconvertiblefromoneconfigurationtoother

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27. Drawthehybrid modelforatransistor.(NEonvg/DgeTcr2e0e1.2c)om

28. Whatareh-parameters? Definethefourh-parameters.

One of a set of four transistor equivalent circuit parameters that conveniently specify transistor performance for
small voltage and current in a particular circuit also known as hybrid parameter.

Inputresistancewith outputshort–circuited,inΩ.
h11=Vi/Ii |Vo= 0
Fraction of output voltage at input with input open circuited. This parameter is ratio of similar quantities,
hence unitless.
h12=Vi/ Vo|Ii= 0
Forwardcurrenttransferratioorcurrentgainwithoutputshortcircuited.
h21= Io/Ii|Vo= 0
Thisparameterisaratioofsimilarquantities,henceunitless.Outputadmittancewithinputopen–circuited, in
mhos.
h22=Io/ Vo|Ii= 0

29. StateMiller’stheorem. (Nov/Dec2016)

Miller’s theorem states that, if Z is the impedance connected between two nodes node 1 and node 2, it can be
replacedbytwoseparateimpedanceZ1andZ2;whereZ1isconnectedbetweennode-1andground,andnodeZ2
isconnectedbetweennode-2andground.
TheVi and Voarethevoltages at thenode – 1 and node – 2 respectively, ThevaluesofZ 1 an d Z2 can be
derived from the ratio of Vo and Vi, denoted as K. Thus it is not necessary to know the values of Viand Vo to
calculate the values of Z1and Z2
ThevaluesofimpedanceZ1and Z2
Z1=Z/ (1-K); Z2=Z x K/(K– 1)

30. Whatdoyoumean byfaithfulamplification?

Duringtheprocessofraisingthestrengthoftheinputsignaliftheshapeoftheoutputvoltageisexactlysameas that of the input
signal, the amplification is called faithful amplification.

31. Definethevarioush-parametersforacommonemittertransistor.
Fromtheh–parameterequivalentcircuitofthecommonemitterconfiguration. Vbe=
hie Ib+ hreVce
ΔVBE
Ic=hfeIb+hoeVce

ΔIB
Where,hie= |VCEconstant
ΔVBE

Δ VCE
h= |IBconstant
ΔIC
re

ΔIB
hfe= |VCEconstant
ΔIC
hoe= |IBconstant
ΔVC

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32. Statetheadvantagesofusingh-paramete ErsnfogrgaTnraelyez.icnogmtransistoramplifiers.
i.) Realnumbersataudiofrequencies
ii.) Easytomeasure
iii.) Canbeobtainedfrom thetransistorstaticcharacteristics curves,
iv.) Convenienttouseincircuitanalysis anddesign,
v.) Mostofthetransistormanufacturers specifytheh– parameters.

33. Whatisbandwidthofanamplifier.
Thebandwidth ofan amplifier is defined as the difference between the lower cut - off frequency and upper cut
off frequency.
BW=f2– f1

34. Statetheeffectofcouplingandbypasscapacitorsonthefrequencyresponseof amplifier.

Reactanceofacapacitor isgivenbyXc =1 /2πfc. Atmediumand highfrequencies,thefactor
fmakesXcverysmall,sothatallcouplingcapacitorsbehaveasshortcircuits.Atlowfrequencies,X cincreases.Thisincreas
e in Xc drops the signal voltage across the capacitor and reduces the circuit gain. As signal frequencies decrease,
the capacitor reactance’s increase and circuit gain continues to fall, reducing the output voltage.

35. Statetheeffectofinternaltransistorcapacitanceonthefrequencyresponseofamplifier.
At high frequencies, the reactance of the junction capacitance are low. As frequency increases, the reactance of
junction capacitances fall. When these reactance become small enough, they provide shunting effect as they are
in parallel with junctions. This reduces the circuit gain and hence the output voltage.

36. Give the expression for roof NMOS

transistor.ro=(∂iD/∂vDS)-
1
│vGS=VGSQ=const. ro= [λ K [(vGSQ –
VT)2]-1≈ [λ IDQ]-1

37. Drawthesmallsignalequivalentcircuit ofCSJFET(Nov/Dec2015).

38. WhatisGatecapacitanceinMOSFET.
Gate capacitance is a parallel – plate capacitance formed by a gate electrode with the channel, with the oxide
layer acts as a capacitor dielectric. It is denoted as Cox.
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39. Drawthesmall signalequivalentcircuitoEfPnMggOTSretrea.ncsoismtor.

40. Explaintheloading effect.

Thesmallsignaloverallvoltagegain is,
Gv=vo/vs=-gm(ro║RD)(Ri/ Ri+Rsi)=Av(Ri/ Ri+ Rsi)
SinceRsiisnotzero,theamplifierinputsignalviislessthanthesignalvoltage,Thisisknownasloadingeffect. It reduces
the voltage gain of the amplifier.

41. Whatdoyoumeanbydrain diffusionandsourcediffusion capacitance?

Drain and Source capacitances are due to the reverse – biased pn junctions formed by the n + source region and
the p – type substrate, and the n + drain region and the p- type substrate. These are denoted as source diffusion
capacitance and drain diffusion capacitance respectively.

42. Givetheexpressionofunitygainfrequency(fT)forMOSFET amplifier?

UnitygainfrequencyforMOSFET: fT
=gm/ 2π (Cgs+ Cgd)
FromtheaboveexpressionwecansaythatfT isproportionaltogmandinverselyproportionaltothe internal
capacitances.

43. Comparedifferentamplifiers.
 LargeVoltagegain
COMMONSOURCE Goodvoltageamplifierandbettertrans  Highinputresistance
AMPLIFIER conductance amplifier  Highoutputresistance
 Voltagegain≈1
COMMONDRAIN Goodvoltagebuffer  Highinputresistance
AMPLIFIER
 Lowinputresistance
 CurrentGain≈1
COMMONGATE Goodcurrent buffer  Lowinputresistance
AMPLIFIERS
 Highoutputresistance
44. Whatistheneed ofcouplingcapacitorsin amplifierdesign?(Aril/May 2019)(Nov/Dec2015)
CouplingcapacitorsisolatestheDCconditionofonestagefromthefollowingstages. It is
used to couple output of one stage to another stage.

45. Differentiatebetweenpowertransistorandsignaltransistor.(May/Jun2016)
S.No Powertransistor Smallsignal transistor
1 n-1 driftlayerispresent 110n-1drift layer
2 Secondarybreakdownoccurs Nosecondary breakdown
3 Usedinpower circuits Usedinamplifyingcircuits

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 EnggTPrAeRe.Tc-oBm

BJTSmallsignal Model-AnalysisofCE,CB,CCamplifiers

1. Draw the small signal model of BJT device (OR) Draw the parameters equivalent circuit or small
signal model of a transistor in CE, CB, CC configuration? (Apr/May 2018). (OR)
Drawthehybridmodelof BJT in CE,CCandCB configuration.

ThevariableIb,Ic,Vb,andVcrepresent totalinstantaneouscurrentandvoltage.
h–ParametermodelforCE,CCand CB configuration

Ib−Input current;Ic−Outputcurrent;Vbe−Inputvoltage;Vce−Outputvoltage

CEConfiguration

h–Parameterequivalent circuit

Vbe=hieIb+hreVce ---(1)

Ic=hfeIb+hoeVce ---(2)
h = ⃒V
∆VBE
Where, − constant- - -(3)
ie ∆IB CE
h = ⃒I−constant---------(4)
∆VBE

re ∆V B

h = ⃒V − constant- -(5)
∆Ic CE

fe ∆I CE

h = ⃒I−constant----------(6)
∆IcB

oe ∆VC B

hie−Inputresistance;
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 hre− Reverse voltage
gain;
EnggTree.com
hfe−Forwardtransfergai
n; hoe− Output
admittance

Relationshipbetweenh-parametersofdifferenttransistorconfiguration:

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 2. (A)DerivetheexpressionsforcurrEe nntgggaTinre( eI A ), v ),inputresistance (R)and
.c o molt
agegain(A V i
outputresistance(RO)forCEamplifierusingh–parametermodel.(April/May2015&18)(Nov/Dec’ 2014& 16)
Illustrate the steps involved in analyzing a BJT amplifier circuit using small signal model.
(April/May 2019) (5 Marks)

Circuit diagram

h–Parameter model

Currentgain[AI]AI
= Ib
IL

IC= hfeIb+ hoeVc;IC= hfeIb+ hoe(−IcRL);

{since,Vc=−IcRL} IC+ hoeRLIc= hfeIb;IC(1 + hoeRL) = hfeIb

IC hfe
=
Ib 1+hoeRL
−IC=− hfe
AI= Ib 1+hoeRL
Vb
𝐈𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞(Ri)R
i=
Ib

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Vb= hieIb+hreVC
VC=−ICRL;VC=AIIbRL

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Now R=Vb=hieIb+(AIIbRL)=h +EhngAg RTree.com
i ie reIL
Ib Ib

Substituting,AI −h𝐹e
=
totheaboveequation
1+hoeR
L
−hfe
Ri= hie+ hre(
)×RL
1 + hoeRL
hrehfeRL
Ri=hie−1+h
R
oeL
Voltagegain(𝐀)A
= c= I b L⸫ b=
V AI R I 1

AIRL
AV=
Ri
𝐕 V Vb Vb Vb Ri
Outputadmittance(𝐘)Y= with V=0
Ic

𝐨 o Vc s
Ic=hfeIb+hoeVc
Ic hfeIb+hoeVc
(dividethis equation byVC)

=
Vc Vc
hfeIb
Yo= Vc +hoe

From h parameter circuit

with 𝐕𝐬= 𝟎 RsIb+ hieIb+ hreVc=0
(ApplyKVL)

(Rs+ hie)Ib= −hreVc

Ib −hre
Vc= Rs+hie−hre
Ib=
Substitute, 𝑖𝑛Y h𝐹eIb

= +hoe
V R+h
o V
Ic −hre
c s ie c

Y= =h ( )+h
o
Vc feR +h
s ie
oe

𝑌=h −h𝐹ehre Ro =1
o oe
Rs+hie 𝑌o
and

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(B)DrawthecircuitofCEamplifierwEi t hn gDgCTsroeuer c. ce so eml i m i n a t e d anddeducethesmallsignalmo
delfor amplifieroperation.(April/May2019)(8Marks)(OR)ApproximateanalysisofCEamplifierusing
simplified Hybrid Model.

AnalysisofCEAmplifierusingsimplifiedHybridModel:

Fig.SimplifiedCEmodel

Fig.ApproximateCEmodel

Currentgain[AI]AI
= Ib
IL

−IC
AI= I =−hfe
Vb
b

𝐈𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞(Ri)Ri=
Ib
Ri=hie
Voltagegain(𝐀)A
= c= ⸫ b=
V AIIbRL I 1
V Vb Vb Vb Ri
𝐕
AIRL
AV=R
i
Outputadmittance(𝐘𝐨)Yo=0
Ro=1/Y=∞

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 3. (A)DerivetheexpressionsforcurrEenntgggaTinr,eveo.lctaogmegain,inputimpedanceandoutp
utimpedance for an Emitter Follower (common collector) circuit.
Circuitdiagram

hparameterequivalent circuit

Currentgain(A) A= IL=−Ie
I I Ib Ib

Ie=hfcIb+ hocVe =hfcIb+hoc(−IeRL) (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒,Ve=−IeRL)

Apply KCL

I+IRh =hI;I(1+h R)=h

I hfc
I; e=
e
eLoc fcbe ocL
Ib
fcb
1+ hocRL
I −IL −hfc
e = =
Ai= Ib
I 1+hocRL
Vb
𝐈𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞(𝐑𝐢)Ri=
b

Ib

Vb=hicIb+hrcVe(Ve=−IeRL)
Apply KVL

{AI= }
−Ie
Ve=AIIbRL
Ib
Now

R= R=h +hAR
hicIb+hre(AIIbRL)
reI L
;
i
i
hR ic −h𝐹c
Ib

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Ri=hic−hrc( 𝐹cL ) {AI= }
1+hocRL 1+hocRL

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Voltagegain(AV)AV=
Ve

{∵Ve=−IeRL;Ie=AIIb; Vb=IbR𝑖}
EnggTree.com
Vb

AV= {∵ b= }
I 1
AIIbR AIIbRL
L IbR𝑖 Vb Ri
⥤
Vb
AV= AIR
LR
𝑖
Outputadmittance(𝐘)Y= withV=0
I2

𝟎 0 V2 s
I
e withVs=0
𝑌𝑂=
V
e

Ie=hfcIb+hocVe
Ie hfcIb
Dividingtheaboveequationby = +hoc −−−(1)
Ve, Ve Ve

FromcircuitVs=0

RSIb +hic Ib+hrc Ve=0

Apply KVL

(RS + hic)Ib= −hrcVe

Ib −hrc
= −−−(2)
Ve Rs+hic
Subequation(2)in(1)
Ie −h
=h( rc )+h
Ve Rs+hic
fc oc

Ie hfchrc 1
yo= =hoc−
Ve Rs 𝑎𝑛𝑑Ro=
+hic y o

(B) Draw the circuit of CC amplifier with DC sources eliminated and deduce the small signal model
for amplifier operation. (April/May 2019) (8 Marks)(OR) Approximate analysis of CC amplifier
using simplified Hybrid Model.

In simplified CE model, the input is applied to base and output is taken from collector, and emitter is
common between input and output. The same simplified model can be modified to get simplified CC
model.
ForsimplifiedCCmodel,makecollectorcommonandtakeoutput fromemitter.

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ThehfbIbcurrentdirectionisnowexactlyo pEpno gs i gt e Tt hr ea teo. fc Co Emm o d e l becausethecurrenthfcIbalwayspoint
s towards emitter.
Currentgain (A)A=IL=−Ie
I Ib Ib
Ai=1+hfe
I

Vb
𝐈𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞(𝐑𝐢)Ri=
Ib

Vb=hieIb+IORL; (dividebothsidesbyIb)
Apply KVL

{A= = }
−Ie −I𝑂

I Ib Ib

R= =h
Vb
+(1+Ih)R;
Now

ie Ofe L
i Ib
Voltagegain(A)A
=
Ve
V V Vb
{∵ b= }
I 1
AIIRL AIIRL
AV=
b
b
Vb
⥤ IbR𝑖 Vb Ri

AIR
AV= LR
𝑖
SubstitutingvaluesofAandR𝑤𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑡,A =
AIIbRL AIIbRL
𝐼 i V
⥤
Vb IbR𝑖
Outputadmittance(𝐘)Y = withV =0
I2

s
𝟎 0
I
V2

𝑌𝑂= withVs=0
e

V
e

Ie=hfcIb+hocVe
Ie hfcIb
Dividingtheaboveequationby = +hoc −−−(1)
Ve, Ve Ve

FromcircuitVs=0

RSIb +hic Ib+hrc Ve=0

Apply KVL

(RS + hic)Ib= −hrcVe

Ib −hrc
= −−−(2)
Ve Rs+hic
Subequation(2)in(1)
Ie −h
=h( rc )+h
Ve fc
Rs+hic oc
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 Ie hfchrc 1
yo= =hoc−
Ve Rs 𝑎𝑛𝑑Ro=
+hic y o

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 4. Derivetheexpressionfor𝐀𝐢,𝐀𝐯,𝐑 𝐚 𝐧 𝐝 𝐑 𝐟 𝐨 𝐫 𝐂 𝐁 a m p l i f i e r usinghparametermodel.
E n g g Tr e e .c o m
𝐜 𝐨
(April/May

2016)

Circuitdiagram

hparameter model

Currentgain(𝐀)A=IL=−Ic
𝐈 I Ie Ie

Ic=hfbIe+hobVc
hfbIe+hob(−IcRL) ∴Vc=−IcRL
Ic+ hobIcRL=
hfbIe(1+hobRL)Ic=
hfbIe
I hfb −I hfb
=− L =−
1+hobRL 1+hobRL
c
AI=
I Ve Ie
⥤

𝐈𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐑𝐢Ri=
e

Ie
Ve=hibIe+hrbVcV
c= −RLIc
=AIIeRL
V hibIe+hrbAIIeRL
e =
Ri= Ie
Ie
Ri=hib+ hrbAIRL
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Voltagegain(𝐀)A = c=
V AIIeRL
V Ve Ve
𝐕

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 AIRL
= Ie 1EnggTree.com
⃒ =
Rc Ve Ri
Outputadmittance(𝐘)Y= with V=0
Ic

𝟎 0 Vc s

Ic=hfbIe+hobVc
Ic hfbIe
÷V = +h − −−(1)
c
Vc Vc ob

WhenVs=0
RsIe +hibIe+hrbVc=0
(Rs+ hib) Ie= −hrbVc
Ie hrb
=− −− − (2)
Vc Rs+hib

Ic −hrb
Sub (2)in (1)
=h ( )+h
Vc Rs+hib
fb ob

Ic hfb.hrb
y0= =hob−
Vc Rs +hib
1
Ro=
y0

5. ExplainthefrequencyresponseoperationofBJTamplifierwithsuitablecircuit diagram.
Fromthefig9.1,thecapacitorsCS,CC andCEwilldeterminethelow-frequency response.
Csisnormallyconnectedbetweentheappliedsourceandactivedevice.Infig9.2ThetotalresistanceisnowRS
1
+Ri ,thecutofffrequencyisestablished as
fLS=
2𝑀(𝑅𝑆+𝑅𝑖)𝐶𝑆

FigLoadedBJTamplifierwithcapacitorsthataffectthelow-frequencyresponse

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FigDeterminingtheeffectofCsonthelowfrequencyresponse

Atmidorhighfrequency,thereactanceofthecapacitorwillbesmalltopermitshortcircuitapproximationfor the
element. the voltage Vi related to VSby
Vi|mid 𝑅𝑖𝑉 𝑆
= 𝑅𝑖+𝑅 𝑆

Thevalue ofRiisdetermined by Ri=R1║R2║βre

FigLocalizedacequivalentforCs
ThevoltageViapplied tothe input oftheactivedevicecanbe calculated using the voltagedivider rule: Vi
𝑅𝑖𝑉𝑆
𝑅𝑆+𝑅𝑖− 𝑗𝑋𝐶𝑠
=
Sincethecouplingcapacitoris normally connected
between the output of the active device and the
appliedload,theR-Cconfigurationthatdetermines the
low cutoff frequency due to CC.
1
Fromfig9.4thetotalseriesresistanceisnowR0+RLandthecutofffrequencyisdetermined by,

2𝑀(𝑅0+𝑅𝐿)𝐶𝐶
fLC=
Theresulting valueforR0,R0=RC║r0

1
TodeterminefLE, CEmustbedetermined from

2𝑀𝑅𝑒𝐶𝐸
fLE=

Figdetermining theeffectof Cc onthelow freq

ThevalueofReisdeterminedbyRe=RE║(𝑅𝑆′+𝑟).whereRS'=RS║R1║R2
FigLocalized acequivalentforCcwithVi=0V

𝛽 𝑒
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Theeffectof CEon thegain isgivenby,

AV=-RC/ re+RE

ThemaximumgainisavailablewhereREis0Ω.Atlow frequency
with bypass capacitor CE in open circuit.

Asthefrequencyincreases,thereactanceofthecapacitor CE
will decrease, reducing the parallel impedance of REand
Fig.9.6LocalizedacequivalentofCE
CE until RE shorted out by CE.
Atthemidbandfrequencylevel,theShortcircuitequivalentsforthe capacitorscanbeinserted.The highestlow
frequency cutoff determined by CS, CCor CE.
Iftherearetwoormorehighcutofffrequencies,theeffectwillbetoraisethelowercutofffrequencyandreduce theresulting
bandwidth ofthesystem. thereis an interaction between thecapacitiveelements that can affect the resulting low
cutoff frequency.

6. DiscussthefactorsinvolvedintheselectionofIC,RCandREforasinglestagecommonemitterBJT amplifier
circuit, using voltage divider bias (Nov/Dec2015)
Itisalsocalledpotentialdividerbiasorself-bias.
Inall D.CbiasdiscussedintheabovesectionsclearlystatesthatthevaluesofD.Cbiascurrentsandvoltageofcollector
𝐼𝐶
dependsonthecurrentsgain𝛽(𝛽= ).Butweknowit
𝐼𝐵
ispurelyatemperaturesensitiveoneparticularlyinsilicontype.
Hencethenominalvalueof𝛽isnotwelldefined.
Soitisnot desirabletoprovideaD.Cbiascircuit whichisindependent ofthetransistorcurrent gain(𝛽).Thisisavoided by
potential or voltage divider bias shown in the

HereR1andR2formspotentialdividingRccollectorloadresisteranditsequivalentthevininscircuitsisasfollows;

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ThismethodiswidelyusedsinceitsprovidesasEtanblgegQT-proeinet.. com
InthismethodtworesistorsR1andR2connectedacrossthesupplyvoltageVccanditprovidebiasing.
Emitter resistance Re provides bias to BE junction. This causesthe base current and hence collector current flows in zero
signal condition.
ApplyingKVLlawtoBEjunctioncircuitwegetfig.

taking this value as a source voltage and RB= 𝑅1‖R2

VB isthevoltageacrossR2whichisgivenbyVB=VCC*(R2/(R1+R2)) Jut by

𝑅1𝑅2
𝑅𝐵=
𝑅1+ 𝑅2

Wecandrawthethevininsequivalentcircuitwhichisshowninfig Then
as per KVL law,
VB-IBRB-VBE-IERE=0
VB-IBRB-VBE-(IC+IB) RE= 0 (IE=IB+ IC)
VB=IBRB+VBE+(IC+IB)RE
ThenapplyKVLtooutput sideweget
VCC – ICRC– IERE– VCE = 0

ButIC=IEVCC – ICRC– ICRE– VCE = 0

VCC–IC(RC+RE)–VCE=0 IC
(RC+ RE) = VCC - VCE
IC=VCC-VCE/(RC+RE)
Also VCE=VCC-IC/(RC+RE)
ThenputIcintoVBwe get
VB=IBRB+VBE+RE[VCC-VCE/(RC+RE)+IB]
=IBRB+VBE+IBRE+[VCC-VCE/(RC+RE)]
VB=IB(RB+RE)+VBE+[VCC*VCE/(RC+RE)]-[VCE*RE/(RC+RE)]

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 Gainandfrequencyresponse EnggTree.co
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7. Explainthefrequencyresponseofanamplifierwithsuitablecharacteristics.
Theplotbetweenthegainoftheamplifierandfrequencyofthesignalisknownasfrequencyresponseof the
amplifier. The frequency covers a wide range from 0Hz to very high frequencies(> 100MHz).

Decibels: The decibel (dB) is a measure of the difference in magnitude between two power levels. The power

𝑃2 dB
gain in decibel is given by,

𝑃1
GdB=10log10
WhereP2=specifiedterminalpower; P1=reference power
IfthepowerP2isoutputpower(P0)andP1isinputpower(Pi)ofanamplifier.Thenthepower gain is given
𝑃0
by,

𝑃𝑖
GdB=10log10
𝑉0

𝑉𝑖
IfV0andViareoutput andinput voltageofanamplifierthenvoltagegain,GdB=20log10

Thefrequencyresponseisdividedintothreeregion1)Lowfrequencyregion2)Midfrequency region3)
High frequency region.

Fig:Frequencyresponseofanamplifier
1) Mid frequency region: The gain of the amplifier is maximum AVmidintersecting the frequency response at point
A and B. The corresponding frequencies f1ans f2are generally called corner, cutoff or half power frequencies.
Ifthemaximumvoltagegaininmid-bandisAVmid=V0/VithenthegainathalfpowerfrequenciesisAVmid/√2
The output power in mid-band is, Po(mid)= V 2/R
0 0= (AVmid Vi)2 /
R0Thepowerathalfpowerfrequencyis,Po(HPF)=V2/R0=(AVmidVi/√2)2/R0
=P0(mid)/ 2
2)
CutoffFrequency:Thefrequencyatwhichthevoltagegainisequalto0.707timesofitsmaximumvalueiscalled cutoff
frequency.
3) Bandwidth:Thebandwidthoftheamplifierisdefinedasthedifferencebetweenthetwohalfpowerfrequenciesf 1and f2
Bandwidth=f2–f1
Wheref1=thelowercutofffrequency
f2=theuppercutofffrequency
4)
Lowfrequencyregion:Inmidbandfrequenciesthecouplingandbypasscapacitorarereplacedbyshortcircuits.

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2𝑀𝑓𝐶
CapacitivereactanceXc=
m
AtLowfrequency,thecouplingandbypasscapacitorareincreased.Hencethevoltagegaindecreases.

5)
Highfrequencyregion:Heretheinternalcapacitanceacrossthejunctionaffectstheperformanceoftheamplifier. The
capacitance,Cb'e=feedback path from bias to emitter
Cce=feedbackpathfromcollectortoemitter
These capacitors divert the signal to ground.
Cb'c=feedbackpathfrombasetocollector This
provides a bypass path for the input ac signal.

MOSFET-SmallSignalModel

8. Drawandexplainthesmallsignalmodelof MOSFET.
Tooperateasansmallsignalamplifier,webiastheMOSFETinsaturationregion.

 TheDCbiasPoint
 Thesignalcurrentinthedrain
 Thevoltagegain

TheDCbias Point: ID- ½Kn'(W /L)(VGS–

VD≫VGS-Vt
VD=VDD- Vt)2IDRD

Therequiredsignal dependsonVD,whichissufficientlygreaterthan(VGS- Vt).

TheVoltageGain:
VD=VDD–IDRD

VD = VDD – (ID +

id)RDVD=VDD–IDRD -id

RD

Vd=-idRD=-gmvgsRDAv=

Inthesmallsignalanalysis,signalaresuperimposedontheDCquantities, The drain

current, iD = ID + id.
TheACdraincurrentidisrelatedtovgsissocalledtransistorTransconductance(gm).
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 gm≡id/vgs=½K '(W
E ng g T r e e.co m
n / L ) GS
( V – Vt)[ S]

Sometimesexpressedintermsoftheoverdrivevoltage,VOV=VGS–Vt gm=
Kn'(W /L) VOV [S]
Thisgmdependsonthebias.TheTransconductancegmequalstheslopeofiD-vgscharacteristic. Similarly
drain voltage, VD= VD + Vd

Insaturationmode,MOSFETactsavoltagecontrolledcurrentsource,ThecontrolvoltageV gsandoutputcurrent iD give

rise to small signalΠ-model.

ForOperationinthesaturationregion VGD≤Vt ==>VGS–VDS≤Vt

Wherethetotaldrain tosourcevoltageisVDS=VDS+vd

 ig=0andvgsinfiniteinput resistance

gm=Kn'(W/L)(VGS–Vt)
 r0modelsthefiniteoutputresistanceintherangefrom≈10KΩto1MΩ anddependsonbiascurrentID.

itcan be,gm= ID/ (VGS-Vt)/2

Similartogm=IC/VTforBJT.Hencethe biascurrent gmis muchlargerforthanfor MOSFET.

MOSFEThavetheseadvantages overBJT:
 Highinput resistance.
 Smallphysicalsize.
 Lowpower dissipation.
 Relativeeaseof fabrication.

Becomes amplifiers combines the advantages of BJT and MOSFET, They provide very large input
resistancefrom MOSFET and a large output impedance from the BJT.

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9. ExplainSmallsignalmodel ofPChannelEMnOgSgFTErTe.e.com

The above diagram shows the common source circuit with p-channel MOSFET and its A.C equivalent circuit.
TheA.Cequivalent circuitseenforn-channelMOSFETalsoapplies tothep-channel MOSFET;however,there
isachangeincurrentdirectionsandvoltagepolaritiescomparedtothecircuitcontainingthen-channelMOSFET. The
above diagram shows the small signal equivalent circuit of the p-channel MOSFET amplifier.

10. ExplaintheCommon–Source(CS)Configuration. (April/May2019) (Nov/Dec2017)

Thediagramshowsthecommonsourcecircuitwithvoltagedividerbiasingandcouplingcapacitor.TheMOSFETisbiased near the
middle of the saturation region by R1 and R2resistors to work as an amplifier.
Assume that,the signal frequency is sufficiently large for the coupling capacitor to act essentially as a short circuit. The
signal source is represented by a Thevenin equivalent circuit, in which the signal voltage source vs, is in series with an
equivalent source resistance Rsi.
HereRsishouldmemuchlessthantheamplifierinputresistance, Ri=
R1║ R2in order to minimize loading effects.
Thefollowingdiagramshowstheresultingsmall-signalequivalentcircuit.

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vo=-gmvgs(ro║RD) vi=
vgs
Av=vo/ vi=-gmvgs(ro║RD)/ vgs=-gm(ro║RD)
Theinputgatetosourcevoltageis vi=
(Ri/ Ri+ Rsi) vs
Sothesmallsignal overall voltagegain is,

Gv=vo/vs=-gm(ro║RD)(Ri/Ri+Rsi)=Av(Ri/Ri+Rsi)

SinceRsiisnotzero,theamplifierinputsignalviislessthanthesignalvoltage,Thisisknownasloadingeffect. It reduces
the voltage gain of the amplifier.
TheinputresistanceisRis=R1║R2Theou
tputresistanceisRo=RD║ro
WecanalsorelatetheA.CdraincurrenttotheA.Cdraintosourcevoltage,as Vds= -
Id(RD)

11. AnalysisofCommon –Drain (CD)orSourcefollowerAmplifier.(Nov/Dec2016)(May2017)

Theabovediagramshowsthecommon–drainamplifiercircuit.Itisalsoknownasgroundeddrainamplifier. In this
amplifier circuit, drain is used as a signal ground and hence RD is not needed.
TheinputsignaliscoupledtoviaCc1totheMOSFETgateandtheoutputsignalattheoutputsignalatthe MOSFET source is
coupled via Cc2 to a load resistance RL.
Since RL is in effect connected in series with the source terminal of the MOSFET, it is more convenient to use
the MOSFET’s T model for the analysis. This is shown in the following diagram.
Ri=RG
vi=vsxRi/(Ri+Rsi)=vsxRG/ (RG+ Rsi)
From the following diagram it can be seen that the load resistance RL is in parallel with ro and resistance 1/gm
in series with RL║ro.

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Theinputvoltageviappearsacrossthetotalresistanceandhenceby applyingthevoltagedividerrule,wehave vo= vix

(RL║ro) / ( 1/gm) + (RL║ro)
Av=vo/ vi=(RL║ro) /(1/gm)+(RL║ro)

TheopencircuitvoltagegainAvo(RL=Infinity)isgivenas Av=
ro/(1 / gm) + ro
Sincero>>1/gm,theopencircuitvoltagegaintendstounity;however,itisalwayslessthanunity. Usually, R L<<
roand hence the voltage gain given by above expression Av becomes
Av= vo/ vi= RL/ (1 / gm) + RL (RL<<ro)
Avs=Gv =vo/ vs=vo/ viXvi/ vs
=(RL║ro)/(1/gm)+(RL║ro)XRG/(RG+Rsi) The
output resistance is given by
Ro=1/ gm║ro=1/ gm.

TheabovediagramshowstheD.Cloadline,thetransitionpoint,andtheQ-point,whichisinthesaturation region.

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12. ExplainHigh–FrequencyMOSFETModel.
Followingdiagramshowsthehigh frequency equivalentcircuit modelforMOSFET. Inthismodel,capacitance Cdbcan

be neglected to simplify the analysis. The resulted model is shown

13. Calculatethecurrentgain ofhighfrequencymodel.(OR)

DeriveanexpressionforMOSFET unitygainfrequency(fT).(April/May 2019)

ThefTisthefrequencyatwhichtheshort–circuitcurrentgainoftheCSMOSFETamplifierbecomesunity.

Theabovediagramshowsthemodifiedhigh–frequencyequivalentcircuittodeterminetheshort–circuitcurrent gain.
Here, the input is fed with a current – source signal Ii and the output terminals are shorted.
TheshortcircuitcurrentIoisgivenby Io=
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gmVgs– s CgdVgs m

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 Thesecond termin theaboveequationis veErynsgmgaTllraened.ccaon mbeneglectedat thefrequencies
Io=gmVgs
TheVgsintermsofIicanbegivenby Vgs= Ii/
s (Cgs+ Cgd)
SubstitutingthevaluesofIiandIofromtheaboveequationswehave Io/ Ii=
gmVgs/ Vgs.s(Cgs+ Cgd) = gm/ s(Cgs+ Cgd)
For physical frequencies s=jω. From above equation it can be seen that the magnitude of the current
becomesunity at the frequency.
ωT=gm / Cgs +
CgdfT=gm/2π(Cgs+Cgd)
FromtheaboveexpressionwecansaythatfT isproportionaltogmandinverselyproportionaltotheinternal capacitances.

14. ExplainFrequency responseofCS Amplifier. (Apr/May 2018)(OR) Withneatcircuit diagram,perform ac

analysis for common source using equivalent circuit NMOSFET AMPLIFIER (NOV/DEC2015)
ThefollowingdiagramshowstheCSMOSFETamplifier.Its gainfallsatlowfrequencyduetothe effectofC c1and Cs and

Cc2. Its gain falls at high frequency due to the effect of Cgsand Cgd.

Abovediagramshows frequencyresponseofCSMOSFET amplifier.

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HighFrequencyResponse:

Theabovediagram shows equivalent circuit for CSMOSFET amplifier.

Letusconsidertheoutputnode.TheloadcurrentisgmVgs –Igd,wheregmVgsistheoutputcurrentofthe MOSFET and Igdis
the current supplied through the very small capacitance Cgd.
AtfrequenciesinthevicinityoffH,theIgdisverysmallandcanbeneglected. Hence we
can write
Vo≈-ILRL=-gmVgsRL`
WhereRL=ro║Rd║RL`
Now consider the input node. We can replace Cgd at the input side with the equivalent capacitance Cequsing
Miller’s theorem. This is shown in the following diagram.

ByMiller’stheorem,equivalentcapacitanceisgivenby, Ceq=
(1 + Av)C = (1 + Av)Cgd
Sinceinput voltageVgs, we have
Av=Vo/ Vi=-gmVgsRL`/Vgs=-gmRL`
Ceq=(1+gmRL`)=TotalinputcapacitanceCincanbegivenby, Cin= Cgs+
Ceq= Cgs+ (1 + gmRL`)Cgd
Thetotalresistanceisgivenby, Rsi`=
Rsi║ RG
Byconsideringinput circuitas asimple-timeconstant circuitwehave
Ʈ=RC =Rsi`Cin
ωH=ωo=1/Ʈ=1/Rsi`CinfH=
1 / 2π Rsi`Cin

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15. Explainsmallsignalmodelof MOSFET.

Fromtheabovediagram,weseethattheoutputvoltageis
vds=Vo =VDD– iDRD
vo=VDD-(IDQ+id)RD =(VDD– IDQRD)– idRD
Theoutput voltageis also acombinationof D.C and A.C values. Thetime – varyingoutput signal is the time
– varying drain to source voltage, or
Vo=Vds=–idRD
Wehave,
id = gmVgs
Insummary,thefollowingrelationshipsexistbetweenthetimevaryingsignalsforthecircuit.The equations are
given in terms of the instantaneous A.C values as well as the phasors. We have,
vgs=vi(or)
Vgs = Vi and
Id = gm vgs(or)
Id = gm Vgs also
vds = - id RD
(or)
Vds=-IdRD

TheabovediagramshowstheA.C equivalent circuit.Here, theD.Csources aremadezero.

FromtheequivalentcircuitfortheNMOSamplifiercircuit,wecandrawa smallsignalequivalentcircuitforthe MOSFET.

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TheabovediagramshowsthesmallsignallowfrequencyA.Cequivalentcircuitforn–channelMOSFET. The relation

of Idby Vgsis included as a current source gm vgs connected from drain to source.
Theinput impedanceisrepresentedbytheopencircuit atitsinput terminals,sincegatecurrentIGiszero.
WeknowthatthecircuithasthefiniteoutputresistanceofaMOSFETbiasedinthesaturationregionbecauseof the nonzero
slope in the IDversus VDScurve.

Wealsoknowthat,
iD=K [(vCS– VT)2(1+λvDS)]

whereλisthechannellengthmodulationparameterandisapositivequantity.Thesmallsignaloutputresistance, is
defined as,

ro=(∂iD/∂vDS)-1│vGS=VGSQ= const.

ro=[λK[(vGSQ–VT)2]-1≈[λ IDQ]-1
This small signal outputresistance is also afunction ofthe Q – point parameters. Thefollowing diagram shows the
small signal equivalent circuit of common – source circuit.

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Problems
EnggTree.com
1. For the circuit below, find (i) dc bias levels (ii) dc voltage across the capacitors (iii) ac emitter resistance
(iv)voltage gain (v) state of the transistor. (Nov/Dec 2018)

Solution:
Giventhat,
Emitter resistance, RE=1 KΩ
Collector resistance, RC=2 KΩ
Load resistance, RL=1 KΩ
Collectorinputvoltage,VCC=15V
Amplification factor, ß=100
Inputresistance,R1=40KΩandR2=10KΩ
Voltage gain, AV= ?
ACemitterresistance,re=?
i. DCbiaslevels:DCbiaslevelsofCEamplifierdeterminedbycalculatingvariousdcvoltagesanddccurrents. DC

𝑉=𝑉𝐶𝐶𝑋𝑅
voltage, V2across resistor, R2is

2 𝑅1+𝑅2 2

15
Substitutingthecorrespondingvalues,V2isobtained as,

𝑉2= 𝑋10
40+10
V2=3V
DCemittervoltage,VEacrossemitterresistor,REis,
VE=V2-2VBE
=3V-0.7 V
= 2.3 V
DC emitter voltage, VE= 2.3 V
DCemittercurrent,IEisgivenby,
𝐼𝐸 𝑉𝐸
2.3 = 𝑅𝐸
𝑉
𝐼𝐸= =2.3𝑚𝐴
1 𝐾Ωisdeterminedas,V =V -
DCCollectorvoltage,V C C CC
ICRCVC=15 V - 2.3 X 2 KΩ since[IE = IC]
VC=10.4V
DCbasecurrent,IBisobtainedas,
UsIingth2e.3re𝑚la 𝐴tionIC=ßIB
I=C= =0.023𝑚𝐴
B ß 100
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 ii. DCvoltagesacrossthecapacitors:FroEmntghegaTbroevee.cca loc uml a t i o n s , DCvoltagesacross capacitors
inthe circuit is obtained as,
DCvoltageacross capacitor,Cinis,V2=3V
DC voltage across emitter capacitor, CE is , VE = 2.3 V
DCvoltageacrosscollectorcapacitor,CCisVC=1.4V
25mV 25mV
= =10.9Ω
iii. ACEmitterResistance: Theacemitterresistance,re’isgiven by, [IE=2.3mA]
r′=
e 2. 3 mA
IE
rc
iv. VoltageGain(AV):ThevoltagegainAVofCEamplifierisdefinedby,
AV=
r′e
𝑟𝑒=𝑅𝑐⃦𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝐶𝑅𝐿 2𝑋1
Here,totalaccollectorresistance,rcisdeterminedby,
𝑟= = 10.9Ω=0.667𝐾Ω
𝑐 𝑅𝐶+𝑅𝐿 2+1

0.667 𝐾Ω
SubstitutingrcvalueinAV,implies,

𝐴𝑉=10.9Ω
Voltagegain,AV=61.2
v. Stateoftransistor:Fromtheabovecalculationitcanbedeterminedthatthetransistorisinactivestate.
SinceVC>VE

2.Determinethemidbandgain,the upper3dBfrequencyfHofaCSamplifierfedwithasignal sourcehavingan internal

resistance Rsig = 100 KΩ. The amplifier has RG = 4.7 MΩ, RD = RL = 15 KΩ gm = 1 mA/V, ro= 150 KΩ, Cgs= 1
pF and Cgd= 0.4 pF. (May/June2016)

𝑔𝑅
𝑅𝐺
𝑀=
Solution:𝐴 ′
𝑚𝐿
𝑅𝐺+𝑅
𝑆𝑖𝑔

𝑅� ′=𝑟0‖𝑅𝐷‖𝑅𝐿=150‖15‖15=7.14KΩ
𝑔𝑚𝑅�′=1×7.14=7.14𝑉/𝑉
Where

=− 4.7+0.
4.7
× 7.14= −7𝑉/𝑉
𝐴𝑀
Thus

𝐶𝑒𝑞=(1+𝑔𝑚𝑅′𝐿)𝐶𝑔𝑑=(1+7.14)×0.4=3.26𝑝𝐹
TheequivalentcapacitanceCeqisfoundas

𝐶𝑖𝑛=𝐶𝑔𝑑+𝐶𝑒𝑞=1+3.26=4.26𝑝𝐹
ThetotalinputcapacitanceCincanbenowobtainedas

Theupper 3dBfrequencyfHisfoundfrom

𝑓𝐻= 1 1
2𝜋𝐶 ) = 2𝜋×4.26×1−12(0.1‖4.7)×106 =382𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑖 (𝑅𝑠𝑖 ‖𝑅
𝑔 𝐺

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 E n g g T reet eer . Vc o m= 2V,𝖰=𝟎.𝟓×𝟏𝟎−𝟑,rd=75KΩ.Itisbiaseda
3. TheMOSFETshownfighasthef o l l o w i n g p a r a m T

t
atID= 1.9mA. (Nov/Dec2017)

a) VerifythattheMOSFETisbiasedinitsactive region.
b) Findtheinputresistance.
c) Drawthesmall singleequivalent circuitandfind thevoltagegainVL/VS.
Solution:
a) VDS=VDD–ID(RD+ RS)=18– (1.9mA)(2.2*103 22 ∗106
+500)=12.87V
𝑉𝐺=( 6)18=5.74𝑉
47∗10 +22∗10
6

Usingequation7.25tofindVGS,wehave

|𝑉𝐺𝑆−𝑉𝑇|=|4.79− 2|=2.79𝑉
VGS = 5.74-(1.9)(5) = 4.79V

12.87=|𝑉𝐷𝑆|>|𝑉𝐺𝑆−𝑉𝑇|=2.79
Thereforecondition8.30issatisfied;

Andweconcludethat theMOSFETisbiased initsactiveregion.

𝑟𝑖𝑛=𝑅1‖𝑅2=(47𝑀Ω‖(22𝑀Ω)=15𝑀Ω
b)

c) Fromequation8.31,
gm=0.5 * 10-3(4.79– 2)=1.4 * 10-3S

𝑣𝐿 15∗106
Thesmallsingleequivalentcircuit isshowninfig8.33fromequation 8.33

𝑣𝑠 =(10∗103+15∗106)∗(−1.4∗10 )[(75∗10 ‖(2.2∗1 ‖(100∗10 )]

−3 3 3 3

=(0.999)(-1.4*10-3)(2.09*103)=-2.92

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 E n g g T re e . c o m
4. ACCamplifiershowninbelowf i g u r e h a s V CC = 1 5 V , RB=75KΩandRE=910Ωthe𝖰
ofthesilicon transistors is 100 and the load resistor is 600 Ω find rinand AV. (Nov/Dec 2015)

Given:
VCC=15V, RB= 75KΩ,RE=910Ω,𝛽=100,RL =600Ω

= 𝑉𝐶𝐶−0.7
,𝐼 =(1+ 𝛽)𝐼 ,𝑟 = 0.026
ToFind:rinandAV

𝐵 𝐸
Formulaeused𝐼
𝐵 𝑅+(𝛽+1)𝑅 𝐸
𝑟𝑖𝑛(𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒)=(𝛽+1)(𝑟𝑒𝐼+𝑟 𝐿)‖𝑅𝐵
𝐵 𝐸

𝑉𝐿=𝑅𝐸‖𝑅𝐿
𝐸

𝑟𝑖𝑛(𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒)=(𝛽+1)(𝑟𝑒+𝑅𝐸)
𝑟𝑜(𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑉𝑔𝑒)=𝑅𝑅𝐸 ‖ 𝑟 𝑒 (𝑟𝑠=0)
𝐴 = = (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛)
𝐿 𝐸

𝑉𝑆 𝑟� +𝑅𝐸
𝑟

𝑉𝐶𝐶−0.7 15−0. 15−0. 143

=
Calculation:

𝐼 = 7 7
=
�

𝐵
��+(𝛽 + 75000+(100+1)91 75000+101∗91 166910
1)𝑅𝐸 0 0
=8.5674×10−4𝐴
�

𝐼𝐸=(1+ 𝛽)𝐼𝐵=(101)×8.5674×10−4=0.08653𝐴
0.026 =0.300
𝑟𝐸 = 𝐼𝐸 = 0.08653
0.026

𝑟𝑖𝑛(𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒)=(𝛽+1 )(𝑉𝑟 𝑒 +𝑅 𝐸𝑅) =(101)× 9(100.3 00+910)=91940.3𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠

𝐴 = 𝐿=
𝐸
= =0.999
𝑉
𝑉𝑆 𝑟� +𝑅 910+0.300
�𝐸

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 E n g g T r e e . c o ma m p l i f i e r withRs=1KΩR1=22KΩ,R2=1
5. EvaluatetheAI,AV,Ri,Ro,Ais,Avsof a si ng l e s t a g e C E
0KΩ,
Rc=2KΩ,RL=2KΩ,hfe=50,hie=1.1KΩ,hoe=25µA/Vandhre=2.5X10-
4(Nov/Dec 2016)

Given
Rs=1KΩR1=22KΩ,R2=10KΩRc=2KΩ,RL=2KΩ,hfe=50,hie=1.1KΩ,hoe=25µA/Vandhre=2.5X10-4.

𝐴𝑖=−ℎ𝑓𝑒=−50
i) Current gain

𝑅𝑖=ℎ𝑖𝑒=1.1𝑘𝛺
𝑅𝑖=ℎ𝑖𝑒⃦𝑅1⃦𝑅2
ii) Inputimpedance

=1.1 ×103⃦22×103 ⃦10𝑘𝛺

22×10×106
=1.1×103⃦[ 32× 3 ]
10
220 ×103
=1.1×103⃦[ ]
32

=1.1⃦6.87𝑘
1.1×6.87 ×106 7.56×10
=
6
= =0.947× 103=947𝛺
(1.1+6.87)103 7.975 ×103

𝒊𝒊𝒊)𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝐴𝐼𝑅𝐿′ −50×(𝑅𝑐𝑅
⃦ 𝐿) −50(2𝑘⃦2𝑘)
𝐴𝑣= = = =−45.45
𝑅𝑖 1.1𝑘
𝑅𝑖
1
𝑅0= 0 =∞
Output voltage

𝑦
𝑅 =𝑅0⃦𝑅𝐿′=∞
′ ⃦2𝑘 ⃦2𝑘=1𝑘
Overallvoltagegain 0

𝐴𝑣𝑠=𝐴𝑉× 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑠

𝐴𝑣𝑠= � =𝑉𝑜× 𝑉𝑏
𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑠
�𝑜

�
�𝑠
𝑤 𝑒𝑟𝑒
ℎ 𝑉𝑜
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 =𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑛 𝑉𝑏 𝑅1
𝑑 =
𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑠 𝑅1+𝑅3

𝐴𝑣𝑅′ −45.45×94 = −45.45×947

𝐴𝑣𝑠= =−22.106
=𝑖
7 1947
𝑅�′+𝑅𝑠 947+1𝑘
�

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 𝐼 𝐿 𝐼 𝐿 𝐼 𝐶 𝐼𝑏
Overallcurrentgain
EnggTree.com
𝐴𝑖𝑠= =××
𝐼𝑆 𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝑆
𝐼𝑏
𝐼𝐿 𝑅𝑐 −2𝑘 = −2𝑘
= =−0.5
= 𝑅𝑐 + 2𝑘+2 4𝑘
𝐼𝐶 𝐼 𝑘
𝑅𝐿 𝐶
=ℎ𝑓𝑒=50
𝐼𝑏 𝑅𝐵 𝐼𝑏
= 6.87 6.87
22⃦10 = =0.86
𝑘
= =

AI=
𝐼𝐿
𝐼𝑆 𝑅𝐵+𝑅𝑖 22⃦10+1.1𝑘 6.87𝑘+1.1𝑘 7.97
𝐼𝑆

𝐴𝐼𝑆=−21.54
=-0.5×50×0.86

6. Figshowsacommonemitteramplifier.Determinetheinputresistance,acloadresistance,voltagegain and
output voltage?(May 2017)

𝑉𝐶𝐶=12𝑉,𝑅𝐶=10𝑘𝛺,𝑅𝛼=3𝑘𝛺,𝛽=60,𝑅1=100𝑘𝛺,𝑅2=50𝑘𝛺,𝑟𝐸=1𝑘𝛺,𝑅𝐸1=2𝑘𝛺,𝑅𝑆=
Given:

100𝛺,
𝑉𝑠=10𝑚𝑉

Inputresistancelookingdirectlyintothe base.

𝑉𝑡ℎ 𝑅2 50×103
= ( +𝑅)=12(
𝐶
𝑅 3)
𝑉
3
𝐶
1 2 100×10+50×10
50 12
=12()= =4𝑉
150 3
100×50×10𝑅 𝑡ℎ=𝑅1𝑅
3×103
⃦ 2
=
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 103×100+50×103
100×50×103
500×103 = 103(150)
100×103
= = =33.3 ×103𝛺=33.3𝑘𝛺
15 3
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒(𝑅𝐸)

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 𝑅𝐸E=n𝑅g𝐸g1T+r𝑅e𝐸e.=co1m𝑘𝛺+2𝑘𝛺=3𝑘𝛺
𝑉𝑡ℎ−𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝐼𝐸= 𝑅𝑡ℎ
𝑅𝐸 𝛽
+
= 4− 0.7
33.3 × 103
3 × 103+
3.3 60

𝐼𝐸= =0.000928=.92𝑚
3555.55
𝐴
A.Cresistance

25 25
Inputresistance 𝑟
𝑒 1= 𝐼 (𝑚𝐴)
𝐸 =0.92

𝑅𝑖=𝛽(𝑟𝐸+𝑟�
1)=27𝛺

=60(1×10�
3+ 27)

=61620𝛺
=61.6𝑘𝛺

𝑅𝑖𝑠=(𝑅1⃦𝑅2 ) ⃦ [𝛽(𝑟𝐸+ 𝑟�1)]

Inputresistanceof thestage

33.33×61.6× 103×103
33.33×103+61.6 × 103
�

= 2053.12 × 103
=
94.93
=21.62𝑘𝛺

𝑟2=𝑅𝑐⃦𝑅𝐿
A.Cloadresistance

=10𝑘⃦3𝑘
10 ×3×106 30
= = ×103=2.3𝑘𝛺
13 ×10 3
13
𝑟𝐿 2307
𝐴𝑣 = = =2.246
𝑟 +𝛾�1 1 ×103+27
Overallvoltagegain 𝐸 �

𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑖𝑆 21.62× 103 21.62

W.K.Ttheratioofbasetosourcevoltage
= = 100+21.62× = ×103 =0.99
𝑉𝑠 𝑅𝑆+𝑅𝑖𝑆 103

21720
∴𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝐴𝑣𝑠=𝐴𝑉× =2.246×0.99=2.235
𝑉𝑠
𝑉𝑂=𝐴𝑉𝑆×𝑉𝑆=2.235×10𝑚𝑉
Outputvoltage

𝑉𝑂=22.35𝑚𝑉

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 EnggTree.com
7. AnNPNcommonemitteramplifiercircuithasthefollowingparameters:hfe=50,hie=1KΩand
Rc=3KΩ. Find the voltage gain of the amplifier. (April/May 2019)
𝐴= 𝐴=−ℎ
𝐴𝐼𝑅𝐿
; ; 𝑅=ℎ;𝑅=𝑅;
𝑉 𝑅𝑖 𝐼 𝑓𝑒 𝑖 𝑖𝑒 𝐿 𝐶

𝐴=
−50𝑋3𝑋 103 =−50; 𝑅=1𝐾;𝑅=3𝐾;
𝑉 𝐴𝐼 𝑖 𝐿
1 𝑋 103
;

𝑨𝑽=−𝟏𝟓𝟎

8. Acommonemitteramplifierhasaninputresistance2.5kΩandvoltagegainof200.Iftheinputsignal voltage
is 5mV. Find the base current of the amplifier. (May 2017) (Nov/Dec 2017)
W.K.T

2.5X10 =𝑉𝑠=5x10 /𝑖∴𝑖𝑏=2×10−6𝐴=2𝜇𝐴

ib-basecurrent,Ri=2.5kΩ,Vs=5mV
-3 -3

𝑖𝑏 𝑏

9. ForacertainD-MOSFET,IDSS=10mAandVGS(off)=-8V.checkifitisann-channelorp-channel device?
Justify your answer. (Nov/Dec 2018)
Giventhat,
ForaD-MOSFET,
Saturationcurrents,IDSS=10 Ma
Gatetosourcecut-offvoltage,VGS(off)=-8V
SincetheD-MOSFEThasnegativeVGS (off).Thedeviceisn-channelD-MOSFET.

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AdditionalImportantquestionandanswers:
EnggTree.com

1. Derivetheexpressionforcurrentgain,inputimpedanceandvoltagegainofaCEtransistorAmplifier.
(Nov/Dec 2016) (Apr/May 2018)

Theacequivalentcircuit canbeobtainedbyreplacing all thecapacitorsandvoltagesourcesbyashort circuit.

CharacteristicsofCEamplifier:
A. WithoutEmitterResistor
(1) Ithasgoodvoltagegain withphaseinversioni.e.,theoutputvoltageis180̊outofphasewith input.
(2) Italsohasgoodcurrent gain,powergainandrelativelyhighinputandoutput impedance.

Fig.acequivalentcircuitofCEamplifier

Fig.h-parametermodelofCEamplifier

FigApproximatehybridmodelofCEamplifier

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Assumehre=0, EnggTree.com
Theinputimpedance:hieseentobeinserieswithhreV0.ForCEcircuit,hreisnormallyaverysmallquantity.So that the

Zi'=RB‖hie
voltage hreV0 fed back from the output to the input circuit is much smaller than the voltage drop across hie.
whereRB=R1||R2
Theoutputimpedance:Theoutputvoltagevariationhaveliitle effect
upon the input of CE circuit, only the output half of the circuit
need to be considered in determining the output impedance.
Z0'=RC1
ℎ𝑜𝑒

Thevoltagegain:AV=V0/Vi
W.K.T V0= -icRc Vi=ibhie
WherehreV0isassumedshortcircuited.
ic= hfeib
AV=-( hfeRC) /hie
CurrentGain:
AI=I0/Ii=ic/ Ii 𝑖𝑏
=−𝑖𝑐.𝑖𝑏=-h𝑖𝑏 =R/(h+R)
𝑖𝑏 𝐼𝑖 𝐼𝑖 𝐼𝑖
fe B ie B
=-hfeRB/(hie+RB)

B. Withemitterresistor:
A common emitter amplifier with emitter resistor Re provides feedback and voltage gain stabilized in a
CE amplifier But it reduces the gain.
Toobtainh-parametermodelofthecircuit,wereplacethetransistorbyitsh-parametermodel.

Fig.CEamplifierwithEmitterresistor

Fig.ACequivalentcircuitofCEamplifierwithEmitterresistor

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Fig.h-parametermodelofaCEamplifierwithemitterresistor

Fig.Approximate Model

Assuminghreisverylow,Theinputimpedance
Zi'=𝑅𝐵║Zi
Zi =Vi/Ii=Vi/ib----------------------------------- 1
Vi =hieib+ieREW.K.T(ie=ib+ic)ie = ib+hfeib = (1+hfe)ib
------------------------------------------------------------- 2

subeq(2)ineq(1), Vi=ib(hie+(1+hfe)RE)
Zi= Vi/ ib=hie+(1+hfe) RE----------------------3
Zi=𝑅𝐵║Zi
=Rb║(hie+(1+hfe)RE)-----------------4
VoltageGain:Av=V0/ Vi------------------------------ 5
Vo=ILRC
=-icRcwhere(ic=hfe ib)
=-hfeibRc
Vi = Ii Zi
=ib(hie+(1+hfe)RE)--------------------6
Subeq(6)andeq(6)in eq(4)
AV=V0/Vi=-hfeRCib/(hie+(1+hfe)RE)ib
=-hfeRC/ hie(1+hfe) RE----------------------------------------7
Since(1+hfe)RE>>hieAv=-hfeRc/ (1+hfe)RE----------------------------------------------- 8

Sincehfe>>1Av =-RC/RE---------------------------------------------- 9
Outputimpedance:Z0=RC--------------------------10
Currentgain:Thecurrent gain isdefinedastheratioofoutput currenttoinputcurrent
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 I0=-ic
AI=-hfeib/Ii 11
usingvoltagedividerrule,Ib/ Ii=RB/ RB+Zi AI=-
hfeRB/RB+Zi---------------------------------------------12
Application:
Itisusedasvoltageamplifier,amongthethreebasicamplifierco
nfigurationCEamplifiermostfrequentlyused.

2. Derive the expression for current gain, input impedance and voltage gain of a CC transistor Amplifier.
Thiscircuitisalsoknownasemitterfolloweramplifierbecauseitsvoltagegainisclosetounity.Henceachange in base
voltage appears as an equal change across the load.
CharacteristicsofCCamplifier:
(1) CCamplifierprovidecurrentgainandpowergai
n.butnovoltagegain.
(2) Ithashighinput
impedanceandverylowoutputimpedance.

Fig.Commoncollectoramplifier

Fig.acequivalentofCCamplifier

Fig.h-
parametermodelofaCCampl
ifier
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Theinputimpedance:Zi'=Zi║𝑅𝐵----------------------------------1

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 Zi=Vi/ib EnggTree.co
m
Vi =hieib+IeRE--------------2W.K.Tie=(1+hfe)ib

subeq(2)ineq(1), Vi=ib(hie+ (1+hfe)RE)

Zi= Vi/ ib=hie+(1+hfe) RE-----------------------3
Zi'=𝑅𝐵║Zi

Currentgain:Thecurrentgain isdefinedastheratioofoutputcurrenttoinputcurrent

AI=ie/Ii=Ie/ib.ib/IiW.K.Tie=(1+hfe)ib AI= -

(1+hfe)ib/ ib. ib/ Ii

AI=-(1+hfe).RB/RB+Zi.

VoltageGain:Av =V0 /Vi-------------------------------4

Vo=ieRE 5
Av =-ieRE/Vi
TheinputvoltageVi=ibZi-----------------------------6
Subeq(3)ineq(6)
=ib(hie+(1+hfe)RE--------------------7
AV=REie/ (hie+(1+hfe)RE ) ibW.K.T ie= (1+hfe)ib
=-(1+hfe)RE/hie+(1+hfe)RE
=hie+(1+hfe) RE–hie /hie+(1+hfe)RE
ℎ𝑖𝑒
= 1 - + (1+ℎ
ℎ𝑖𝑒 𝑓𝑒)𝑅𝐸 ℎ𝑖𝑒------------------------------------------
-------------------------------8

Since(1+h)R >>h andh >>1A =1- 9

ℎ𝑓𝑒𝑅𝐸
fe E ie fe v

𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
Outputimpedance:Z0 =𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑠
Shortcircuitcurrentthrough outputterminalib=Vs/hie║RB+ RS------------------------------- 10

Opencircuit voltagebetweenoutputterminals=Vs

Application: 1+ℎ𝑓𝑒 --------------------------------

𝑅𝐸║ℎ𝑖𝑒+𝑅𝑆
Z0= 11
(1) Thevoltagegainofemitterfollowerasunity,thusitisusedasbuffer amplifier.
(2) Itisusedasimpedancematchingnetwork.

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3. Derive the expression for current gain, inEpnugtgimTpreedea.nccoemandvoltage gain of a CB
transistor Amplifier. (May/June2016)
In this circuit only a fraction of output voltage is feedback to input thus h re is very small. Therefore hrbV0can be
neglected when deriving CB gain and impedance.

CharacteristicsofCBamplifier:

(1) ThisCBcircuitprovidesvoltagegainandpowergainbutnocurrentgain.
(2) Ithashighoutputimpedanceandverylowinputimpedancethusitisunsuitableformostvoltageamplification.

a.Inputimpedance:AfterneglectinghrbV0,TheZeisgivenby, Apply
KVL , Vi= Iehib + IeRB– IeRB= Iehib +IeRB- IEhfbRB
IC=Iehfb=Ie [hib+RB–hfbRB]----------------------------1
Ze=Vi/ Ie=hib+RB(1-hfb)---------------------------2
Theactualimpedanceofthecircuitisgivenby
Zi=Ze║Re-------------------------------------3

b. Outputimpedance:Theoutputhasverylessimpactontheinputhencetheoutputimpedancecanbetakenas Z e≅ 1 /

Theactualoutputimpedance isgivenby,Z0=RC║ZC≅RC
hob

RCisusuallymuchsmallerthan1/hob,soothecircuitimpedanceisapproximatelyequaltoRC.
c.
VoltageGain:itisgivenbyAv =V0 /Vi-----------------------------------------4
V0=IC(RC║RL)-------------------5
Vi=Iehib+IeRB-IEhfbRB=Ie[hib+RB(1-hfb)]
AV=IC (RC║RL)/Ie[hib+RB(1-hfb)]---------------------6
AV=hfb (RC ║RL)/hib+RB(1-hfb)------------------------7

d. Currentgain:Thetransfercurrentgainofthedeviceisgivenbyhfc=IC/Ie-----------------------------------8
The signal current is divided between RE and Ze,and the collector current divides between RCand RL ,giving a lower value of
current gain.
IL=ICRE/ RE+RL
= hfcIe RE / RE+ RL but Ie=ISRB/ RB+ ZeAi=
IL/ IS= hfcRERB / (RB+ Ze)(RC + R:L)------------------9
e.
PowerGain:
ThePowergainisgivenbyAPT=AV *hfb---------------------------------------10
WhereAiissignificantlydifferentfromhfbAp=AV*Ai-----------------------------11

f.
Application:
Itisusedforveryhighfrequencyvoltageamplifier.

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EC8353-ELECTRONDEVICES AND CIRCUITS

UNIT-IV

MULTISTAGEAMPLIFIERSANDDIFFER

ENTIALAMPLIFIERPART-A

BIMOScascadeamplifier,Differential amplifier

1. Whatisadifferentialamplifier?
An amplifier, which is designed to givethe difference between twoinput signals,is called the differential
amplifier.

2. Whatisthefunctionofadifferentialamplifier?
Thefunctionofadifferentialamplifieristoamplifythedifferenceoftwosignalinputs, i.e.,𝑉0
= 𝐴𝐷(𝑉1 − 𝑉2),where AD is the differential gain.

3. Whatisthedifferential-modevoltagegainofadifferentialamplifier?
𝐴= (𝐴−𝐴)
1
Itisgivenby
𝑑 2 1 2
4. WhataretheidealvaluesofAdandAcwithreferencetothedifferentialamplifier?
Ideally,AcshouldbezeroandAdshouldbelarge,ideallyinfinite.

5. Whatareadvantagesofdifferentialamplifier?
Ithashighgainandhigh CMRR.

6. Listsomeapplicationsofdifferentialamplifiers?
UsedinICapplications,AGCcircuitsandphaseinverters.

CommonmodeandDifferencemodeanalysis

7. Definedifferentialmodesignalsofadifferentialamplifier.(Nov/Dec2018)
Thedifferentialmodesignalisthedifferencebetweentwoinputvoltages.i.e.,
Vd=V1–V2
ThedifferentialmodeinputsignaliszerowhenV1=V2

8. WhentwosignalsV1andV2areconnected tothetwo inputsofadifferenceamplifier,definea difference

signal Vd and common-mode signal Vc
ThedifferencesignalVdisdefinedasthedifferenceofthetwosignalinputs,
i.e., Vd=V1–V2
Thecommon-modesignalVcisdefinedastheaverageofthetwosignals, I.e., Vc =
(V1+V2)
9. Whatisthecommon-modegainACintermsofA1and A2?
ItisgivenbyAc=A1+A2

10. DefineCMRRwhatitsidealvalueHowtoimproveit.(Nov/Dec2015),(May/June2016)(May 2017)

The common-mode rejection ratio(CMRR) of a differential amplifier is defined as the ratio of thedifferential-
mode gain to common-mode gain.
CMRR=|Ad|
|Ac|

Ideal valueofis Infinite.

TheimproveCMRRthefollowingcircuitsareused
i)Currentmirrorcircuitii)Temperaturecompensation.iii)Differentialamplifierwithconstantcurrentbias.

11. ExpressCMRRindB.
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CMRR(dB)=20logAd–20logAc.

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Singletunedamplifiers
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12. Whatismeantbytunedamplifiers?(A/M2010)

Tuned amplifiers are amplifiers that are designed to reject a certain range of frequencies below a lower cut off
frequency ωLand above a upper cut off frequency ωHand allows only a narrow band of frequencies.

13. Classifytunedamplifiers.

1. Singletunedamplifier.
2. Doubletunedamplifier.
3. Synchronouslytunedamplifier.
4. Staggertunedamplifier.

14. Whatistheothernamefortunedamplifier?
Tunedamplifiersusedforamplifyingnarrowbandoffrequencieshenceitisalsoknownas“narrowband amplifier” or
“Band pass amplifier.

15. Whatistheapplicationoftunedamplifiers?(N/D 2007)

Theapplicationoftunedamplifierstoobtainadesiredfrequencyandrejectingallotherfrequencyin
(i). RadioandT.Vbroadcastingastuningcircuit.
(ii). Wirelesscommunicationsystem.

16. Whataretheadvantagesoftunedcircuit?

 Highselectivity
 Smallercollectorsupplyvoltage
 Smallpower gain.

Neutralizationmethods

17. Whatismeantbyneutralization?(N/D2012)
It is the process by which feedback can be cancelled by introducing a current that is equal in magnitude but
180o out of phase with the feedback signal at the input of the active device. The two signals will cancel and the
effect of feedback will be eliminated. This technique is termed as neutralization.

18. Whatistheneedforneutralization(Nov/Dec2015)
In turn RF amplifier athigh frequency centered around a radio frequency the inter junction capacitance between
base and collector Cbc of the transistor becomes dominant i.e. its reactance become low enough to be
considered. As reactance of Cbc at RF is low enough it provides the feedback path from collector to base. If this
feedback is positive the circuit is converted to an unstable one generating its own oscillations and can stop
working as an amplifier. In order to prevent oscillations without redacting the stage gain neutralization is used
in tuned amplifiers.

19. Statethemeritsofusingpush-pullconfiguration.(May2018)(Apr/May 2018)

 Efficiencyishigh.(78.5%)
 Figureofmeritis high.
 Distortionisless
 Ripplepresentintheoutputduetopowersupplyismultiplied.
20. Listthedisadvantagesofpush-pull amplifier.
 Twoidenticaltransistorsareneeded.
 Centretapingisrequiredintransformer.
 Transformersusedarebulkyandexpensive.
 Iftheparametersofthetwotransistorsdiffer,therewillbeunequalamplificationofthetwohalvesof signal which
introduces more distortion.

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21. Howdoyoubiasclass-Aoperation?
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In class Amode ofmeans,theoutput current flowsthroughout theentire period of input cycleand the Q-point is
chosen at the midpoint of A.C load line and biased.

22. Givetwoapplicationsofclass-Cpoweramplifier.

 UsedinradioandTVtransmitters.
 Usedtoamplifythehighfrequency signals.
 Tunedamplifiers.

23. Whatismultistageamplifier?
Multistage cascading permits several single-stage amplifiers to be combined into one circuit. Multistage
cascading can produce an amplifier with large gain, high input resistance and low output resistance. The small-
signal behavior of a multistage amplifier can be modeled by cascading an appropriate number of small-signal
two-port amplifier models.

24. A multistage amplifier employs five stages each of which has a power gain of 30. What is thetotal gain of
the amplifier in dB. (Nov/Dec 2018)
Giventhat,
Thepowergainofeachstageinafive-stageamplifieris, AVn=
30, n = 1 to 5
Totalgain,AV=?
Theoverallgain,AVofann-stageamplifierisgivenas, AV=
AV1X AV2X AV3X ……AVn

Here,n= 5
AV=AV1XAV2XAV3XAV4X AV5
= 30 X30 X30 X30 X30
AV=243X105
Totalgain,AV=243X105
AV= 147.71 dB

25. CMRRofanamplifieris100dB,calculatecommonmodegainifthedifferentialgainis1000(Nov/Dec 2016)

CMRR=Ad/AC,100=1000/Ac,Ac=10

26. Defineconversionefficiencyofpoweramplifier?(Nov/Dec2016)

Itisameasureofanactivedeviceinconvertingthed.cpowerofthesupplyintotheacpowerdeliveredto load. It is also

referred theoretical efficiency or collector circuit efficiency
 Mathematically,collectorcircuitefficiency,
𝜂𝑐 a.c.power delivered to the load
power supplied by the d.c.source
to output circuit
=
27. A tuned circuit has a resonant frequency of 1600 KHz and a bandwidth of 10 KHz. What is the value ofits
Q factor? (May 2017)
= 10 =160
resonantfrequency 1600
Qfactor= bandwidth

28. Whatisthermalrunaway?(Nov/Dec2017)
Thermal runaway occurs in situations where an increase in temperature changes the conditions in a way that
causes a further increase in temperature, often leading to a destructive result. It is a kind of uncontrolledpositive
feedback.

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29.ComparethecharacteristicsofCE,CB,CCamplifiers(May/June2016)(Nov/Dec2017) 30.
CommonCollector
S.No CommonEmitterAmplifier CommonBaseAmplifier
Amplifier

In this case emitter is Inthiscasecollectoris

Inthiscasebaseiscommon to
1 commontobothinputand common to both input
both input and output
output and output

2 1800phaseshift occurs Nophaseshift occurs Nophaseshift occurs

3 Inputimpedance:Low Very low Veryhigh

4 Outputimpedance:High Veryhigh Low

31. Amultistageamplifieremploysfivestageseachofwhichhasapowergainof30.What is the

total gain of the amplifier in dB? (Nov/Dec 2017)
Solution:
Absolute gain of each stage = 30 No.ofstages=5

∴Total powergain=5×14.77=73.85dB
Power gain of one stage in dB = 10 log 10 30 = 14.77

32. Whatiscrossoverdistortion?(Apr/May2018)
Crossoverdistortionisthetermgiventoatypeofdistortionthatoccursinpush-pullclassABorclassB amplifiers. It
happens during the time that one side of the output stage shuts off, and the other turns on.

33. Determine the input impedance of a differential amplifier (emitter coupled) with R B=3.9 KΩ and ZB=2.4
KΩ. (April/May 2019)

𝑍𝑖=𝑅𝐵ǁ𝑍𝐵

𝑅𝐵×𝑍𝐵
𝑍𝑖 =
𝑅𝐵+𝑍𝐵
3.9×103×2.4×103
𝑍=
𝑖
3.9×103+2.4×103

Theinputimpedanceofadifferentialamplifier(emittercoupled),𝒁𝒊=1.49Ω

34. Asingletunedamplifierprovidesabandwidthof10KHzatafrequencyof1MHz.FindthecircuitQ. (April/May

2019)

𝑓𝑂=𝐵𝑊×𝑄𝑂

𝑄𝑂= 𝑓𝑂
𝐵𝑊
1×106
𝑄 =
𝑂
10×103

𝑄𝑂=100

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BIMOScascadeamplifier,Differential amplifier

1. Explaintheoperationofcascadeamplifier.
 The cascade amplifier consists of a common emitter amplifier stage in series with a common base
amplifier stage.
 Itsolvesthelowimpedanceproblemofacommonbasecircuit.
 ItgivesthehighinputimpedanceofaCEamplifieraswellasgoodvoltagegainandhighfrequency response
of CB circuit.
 ForDCbias IC1=IE1,IE2= IC1

 Acequivalentcircuit forcascadeamplifierisdrawnbyshortingdcsupplyand capacitors.

 Asimplifiedhparameterequivalentcircuitsforcascadeamplifierisdrawnbyreplacing
transistor with their equivalents

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Analysisofsecondstage(CB)
EnggTree.com
a)
Currentgain(Ai2)

b)
Inputresistance(Ri2)

c)
Voltagegain (Av2)

Analysisoffirststage (CE)
a)
Currentgain(Ai1)
Ai1=-hfe
b)
Inputresistance(Ri1)

Ri1= hie
c)
Voltagegain (Av1)

2. BIMOScascadeamplifier(orcouplingamplifier):
 Togetfaithfulamplification,amplifiershouldhavedesiredvoltagegain,currentgainanditshould match
its input impedance with the connected source impedance. Similarly, output impedance must
match with the load impedance.
 Normally,theserequirementsoftheamplifiercannotbeobtainedinasinglestageamplifier,which is due
to the limitation of the parameters of transistor or FET or whatever device used.
 Under these situations, more than one amplifier stages are cascaded such that input and output
stagesprovideimpedancematchingrequirementswithsomeamplificationandremainingmiddle
stages provide most of the amplification.

Therefore,formakingcascading followingreasons,
 Theamplification ofasinglestageamplifier is not sufficient.
 Wheninput andoutputimpedanceisnotofthecorrect magnitude,foraparticularapplication
twoormoreamplifierstagesareconnectedin cascadedfashionorcoupling.Thisisknownas
multistage amplifier.

Figure:Blockdiagramofcascadeamplifier
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Fromtheabovefigure,𝑉𝑖1,𝑉𝑖2, 𝑉𝑖3theinputo fEf ni r gs t g, sTe rc eo ned. ca on dmt h i r d stagesand𝑉𝑜1, 𝑉𝑜2,
𝑉𝑜3aretheoutput ofthethreestages. Therefore, 𝑉𝑜3istheoverall
𝑉𝑖1
voltagegainof3stageamplifierwhichisgivenasfollows:

𝐴𝑣 𝑉
= 𝑉𝑜3
𝑖1
…………… (1)

𝑉𝑜3 𝑉𝑖3 𝑉𝑖 …………… (2)

2
𝑉𝑖3𝑉𝑖2𝑉𝑖1
= . .

𝑉𝑜1=𝑉𝑖2;𝑉𝑜2=𝑉𝑖3; putthisintothe aboveequation, weget

Fromthefigure,weknow that,

𝐴=
𝑉𝑜3 𝑉𝑜2 𝑉𝑜1
𝑣 𝑉𝑖3𝑉𝑖2𝑉𝑖1
. . ……………. (3)

Alreadyweknowthat,
Voltagegain(A)=𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒=𝑉𝑜
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑖

𝐴𝑣=𝐴𝑣3.𝐴𝑣2.𝐴𝑣1 ………… (4)

Therefore,thevoltagegainofmultistageamplifieristheproductofindividualgainsoftheeachstage. Then the

multistage amplifier is shown below.

Figure:Multistageamplifier

Voltagegain:Theresultantvoltagegainofthemultistageamplifieristheproductofthevoltagegainsofthevarious stages or
individual stages.

(i.e.,) 𝐴𝑣== 𝐴𝑣1.𝐴𝑣2.𝐴𝑣3.𝐴𝑣4.…….𝐴𝑣𝑛.................(5)

=Then,Voltagegainof𝑛𝑡ℎstageisas follows:

𝐴𝑣
=
𝐴𝑖𝑛𝑅𝑙𝑛.........................
1 𝑅𝑖𝑛 (6)

Where,𝑅𝑙𝑛=Effectiveloadresistanceof𝑛𝑡ℎstage.

𝑅𝑖𝑛=Inputresistance/impedanceof1𝑠𝑡stage.

Selectionofcascadingamplifierconfiguration:

Fromtheabovediscussion,themultistageamplifierisdividedintothreeparts:
i) Inputstage
ii) Middlestageand
iii) Outputstage.
 Intheabove,theinputstagemustbedesignedwithinputimpedancematcheswiththesourceimpedance.
 Similarly,theoutputstagedesignedmustbetheoutput impedancematcheswiththeloadimpedance.
 Then,middlestageisdesignedwithourdesiredvoltageandcurrentgain.
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Anyhow,toselectthecascadingconfiguration,thefollowingconsiderationsareimportantsincewenormally use these
three configurations.

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CommonmodeandDifferencemode analysis

3. Drawthecircuitdiagram andexplaintheworkingofadifferentialamplifierusingFET.Derive the

expression for differential mode gain and common mode gain.(May 2017)
Normally,analysisinamplifierdependsonbothACandDCanalysis.
Intheabovetwo,thed.csignalsdeterminestheoperatingvaluesforthetransistorsandusedas biasing.
Similarly,a.csignalsareusedasinputsignals,whichdeterminetheoutputofthedifferential amplifier.
Thedualinput,balancedoutputdifferentialamplifierisalsocalledSymmetricalDifferentialAmplifier.
 DCANALYSIS:
 DCanalysismeansusingD.cvoltageasbiasingvoltageandkeepingitconstant(toobtainsuitable
operating point).

 ACANALYSIS:
 For performing AC analysis,we must apply AC input signals as an input. So, we can calculate
thefollowing:
A. Differentialmodegain(Ad).
B. Commonmodegain(Ac).
C. Inputresistance(Ri).
D. Outputresistance(Ro).
Theabovecanbeobtainedbyusingh-parameters.

A. Differentialgain(Ad)
 ToobtaintheDifferentialmodegain,thetwoinputsignalsmustbedifferentfromeachother.
VS
 Here,wetakethetwoa.cinputsignalsasequalinmagnitudebuthaving180ᵒphaseshift between them.
 Then,themagnitudeofeacha.cinputvoltage VS1andVS2is .
2
 Forthea.cpurposes,emitterterminalcanbegroundedwhichisshowninfigurebelowwith small signal
analysis.

Figure(1):ACEquivalentfordifferentialoperation(halfcircuitconcept)
 ThecircuitwhichcanbeanalyzedbyconsideringonlyonetransistoriscalledHalf circuit
concept of analysis.

Figure(2):Approximatehybridmodel

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  Forobtainingthed i f f e r e n t iEa lnmgogdTe rgeaei n.c(oAmd ) fromtheabovehybridmodel,w
ehaveto apply the Kirchhoff’s voltage law in input side,
=iR
VS
+i
bSbhie
2
……..(1)

=i
VS

2 b (R +hie ) ……..(2)
S
VS
ib=
2(RS+hie)
……...(3)

 Similarly,applyingtheKirchhoff’svoltagelawtooutput loop,weget
Vo=-Ibhfe.RC..................................(4)

Vo=−hfeVSRC
 PutthevalueofIbinequation(4)from(3),weget,

2(R+ h ……..(5)
S ie)

Then, =
−h𝐹e.RC
Vo

.......................................................................

(6)
VS 2(RS+hie)

 Negative sign indicates that 1800 phase difference between input and output. If the input
signals are equal and are out of phase by 1800, we get
VS VS
 DifferentialmodesignalVd=V1–V2=( )–(– )=VS …..(7)
2 2

Where,VSisdifferential input voltage.

Vo
 DifferentialvoltagegainAd=

hfeRCAd = 2(R
……….(8)
S +h ie)
VS

When the output of differential amplifier is measured with reference to ground, it is called
unbalanced output.
 TheoutputacrossthecollectorsofQ1andQ2tobeperfectlymatchedthenAdfor

hfeRC
balancedoutputistwicethan that ofAdforunbalancedoutput. Therefore

Ad= ……………….(9)
(R +hie)
S

B. Commonmodegain (AC)
 In common mode,theboth transistor’s input magnitudeandphasesare also inphasewith
each other.
V1+V2 VS+VS
 LetusassumethatinputsignalsarehavingthesamemagnitudeVSandareinsame phase.
 CommonmodevoltageVC= = =VS………(10)
2 2

Vo
 Ifsuppose, theoutput isexpressedas,Vo=AC.VS……(11)
VS
 CommonmodegainAC=
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…….(12)
 In this mode, both the emitter currentIe1= Ie2= Ieof TQ1, TQ2flows through REin the same
direction, with same magnitude.

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  Hence,thetotalcurrentflowEinnggtghTroruegeh.RcoEmis nearly2Ie…..(13)

Figure(1):A.C.EquivalentCircuitforCommonModeConfiguration
 Thentheapproximatehybridmodelfortheabovecircuitcanbeobtainedandisusedto obtain
the Ad.

Figure(2):ApproximateHybridmodel
 AsthecurrentthroughREis2Ie,forsimplicityofderivation,wehavetoassumethe Ieand
effective emitter resistance as 2RE.
 CurrentthroughRC=LoadcurrentIL
 Effectiveemitter=2RE
 Currentthroughemitterresistance=IL+ Ib
 Currentthroughhoe=(IL–hfe. Ib)
 Now,applyingKirchhoff’svoltagelawtoinput
side,

-IbRS+ Ibhie+2RE(IL+ Ib) = - VS……(14) IbRS-

Figure(3):Inputside

Ibhie−2RE(IL+ Ib)=VS.............................................(15)
While,Vo=- IL. RC...........................................................................(15a)
 Negativesignisduetotheassumeddirectionof
current. Similarly apply KVL to output side.
(IL+Ib)−ILRC=0….(16)
(IL−h𝐹eIb)
−2R
− E
hoe
+ −2IR
−IL h𝐹eIb
−2IR −IR =0…(17)
hoe hoe LE bE LC
I[ − 2R ]=I[1+2R+R]………(18)
h𝐹e

bh E
L E
oe hoe C

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Figure(4):O
utputside

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
Multiplyingbothsidesbyhoe,then
Ib[hfe−2REhoe]=IL[1+hoe(2RE+ RC)].............(19)
IL [hfe−2REhoe]
= ………..(20)
Ib

I [1+hoe(2RE+RC)]
= L I [1+hoe(2RE+RC)]
b
…………..(21)
[h𝐹e−2REhoe]

Puttingthis Ibinequation(15),
IL[1+hoe(2RE+RC)][RS+ hie+2RE]


VS=
+2RE [hfe − 2RE h]
VS [1+hoe(2RE+RC)][RS+hie+2RE]+2RE
= …(22)
IL −2 Eho ]
R e
[hfe

VS 2RE(1 +hfe)+ RS(1+2REhoe)+hie(1 +2REhoe)+hoeRC(2RE+RS+hoe)


Then,findLCMandadjustingthe terms,

= IL
[hfe− 2RE hoe]
VS 2RE(1+hfe)+(RS+hie)(1+2REhoe)+hoeRC(2RE+ RS+hoe)
= ….(23)
IL −2R ho ]
E e
[hfe
ActuallyhoeRC≪1.Neglectingtheterms,
VS 2RE(1+ hfe)+(RS+hie)(1+ 2REhoe)
= …..(24)
IL −2R ho ]
E e
[hfe
VS.[hfe− 2REhoe]
I= …..(25)
L 2RE(1+hfe) +(RS+hie)(1+ 2REhoe)
PuttingthisILinequation(15a),
Vo=- IL.RC

Vo = …….
−VS.[h𝐹e−2REhoe]RC
2RE(1+h𝐹e)+(RS+hie)(1+2REhoe)

Vo [2REhoe−hfe]RC
Hencethecommonmodegain canbewrittenas,

AC = =
V …….
S (27) 2RE(1+ hfe) +(RS+hie )(1 + 2REhoe)
Inpractice,hoeisneglected,becausetheexpressionforACcanbefurther modifiedas,
−hfeRC
AC= …..(28)
RS+hie+2RE(1+hfe)
Theaboveexpressionissamewhethertheoutputisbalancedorunbalanced.

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 Ad
COMMONMODE REJECTIONRATIO (CMRR):

CMRR=| |
AC
Fromequation(8)and(28),
h RC
CMRR=| |……(29)
2(R𝐹e
S+hie)
h𝐹eRC
(RS+hie+2RE(1+h𝐹e)

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 En (gRgST+reheie. )
CMRR = | +co2mRE(1+ hfe
|…
2(RS+ hie)
(30)
ThisisCMRRfordualinputbalancedoutput differentialamplifier circuit.

(RS+hie+2RE(1+hfe)
Forbalancedcase,

CMRR=| |
(RS+hie)

(RS+hie+2RE(1+hfe)
Forunbalancedcase,

CMRR=| |
2(RS+hie)
C. InputImpedance(Ri):
Riis defined as the equivalent resistance existing between any one of the input and the ground
when other input terminal is grounded.

𝑅𝑖= 𝑉𝑆
𝐼𝑏
Putthe𝑉𝑆and𝐼𝑏fromtheabovediscussion,Ri=2(RS+hie). For

one transistor and input pair, the resistance is RS+ hie.

Hencefordualinputcircuit,thetotalinputresistanceis2(RS+hie),asthe2circuitsare perfectly
matched.
Thisinput resistanceisnotdependentonwhetheroutputisbalancedor unbalanced.

D) OUTPUTIMPEDANCERO:
 Itisdefinedastheequivalentresistancebetweenoneoftheoutputterminalswith respect
to ground.
 Theresistancebetweenoutputterminalwithrespecttoground isRC.
RO=RC

Changes to be madeforFET is
BJT FET
Rc Rd
re=1
𝑔𝑚
𝑅𝑑
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=𝑔 𝑅
𝑑𝑉
𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑔 𝑚𝑑𝑑
𝑚
𝑑

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4. Draw a differential amplifier and its ac equivalent circuit. (OR) Explain the operation of basic
emitter coupled differential amplifier (or) Explain the function of differential amplifier with neat
circuit. (A/M 2010) (M/J 2012) (OR) Explain the common mode and differential mode operation of
the differential amplifier (May/June2016 Nov/Dec-2017, May-2018) (OR)
Explaintheworkingofasingleendedinputdifferentialamplifier.(Nov/Dec2018)

 DIFFERENTIALAMPLIFIERBASICBLOCKDIAGRAM:
 ThedifferentialamplifieramplifiesthedifferencebetweentwoappliedinputsignalsV in1andVin2(voltage
signals). Hence, it is called as Difference amplifier.


Fig:block diagramofdifferentialamplifier
 Inanidealamplifier,theoutputvoltageVoisproportionaltothedifferencebetweenthetwoinput signals.
Therefore we can write,
Voα(Vin1-Vin2).............................................(1)

DIFFERENTIALGAINAd:
 From the above equation, we can write the differential gain Adis [ Generally gain is nothing but the
output parameter (may be voltage, current, etc.) to input parameter].
 Therefore, Vo=Ad(Vin1–Vin2)...................................(2)
Where Ad=Differentialgainconstant
 This Ad is thegain withwhich differential amplifier amplifies the difference between two input signal
is called Differential gain.
 The difference between the two inputs (Vin1῀Vin2) is generally called difference voltage and denoted
as Vd.
 outputforeTherevoltageisVo=Ad. Vd..............................................(3)

𝑉𝑜

Thereforethedifferentialgaincanbeexpressedas,
Ad=
𝑉𝑑
…………………(4)

 COMMON MODE GAIN Ac : If we apply two input voltages which are equal in all the respect to the
differential amplifier i.e., V1= V2then, ideally the output voltage Vois(V1῀V2) .Ad, must be zero.
 Inthismodetheapplied input signals,phaseand frequencymustbein same.

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  But the output voltage of the practical diEffnergengtTiarleaem.pcloifmiernot only depends on the
difference voltage but also depends on the average common level of the two inputs.
𝑉1+
 Suchanaveragelevelofthetwoinputsignaliscalled commonmodesignalwhichisdenotedasVc. Vc =
𝑉2...................................................
(5)
2

 In practical, the differential amplifier produces the output voltage proportional to each common
modesignal.Thegainwhichitamplifiesthecommonmodesignaltoproducetheoutputiscalledcommon
modegainofthedifferentialamplifierdenotedasAc.
𝑉𝑜
Ac=
𝑉𝑐
…………………….(6)

 Sothattotaloutputofanydifferentialamplifiercanbeexpressedas, Vo=
Ad.Vd+ Ac.Vc.............................................................................(7)

 COMMONMODEREJECTIONRATIO:
 Indifferentialamplifier,ifbothtransistorsinputthesame,thenthatdifferentialamplifieriscalledas
commonmodedifferentialamplifier.
 In commonmodeoperation, theoutputiszero.
 But due to many disturbance in signals, noise signals appear as a common input signal to both the input
terminals of the differential amplifier.
 Suchacommonsignalshould berejectedbythedifferentialamplifier(CMRR).
 Thus,the abilityof adifferentialamplifiertorejectacommonmodesignalisexpressedbya ratiocalled
commonmoderejection ratio.
 CMRRisdefinedastheratio ofthedifferential modegain(Ad) tocommonmode voltagegain (Ac).
CMRR=|𝐴𝑑|
|𝐴
=ρ𝑐| (8)
 InidealcasetheCMRRisinfinite,becausethecommonmodegainisnearlyorexactlyzero.Butin practical, it is
not infinite.
 But ρ is very large one, since Adis very large and Acis very small. The CMRR can be expressed in dB
also.
CMRRindB =20log |𝐴𝑑|dB...........................(9)
|𝐴𝑐|

 Thetotal output voltageis,

Vo=Ad.Vd+Ac.Vc...................................................................(10)
Where, Vo=Totaloutputvoltageofdifferentialamplifier, Ad
= Differential mode gain of differential amplifier,

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 Ac=CommonmodegainofEdinffgegreTn rtiealea.
mcoplmifier, Vd= Differential mode voltage.

 Fromequation(10),Vocanbewrittenas,
Ac .𝑉𝑐
Vo= Ad.Vd[ 1+ ]...........................(11)
Ad.𝑉𝑑
1 𝑉 𝑐
Vo=Ad.Vd[1+ . ]…...............................(12)
𝐴𝑑 𝑉𝑑
𝐴𝑐
1 𝑉𝑐
Vo=Ad.Vd[ 1+ . ]....................................(13)
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑑

 Therefore,fromtheaboveequation,theCMRRispracticallyverylarge,thoughbothVcandVccompone
nts are present.
 Theoutput is proportional to the differencein signal only. Thenthe common modecomponent isgreatly
rejected.

 EMITTERCOUPLEDDIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER:
 Thetransistorizeddifferentialamplifierisanemitterandemitterfollowercircuit.Sothisiscalledas Emitter
coupled differential amplifier.

Figure(1):Emitterbiasedcircuit
 Figure(1)showstheemittercoupledbiasedcircuit.ThetransistorTQ1 andTQ2usedinthefigureare identical in
characteristics and also having exactly matched characteristics.
 Then the two collector resistances RC1and RC2are equal while the two emitter resistances RE1and RE2are
also equal.
ThereforeRC1=RC2andRE1=RE2
 In thisthemagnitudeof VCCand-VEE arealso same.Thereforethedifferential amplifiercan beobtained by
using such two emitter biased circuits.
 Thisemitterbiasedcircuitcanbeobtainedbyconnecting theE1ofTQ1withE2of TQ2.
 Becauseofthis connectionthe RE1is parallelwith RE2.
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  Theappliedinput Vs1isconnectedwith bEasne gogfTTQre1ean.cdoVms2inputisconnectedwith
thebaseofTQ2.
 Both input voltages in Base is with respect to ground. Then its balanced output is taken in between
therespective collector terminals of both transistors (TQ1and TQ2).
 This amplifier is called Emitter coupled Differential Amplifier. In this circuit, the two collector
resistanceRCused are also same.
 Then the dual input differential balanced output differential amplifier is shown below. Because, none of
the output terminal is grounded, the output is taken between two output terminals.
 SoitiscalledasBalanced DifferentialAmplifier and itisshowninfigure(2).

Figure(2):Balanceddifferentialamplifier
 For studying the operation of differential amplifier, the following modes are used. (i)Differential
mode, and (ii) Common mode.
i)Differentialmodeoperation:
 In this mode, both inputs are different in either magnitude or phase like 180ᵒ phase. This opposite
phasecan be obtained from the Center tap Transformer.
 ThatisassumethatthesinewaveonthebaseofTQ1ispositivegoingwhileonthebaseofTQ2isnegative going.
 WithapositivegoingsignalonthebaseofTQ1,ifamplified,anegativegoingsignal developsandappears on the
collector of TQ1.
 Due to positive going signal, current through REalso decrease and hence a positive going current wave is
developed across RE.

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  Duetonegativegoingsignalontheb a s eEonf gTgQT2r, eaen . ca ommp l i f i e d positivegoingsignaldevelopsonthe
collectorofTQ2andanegativegoingsignaldevelopsacrossRE,becauseofemitterfolloweractionof TQ2.
 So. The signal voltage across REdue to effect of TQ1and TQ2are equal in magnitude and 180ᵒ out of phase
due to method pair of transistors.
 Hencethesetwosignalscancel eachotherand thereisnosignalacrosstheemitter resistance.
 Hence there is no AC signal current flowing
through the emitter resistance. Hence RE in this
case does not introduce negative feedback.

 WhileVoistheoutputtakenacrosscollectorofTQ1andc
ollectorofTQ2,thetwooutputsoncollectorC1and C2
are equal in magnitude but opposite in polarity.
 And Vo is the difference between these two signals.
Hence,thedifferentoutputVoistwiceaslargeasthe
signal voltage from collector to ground.

Figure(3):Differentialmode
COMMONMODEOPERATION:
 IncommonmodethesignalsappliedtothebaseofthebothtransistorTQ1andTQ2areinsamephase, frequency
and also in magnitude.

Figure(4): commonmode
 Inphasesignalvoltagesatthe basesofTQ1andTQ2causesinphasesignalvoltagestoappearacrossREwhichadd together.
 HenceREcausesasignalcurrentandprovidesnegative feedback.

Thisfeedbackreducesthecommonmodegainofdifferentialamplifier.

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 EnggTree.com

5. Explain the analysis of Differential amplifier. With neat sketch explain the BJTdifferential amplifier
with active load and derive for Ad, Ac, and CMRR How CMRR improved (Nov/Dec 2015)(Nov/Dec
2016,May-2018) (OR)
DeducetheexpressionforEmittercurrentsinadifferentialamplifierunderlargesignaloperation.
(April/May 2019)

 Normally,analysisinamplifierdependsonbothACandDCanalysis.
 Intheabovetwo,the d.csignalsdeterminestheoperating valuesforthetransistorsandusedas biasing.
 Similarly,a.csignalsareusedasinputsignals,whichdeterminetheoutputofthedifferential amplifier.
 Thedualinput,balanced outputdifferentialamplifierisalsocalledSymmetricalDifferential Amplifier.

 DCANALYSIS:
 DCanalysismeansusingD.cvoltageasbiasingvoltageandkeepingitconstant(toobtainsuitable operating
point).
 ForobtainingDCanalysis,wemustobtainoperatingpointvaluesi.e.,ICQandVCQforthetransistors used.
 InDCanalysis,thesupplyvoltaged.cistakenas biasingvoltageandtheappliedinputa.csignalsofboth Vs1and
Vs2are to be zero.

Figure(1):DCEquivalentcircuit

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ToobtainDCanalysisfollowingassumptiEonnsgagr Te rtoeebe.ctoakmen:
1)
AssumingRS1=RS2(sourceresistancesofbothsides)andissimplydenotedbyRS.
2)
ThetransistorusedTQ1andTQ2botharematchedintheiridealidentical characteristics.
3)
EmitterresistancesconnectedinbothRE1andRE2mustbethesame.
i.e.,RE1= RE2 = RE

HenceRE=RE1||RE2=
RE1.RE2

[RE1+RE2]

Thecollectorresistancesofbothtransistorsalsomustbeinsamevalue. i.e.,
RC1= RC2= RC
Themagnitudeof|VCC|=|VEE|aremeasuredwithrespect to ground.
 Becauseoftheaboveidenticalcharacteristicsofbothtransistors,thereisnonecessityforfindingout the
operating point of each transistors.
 So,simplyfindingouttheoperatingpoint tooneisenough( ICQandVCEQ).
 ForfindingouttheICQandVCE,theDCanalysisdiagram isneeded.

Figure(2):DCanalysisdiagram

−IBRS−VBE−2IERE=−VEE..................................(1)
−IBRS−VBE−2IERE+VEE=0................(2)
But, IC=βIB andIC≈IE..................(3)
I=IC=IE..............................................................(4)
B ββ
 Accordingtoequation(3),

− R−V−2IR+V
IE
 Puttingthevalueofequation(4)in (2),weget,

BE
=0………… (5)
EE EE
β S

−IE[ ]+VEE−VBE=0..................(6)
RS+2R
E
β

IE[RS+2RE]=VEE−VBE.....................(7)
β

IE=V[RSEE−VBE........................
+2R] (8)
β E

Inpractice, β
E
RS<<2R

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..……….(9)

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 EI=
VEE−VBE
…………E. (n10g)gTree.com
2RE

 Fromtheaboveequation(1),wecanobservethefollowing points.
i.
RE(Emitterresistance)determinestheemittercircuit ofTQ1andTQ2fortheknownvalue of
VEE.
ii.
Then,thecollectorresistance(RL)isindependentofcurrentthatflowsthroughEmitter
terminals of TQ1and TQ2.
Thecollectorvoltage,VC=VCC–ICRC.......................................(11)

 NeglectingthedropacrossRS,wecanobtaintheemittervoltageofTQ1asapproximatelyequalto– VBE.
VCE=VC–VE=(VCC–ICRC)-VBE.............................................(12)
VCE=VCC+VBE−ICRC
 Then,

 Hence,IE=IC=ICQwhileVCE=VCEQforgivenvaluesofVCCand VEE.
 Thereforeoperatingpoint(Q)canbeobtainedfromequation (10)and(12).

 ACANALYSIS:(Nov/Dec2016)
 ForperformingACanalysis,wemustapplyACinputsignalsasaninput.So,wecancalculatethe following:
E. Differentialmodegain(Ad).
F. Commonmodegain(Ac).
G. Inputresistance (Ri).
H. Outputresistance(Ro).
Theabovecanbeobtainedby using h-parameters.
D. Differentialgain (Ad)
 ToobtaintheDifferential modegain,thetwoinput signalsmustbedifferentfromeachother.
 Here,wetakethetwoa.cinputsignalsasequalinmagnitudebuthaving180ᵒphaseshiftbetween them.
VS
 Then,themagnitudeofeacha.cinputvoltageVS1andVS2is .
2

 For the a.c purposes, emitter terminal can be grounded which is shown in figure below with small signal
analysis.

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 EnggTree.com

Figure(1):ACEquivalentfordifferentialoperation(halfcircuitconcept)
 ThecircuitwhichcanbeanalyzedbyconsideringonlyonetransistoriscalledHalfcircuitconceptof analysis.

Figure(2):Approximatehybridmodel
 Forobtainingthedifferentialmodegain(Ad)fromtheabovehybridmodel,wehavetoapplytheKirchhoff’s
voltage law in input side,
=iR
VS

bS +ibhie
2
……..(1)

=i
VS
2 b (R +hie ) ……..(2)
S
VS
ib=
2(RS+hie
……...(3)
)

 Similarly,applyingtheKirchhoff’svoltagelawtooutputloop,weget Vo= -
Ibhfe. RC............................................(4)

−hfeVSRC
 Put thevalueofIbinequation (4)from(3),weget,

Vo= (5)
2(R+h..............
ie)
S
 Then,Vo=
−h𝐹e.RC...............................
(6)
VS 2(RS+hie)

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 Negativesign indicatesthat 1800 phasedifference betweeninput andoutput.Iftheinputsignals are equal and
are out of phase by 1800, we get

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 VS VS
 DifferentialmodesignalVd=V1–V2=( )–(–EnggTree.co
)=VS …..(7)
2 2

Where,VSisdifferentialinputvoltage.
Vo
 DifferentialvoltagegainAd=
VS
hfeR
Ad= C ……….(8)
2(R+h
S ie)

 Whentheoutputofdifferentialamplifierismeasuredwithreferencetoground,itiscalledunbalanced output.
 The output across the collectors of Q1and Q2to be perfectly matched then Ad for balanced output is twice

hfeRC
than that of Adfor unbalanced output. Therefore

Ad= ……………….(9)
(R+hie)
S
E. Commonmodegain(AC)
 Incommonmode,theboth transistor’sinputmagnitudeandphasesarealsoinphasewitheachother.

V1+V2 VS+VS
 Letus assumethat inputsignals arehaving thesamemagnitudeVSand are in same phase.
 CommonmodevoltageVC= = =VS………(10)
2 2

 Ifsuppose,theoutput isexpressedas,Vo=AC.VS……(11)
Vo
 CommonmodegainAC=
V
…….(12)
S

 In this mode, both the emitter current Ie1= Ie2= Ieof TQ1, TQ2flows through RE in the same direction, with
same magnitude.
 Hence,thetotalcurrentflowing throughREisnearly2Ie…..(13)

Figure(1):A.C.EquivalentCircuitforCommonModeConfiguration
 Thentheapproximatehybrid modelfortheabovecircuitcanbe obtainedandisused toobtainthe Ad.

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 EnggTree.com

Figure(2):ApproximateHybridmodel
 AsthecurrentthroughREis2Ie,forsimplicityofderivation,wehavetoassumethe Ieandeffective emitter
resistance as 2RE.
 CurrentthroughRC=LoadcurrentIL
 Effectiveemitter=2RE
 Currentthroughemitterresistance=IL+ Ib
 Current throughhoe=(IL–hfe. Ib)
 Now,applyingKirchhoff’svoltagelawtoinputside,

Figure(3):Inputside
-IbRS+ Ibhie+2RE(IL+ Ib) = - VS……(14) IbRS-
Ibhie−2RE(IL+ Ib)=VS.............................................(15)
While,Vo=- IL. RC...........................................................................(15a)
 Negativesignisduetotheassumeddirectionofcurrent.SimilarlyapplyKVLtooutput side.

Figure(4):Output side

−2R
(IL−h𝐹eIb)
−
hoe (IL+Ib)−ILRC=0….(16)
E
+ −2IR −2IR −IR =0…(17)
−IL h𝐹eIb

LE bE LC
I[ −2R]=I[ 1+2R+R]………(18)
h𝐹e hoe hoe

bh E L E C
oe hoe

 Multiplyingbothsidesbyhoe,then
Ib[hfe−2REhoe]=IL[1+hoe(2RE+ RC)].............(19)

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 IL [hfeE−ng2gRTEhroeee].co m
=
Ib [1+hoe(2RE+RC)] … (20)

I =L
I [1+hoe(2RE+RC)]
b
…………..(21)
[h𝐹e−2REhoe]

PuttingthisIbinequation(15),
IL[1+hoe(2RE+RC)][RS+ hie+2RE]


VS=
+2RE [hfe − 2RE h]
VS [1+hoe(2RE+RC)][RS+hie+2RE]+2RE
= …(22)
IL −2R ho ]
E e
[hfe

VS 2RE(1 +hfe)+RS(1+2REhoe)+hie(1 +2REhoe)+hoeRC(2RE+RS+hoe)

 Then,findLCMandadjustingthe terms,

=
IL
[hfe− 2RE hoe]
VS 2RE(1+hfe)+(RS+hie)(1+2REhoe)+hoeRC(2RE+ RS+hoe)
= ….(23)
IL −2R ho ]
E e
[hfe
ActuallyhoeRC≪1.Neglectingtheterms,
VS 2RE(1+hfe) +(RS+hie)(1+2REhoe)


= …..(24)
IL −2R ho ]
E e
[hfe
VS. [hfe− 2REhoe] I=
…..(25)
L 2RE(1+ hfe)+(RS+hie)(1+ 2REhoe)
 Putting thisILinequation (15a),
Vo= - IL. RC

Vo = …….
−VS.[h𝐹e−2REhoe]RC
2RE(1+h𝐹e)+(RS+hie)(1+2REhoe)

Vo [2REhoe−hfe]RC
 Hencethecommonmodegaincanbewrittenas,

AC = =
V …….
S (27) 2RE(1+ hfe )+ (RS+hie)(1 + 2REhoe)
Inpractice,hoeisneglected,becausetheexpressionforACcanbefurther modifiedas,
−hfeRC


AC = …..(28)
R +hie+2RE(1+hfe)
S

 Theaboveexpressionissamewhethertheoutput isbalancedorunbalanced.

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COMMONMODE REJECTIONRATIO(CMRR):
 CMRR=|Ad|
AC

 Fromequation(8)and(28),

CMRR=| |……(29)
h𝐹eRC
2(RS+hie)
h𝐹eRC
(RS+hie+2RE(1+h𝐹e)

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 EnR(Eg(1+
+co2m
RgST+)reheie .
hfe CMRR = |
2(RS+hie) |…(30)
 ThisisCMRR fordualinputbalancedoutput differentialamplifier circuit.

 Forbalancedcase,
(RS+hie+2RE(1+hfe)
CMRR= |
| (RS+hie)

(RS+hie+2RE(1+hfe)

|
orunbalanced case,

CMRR=| 2(RS+hie)

C.InputImpedance(Ri):
 Ri isdefinedastheequivalentresistanceexistingbetweenanyoneoftheinputandthegroundwhen other input
terminal is grounded.

𝑅𝑉
𝑖=𝑆

 Putthe𝑉𝑆and𝐼𝑏fromtheabovediscussion, Ri=2(RS+hie).

 Foronetransistorandinputpair, theresistanceisRS+hie.

 Hencefordualinputcircuit,thetotalinput resistanceis2(RS+hie),asthe2circuitsareperfectly matched.


Thisinputresistanceisnot dependentonwhetheroutputisbalancedor unbalanced.
D)
OUTPUTIMPEDANCERO:
 Itisdefinedastheequivalentresistancebetweenoneoftheoutputterminals with respecttoground.
 TheresistancebetweenoutputterminalwithrespecttogroundisRC. RO=
RC

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FETinput stages EnggTree.com
6. ExplaintheFETinputstages.
 FET parameters:
 ThefollowingaretheparametersofFET asan amplifier.
1. Thetranscondutance‘𝑔𝑚’
2. Thedynamicresistance‘𝑟𝑑’and
3. Theamplificationfactorµ.
 Transcondutance:
 Itisdefinedastheratioofchangeindraincurrent tothechangeingatesourcevoltageataconstant drain
source voltage.
𝑔 =
𝛥𝐼𝐷

𝑚 𝐷𝑆
/𝛥𝑉 =Constant
𝛥𝑉𝐺𝑆

 Itisexpressedinmillamperespervoltormicromhos.Itissometimesreferredtoasthecommon source
forward trans admittance.

 Thedrainresistanceisdefinedastheratioofchangeindrainsourcevoltage 𝑉𝐷𝑆tothechangeindrain current

 DynamicDrain ResistanceoroutputResistance:

𝐼𝐷at a constant gate source voltage.

𝑟=
𝛥𝑉𝐷𝑆
/𝛥𝑉
𝑑 𝛥𝐼𝐷 𝐺𝑆

 Thereciprocalofdrainresistanceisthedrainconductance,itiscalledsometimesascommonsource output
conductance.
 Amplificationfactor:
 Amplificationfactorisdefinedastheratioofchangeindrainsourcevoltagetothechangeingate source
voltage at a constant drain current.
µ=𝛥𝑉𝐷𝑆/𝛥𝐼
𝛥𝑉𝐺𝑆 𝐷

 RelationbetweenFETparameters:
 Weknowthatµ=𝛥𝑉𝐷𝑆
𝛥𝑉𝐺𝑆
 MultiplyingthenumeratorandthedenominatorontheR.H.Sby𝛥𝐼𝐷,Wehave
𝛥𝑉𝐷𝑆 𝛥𝐼𝐷 𝑉𝐷𝑆 𝐼𝐷
𝑚
x𝑟𝑑
µ= 𝛥𝑉𝐺𝑆
x 𝛥𝐼𝐷= 𝐼𝐷x 𝑉=𝑔
𝐺𝑆

 Thereforeµ= 𝑔𝑚x 𝑟𝑑isthe relation between theparametersofaFET.

 FETconfigurations:
 Therearethreetypesofconfigurations intheFETamplifier,theyare:
 Commonsourceconfiguration
 Commondrainconfiguration
 Commongate configuration
 AFETcanbeconnectedinanyoneofthethreeconfigurations.Thecommondraincircuitalsocalled source
follower circuit.

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Singletunedamplifiers EnggTree.com
7. Draw the circuit diagram of a single tuned amplifier and obtained expression for its gain ,resonant
and cut off frequency (May/June 2016),(Nov/Dec2015)
(OR)
IllustratethebehaviorofaMOSFETbasedamplifiercircuittunedload.Alsodeduceexpressionfor voltage gain
at Centre frequency, Q and bandwidth. (April/May 2019)

SINGLETUNEDCAPACITIVECOUPLEDTUNED AMPLIFIER

 Tuned amplifiers are amplifiers that are designed to reject a certain range of frequencies below a
lowercut off frequency ωLand abovea upper cut off frequency ωHand allows only a narrow band of
frequencies.

 Theoutputacrossthetunedcircuitiscoupledtothenextstagethroughthecouplingcapacitor.The tuned circuit

is formed by L and C resonates at the frequency of operation.

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HereCiandCeqrepresent inputandoutputcircuitscapacitance respectively. Theycanbegivenas

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Ci=Cbe+Cbc(1-
A)whereAisthevoltageg a iEn nofgtghTeraemep.lcifoiemr
Ceq=Cbe((A-1)/A)+CwhereCisthetunedcircuitcapacitance
Thegceisrepresentedas theoutputresistanceofcurrentofgeneratorgmVbegce= (1 /
rce) = hce– gm*hce= hce= (1/R0)

1
Theadmittanceof theinductor alongwith resistorR isgiven by
𝑌=
𝑅+ 𝑗𝜔𝐿
Multiplyingnumeratoranddenominatorby𝑅+𝑗𝜔𝐿we get
𝑅− 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝑅 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝑅 𝑗𝜔2𝐿 1 1
𝑌= = − = − +
𝑅2+𝜔2𝐿 𝑅2+𝜔2𝐿 𝑅2+𝜔2𝐿 𝑅2+𝜔2𝐿 𝑅 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝑃
2 2 2 =
𝜔(𝑅2+𝜔2𝐿2)
2
𝑃
, 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝐿
𝑅+2𝜔𝐿2 2
𝑅2+𝜔2
𝑃=
Where𝑅=
𝑃 𝐿2
𝑅
𝜔2 𝐿
TheLPand RParein shuntquality factor ofthecoil atresonanceisgiven by

𝑅2+𝜔2𝐿2
Qo=WoL/ R

𝐿𝑃=
𝜔2 𝐿
Dividingnumeratoranddenominatortermsby𝜔 𝐿, 2
𝑅2 2+ 𝐿
𝐿𝑃= ⁄𝜔𝐿
1
𝐿𝑃≈𝐿
Hence,Theoutputcircuitoftheamplifiercanbe modified as

1 1 1 1
TakingR1astheparallel combinationofR0,RPandRii.e.
= + +
𝑅𝑡 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅𝑖
0 𝑃

SusceptanceofinductanceLC′capacitanceC
Theoutputcircuitcanbemodifiedasshownin fig.

𝑸𝒆=
ConductanceshuntresistanceRt

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WhereZistheimpedanceofC,Land Rtinparallel.TheadmittanceY=(1/Z)isgiven by

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 1
𝑌= 1= 1 + En+g𝑗g𝜔T𝐶r 𝑅𝑡
1
e=e. com
[1+ +𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑅𝑡]
𝑍 𝑅𝑡 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝑅𝑡 𝑗𝜔𝐿

Multiplyingnumerator anddenominatorby𝜔0
1 𝑅𝑡𝜔0 𝑗𝜔𝜔0𝐶𝑅𝑡
𝑌= [1 + ]
𝑅+ 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝜔0 𝜔0
𝑡

𝑅𝑡
=𝜔0𝐶𝑅𝑡=𝑄𝑒
𝐿𝜔0
1+ 𝑗𝑄 𝜔 𝜔0
𝑒 [ − ]
𝑌= 𝜔0 𝜔
𝑅𝑡
𝑍= 1= 𝑅𝑡
𝑌
1+ 𝑗𝑄 𝜔 𝜔0
𝑒[ − ]
𝜔0 𝜔

𝜔− 𝜔0 𝜔 𝜔
Let𝛿thefractionalfrequencyvariation.

𝛿= = −1= =1+ 𝛿
𝜔 𝜔0 𝜔
0
𝑅𝑡
0

𝑍= 𝑅𝑡 =
1
( ) )] 1 +𝛿2+2𝛿−1
1+𝑗𝑄𝑒[1+𝛿−( ]
1+𝑗𝑄𝑒 1+ 𝛿
[ 1+𝛿
𝑅𝑡
𝑍= 𝛿
+1
1+𝑗2𝑄𝑒𝛿[2 ]
1+𝛿

Frequencyclosetoresonance𝜔0,𝛿<<1

𝑅𝑡
𝑍
= 1+𝑗2𝑄𝑒𝛿
Atresonance𝜔=𝜔0,𝛿=0

𝑍=𝑅𝑡=𝑅0𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙𝑅𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙𝑅

𝑅=𝜔0𝐿2=𝜔0𝐿
𝑃 𝑅 𝜔0𝐶𝑅
𝑟𝑏′𝑒
𝑉𝑏′𝑒=𝑉𝑖
𝑟𝑏𝑏′+𝑟𝑏′𝑒
𝑟𝑏𝘍𝑒
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 𝑉0=−𝑔𝑚𝑉𝑏𝘍𝑒𝑍=−𝑔𝑚(𝑉𝑖 )𝑍
𝑟𝑏𝑏𝘍+𝑟𝑏𝘍𝑒
Voltagegain without consideringthesourceresistanceisgiven by

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 𝐴𝑣 𝑉 0
= E =nggTre( e )𝑍
.c𝑟o𝑏m𝘍𝑒
−𝑔 𝑟𝑏𝑏𝘍+ 𝑟𝑏𝘍𝑒
𝑉𝑚
𝑖 𝑅𝑡
𝐴𝑣 )∗
(
=−𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝑏𝘍𝑒
𝑟𝑏𝑏𝘍+𝑟𝑏𝘍𝑒 1+𝑗2𝑄𝑒𝛿

𝐴𝑣 (𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)= 𝑟𝑏 𝘍𝑒
( 𝑟𝑏𝑏𝘍+𝑟𝑏 )∗𝑅𝑡
−𝑔𝑚
𝘍𝑒

𝐴𝑣 1
| |=
𝐴𝑣(𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛 √1+(2𝛿𝑄𝑒)2
𝑐𝑒)
1
2𝛿=
𝑄𝑒
1
∆𝜔= 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑅𝑡𝐶
𝐴𝑣 plottedagainst 𝛿
𝐴𝑣(𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
Gain

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Gainandfrequencyresponse EnggTree.com
8. Drawthefrequencyresponseofanidealandapracticaltunedamplifieranddiscusstheir
characteristics. (Nov/Dec 2018)
Theamplifierthatamplifiesaparticularfrequencyandrejectsotherfrequenciesaretermedastuned amplifiers.

Basically the tuned amplifier amplify the signal within a narrow frequency band that is centered about a
frequency f0. The signal between the lower and higher cut-off frequencies is amplified. Theresonant frequency

𝑓0=
of an ideal tuned circuit is expressed as,
(or)𝜔0=
1
1
2𝜋√ 𝐿𝐶 √
[sinceω0=2πf0]
𝐿𝐶

Figures 2(a), 2(b) illustrates the ideal response and actual response curve of a tuned amplifier circuit
respectively.

Fromthefigure2(b),itisobservedthatathigherandlowercut-offfrequencies,thecurvedecreasesandis maximum at
resonant frequency (f0).

Thebehavioroftunedcircuitatvarious frequenciesis,
1. Atfrequenciesaboveresonantfrequency,thecircuitbehavesascapacitiveloadduetowhichthe
currentleadstheapplied voltage.
2. Atfrequenciesbelowresonantfrequency,thecircuitbehavesasinductiveloadduetowhichthe
currentlagsbehindtheappliedvoltage.
3. At resonant frequency, the circuit behaves as resistive load since the inductive and capacitive
effectsare nullified.

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 EnggTree.com
9. Explainbrieflyaboutgainandfrequencyresponseofsingle-tuned amplifier.
 Thevoltagegainofanamplifierdependsuponcurrentgain(β),inputresistance(Ri)andeffectiveor
a.cloadresistance.
 Thevoltagegainis givenby𝑟therelation,
𝐿
Av=βx
𝑅𝑖

L
 Thea.cloadresistanceofaparallel resonantcircuit(i.e.,tunedcircuit)isgivenbytherelation, RL=
Zp=
CR

Where, L=valueof inductance,

C=valueofcapacitance,and

R=value ofeffectiveresistanceoftheinductor.

 Voltagegain ofavoltageamplifierisgiven bytherelation,

L
Av=β xCR
𝑅𝑖
 Weknowthat thevalueofthequantityL(changesaboveorbelow theresonantcalledimpedanceof
CR
thetunedcircuit)isveryhighattheresonantfrequencyanditdecreasesasthefrequencychanges above or below
the resonant frequency.
 Thereforevoltagegainofatunedamplifierisveryhighattheresonantfrequencyanditdecreasesas the
frequency changes above or below the resonant frequency.
 Theabovefacts areshownin theform ofavoltagegain versusfrequency plotshown in figurebelow.

Figure:Frequencyresponsecurve
 SuchaplotiscalledFrequency responsecurveofatunedvoltage amplifier.

Boneithersideoftheresonantfrequency,wherethevalueofvoltagegaindropsto1/√2ofitsmaximum value of
 The bandwidth (BW) of an amplifier is equal to the frequency difference between the point A and

resonance.
 Thus bandwidth,

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 𝑓𝑜
BW=Δf=f2– f1= EnggTree.com
𝑄𝑜

Where 𝑄𝑜isthequalityfactor(or Q-factor)ofthetunedcircuit.

Neutralizationmethods

10. Describeanyonemethodofneutralization usedintuned amplifier?

Briefly explain Hazel line neutralization used in tuned amplifiers for stabilization (May/June 2016)
(Nov/Dec 2016,May-2018)

STABILITYOFTUNEDAMPLIFIER
Stabilityoftunedamplifierisachievedbyneutralization
i).Hezeltineneutralization ii).Neutrodyne neutralization

 In a tuned RF amplifier the transistor are used at the frequency near to their unity gain bandwidth. To
amplify the narrow band of high frequencies.
 Atthisfrequencyinter-junction capacitorb/wbaseandcollectoroftransistor(Cbc)oftransistor
becomes dominant
 Asareactanceof Cbc atRfis lowanditsprovidefeedbackpathfrom acollectorto base.
 Ifsomefeedbacksignalreachestheinputfromoutputinapositivemannerwithproperphaseshift then the
circuit is unstable, generating its own oscillation.
Amplifier,itwasnecessarytoreducestagegaintoalevelthatensuresthecircuit stability

. Thiscanbeachievedin severalways

i) favoringthestability factorofthetuned circuits

ii) loosecoupling b/w stages
iii) Increaselooser element intotheelement.

 To achievestability the professor Hazettileintroduced acircuit in which the troublesomeeffects ofthe

cbcwas neutralized by introducing a signal coupled through the Cbc.

HAZELTINENEUTRALIZATION:-
 Thisistheneutralization techniqueemployedintunedRFamplifiertomaintainstability .
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  Theundesired effect of collector to baEsencgagpaTcriteaenc.ecoomfthe transistor is neutralized
by introducing a signal which cancels the signal coupled through the collector to base capacitance
 This is achieved by a small variable capacitance (C N)is connected from the bottom of coil to the base of
the transistor .It introduce a signal to the base of the transistor such that it cancels out the signal fed to
the base by Cbc
 ByproperlyadjustedCnexactlyneutralizedachived.
 ModifiedversionofHazeltineneutralizationcalledneutrondyneneutralization.

NEUTRODYNENEUTRALIZATION:-

 Inaneutrodyneneutralizationtechnique,Cnisconnectedtothecentretrappedtothesecondary coil.
 Hence it is connected with Vcc which ensures that it is insensitivity to any variation is supply voltage
Vcc .Hence provided higher neutralization for the tuned amplifier.
 In principle, the circuit functions are the same manner as the hazeltine neutralizing capacitor does not
have the supply voltage across it.

Poweramplifiers–Types(Qualitativeanalysis).

11. WriteashortnotesonPoweramplifier.(Nov/Dec2017)
 Apoweramplifierisanamplifier,whichiscapabletoprovidingalargeamountofpowertotheload such as
loudspeaker, or motor etc.

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  Itisessential in almost all electronic systEemnsg,gwThreereea.cloarmgeamount of power is
required to be supplied to the load.
 The power amplifier, is used as a last stage in a electronic system. For example, a public address system
(PAS) consists of a microphone, a multistage amplifier, a power amplifier and a loudspeaker.
 Themicrophoneconverts thesound waves into electrical signal, which is ofverylow voltage(usually of
few millivolts).
 This signal is insufficient to drive the loudspeaker. Therefore this signal is first raised to a sufficiently
high value (a few volts) by passing it through a multistage small-signal (or voltage) amplifier.
 This signal isthen used to drivethepoweramplifier,becauseit is incapableofdeliveringalarge amount of
power to the loudspeakers.
 A power amplifier is more commonly known as audio amplifier. The audio amplifiers are used in public
address system, tape recorders, stereo systems, television receivers, radio receivers, broadcast
transmitters etc.
 Itwill be interesting to know that a power amplifier dies not actually amplify the power. As a matter of
fact,ittakespower fromthed.c.powersupplyconnectedtotheoutputcircuitandconvertsitintouseful
a.c.signalpower.
 The power is fed to the load. The type of a.c. power developed, at the output of a power amplifier, is
controlled by the input signal.
 Thus we can say that actually a power amplifier is a d.c. to a.c. power converter, whose action is
controlled by the input signal.
 Thepower amplifiers,arealsoknownaslargesignal amplifiers.
 Theterm‘largesignal’forthepoweramplifiersarisesbecausetheseamplifiersusealargepartoftheir
a.c.loadlinefor operation.
 It is in contrast to the small signal amplifiers, which use only 10% of their a.c. load line for operation.
The small signal amplifiers are commonly known as voltage amplifiers.

12. Explain in detail the various types of poweramplifier.(OR) Explainwith circuit diagramclass B
power amplifier and derive for its efficiency (Nov/Dec2015)(May 2017)(Nov/Dec-2017)
i. Class-Aamplifier:
 Aclass-Aamplifierisoneinwhichtheoperatingpointandtheinputsignalaresuchthatthe current in
the output circuit, flows at all times.
 Aclass-A amplifieroperatesessentiallyoveralinearportionofits characteristics.
 In class-Aoperation,the transistor staysintheactiveregionthroughoutthea.ccycle.
 Thepointandtheinput signalaresuchastomaketheoutputcurrentflowsfor360°.
 Voltagegain:Thevoltagegainforaclass-Aamplifiermaybeobtainedinthesamewayasthe small-
signal amplifier. It is given by the relation,
𝐴𝑣= 𝑟𝑒
𝑟𝐿

𝑟𝐿=A.C.loadresistancewhosevalueisequaltotheparallelcombinationofcollector resistance ( 𝑅𝑐)

and load resistance ( 𝑅𝐿).

𝑟𝑒=A.C.emitterdioderesistance.

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 collectorcurrent(𝑖𝑐)tothea.c. base current ( 𝑖𝑏).
 Currentgain:thecurrentgainofaEtrnangsgisTtorreies t. hceo rma t i o ofa.c.

𝐴𝑖=𝑖𝑐𝑖=β
𝑏
 Powergain:Thea.c. inputpowerto thebaseof transistor,
𝑃𝑖𝑛=𝑉𝑖𝑛.𝑖𝑏

𝑃𝑜=−𝑉𝑜.𝑖𝑐
Andthea.c. outputpower fromthecollector.

 Thenegativesignintheaboveequationindicatesthatthephaseofinputsignalisreversedatthe output.
Power gain,𝐴=𝑃𝑜=−𝑉𝑜.𝑖𝑐=−𝑉𝑜 x𝑖𝑐
𝑝 𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑉 𝑖 .𝑖 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑟𝐿 𝑖𝑏
𝑛
𝑏
=−𝐴𝑣. 𝐴𝑖=−
𝑟𝑒
xβ

𝐴𝑣= voltagegain,and
𝐴𝑖= currentgain.
Where

 Theoverallefficiencyorcircuitefficiencyoftheamplifiercircuitisdefinedastheratioofa.c. power
delivered to the load to the total power supplied by the d.c. source.
 Mathematically,theoverallefficiency,

𝜂𝑜=
a.c.power delivered to the 𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑄.𝐼𝐶𝑄
load 2𝑉𝐶𝐶.𝐼𝐶𝑄
Totalpowersuppliedbythed.c.
=
source

 Maximumvalueofoverallefficiency,
𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑄.𝐼𝐶𝑄
𝜂𝑜(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = =0.25=25%
2( 𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑄.𝐼𝐶𝑄)

 The collector efficiency of the amplifier circuit is defined as the ratio of a.c. power delivered to
the load, to the power supplied by thed.c. source to the transistor.
 Mathematically,collectorcircuitefficiency,

𝜂𝑐= power supplied by the d.c.source to the

a.c.power delivered to the load
transistor

 Maximumvalueofcollector efficiency,

𝜂𝑐(𝑚𝑎𝑥) =
𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑄.𝐼𝐶𝑄
=0.5=50%
2(𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑄.𝐼𝐶𝑄)

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Figure:classification ofamplifiersbasedonthebiasing condition

ii. Class-Bamplifier:
 Aclass-Bamplifierisoneinwhichtheoperatingpointisatanextremeendofitscharacteristics,so that the
quiescent power is very small.
 Henceeitherthequiescent currentorthequiescentvoltageisapproximatelyonehalfa cycle.
 In class-Boperation,thetransistorstaysintheactiveregiononlyforhalfthecycle.TheQ-pointis fixed at
the cut-off point of the characteristics.
 Theoutputcurrentflowsfor180°.
 D.C.inputpower:theinputpowercomesfromthed.c.source(i.e.,the𝑉𝐶𝐶supply)andisgivenby the

𝑃𝑖𝑛(𝑑𝑐)=𝑉𝐶𝐶.𝐼𝑑𝑐
relation,

Where𝐼𝑑𝑐istheaverage valueofcurrent drawnfromthe𝑉𝐶𝐶supply.

 D.C.powerlossinloadresistor:Itsvalueisgivenbytherelation, PRL(dc)

= I2dc. RL

 A.C.outputpowerinloadresistor:Itsvalueisgivenbythe relation,

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𝑃𝑜(𝑎𝑐)=I2.RL= V2/ RL EnggTree.com
Where I=the r.m.s. value ofa.c.outputcurrent,

V=Ther.m.s.valueofa.c.outputvoltage,and

VP=The peak value of a.c. output voltage.

 Powerdissipatedwithintheresistor:Itsvalueisgivenbythe relation,

Pc(dc)=Pin(dc)-PRL(dc)-𝑃𝑜(𝑎𝑐)

 Overallefficiency:𝜂=𝑃𝑜(𝑎𝑐)= 𝑃𝑜
𝑜 𝑃𝑖𝑛(𝑑𝑐) 𝑉𝐶𝐶.𝐼𝑑𝑐
 Maximumvalueofoverall efficiency,
1
𝑃 𝑉𝐶𝑃. 𝐼𝐶𝑃
𝜂=
𝑜
𝑜(𝑎𝑐) 4
𝑃𝑖𝑛(𝑑𝑐)
=0.785=78.5%
𝑉𝐶𝐶.𝐼𝑑𝑐
=

iii. Class-ABamplifier:
 Aclass-ABamplifierisoneoperatingpointbetweenclassAandclassB.
 Hencetheoutputsignalis zeroforpartbut lessthan one-halfofaninputsinusoidalsignal cycle.
 Theoutputcurrentflowsformorethan 180°but lessthan 360°.

𝑃
 a.c.powerdeliveredtotheload resistor,
=𝑉.𝐼=(𝑉𝑃).(𝐼𝑃)=𝑉𝑃.𝐼𝑃
(𝑎𝑐) 𝐶 𝐶
𝑜 √ √ 2 2 2
 Andtotalpowerdissipationofthetwotransistors,
2𝑃𝐶(𝑑𝑐) 𝑃𝑖𝑛(𝑑𝑐) −𝑃𝑜(𝑎 =𝑉𝐶.𝐼𝐶−2𝑉𝑃.𝐼𝑃
𝑐)

𝐶𝐶 𝜋 −
2 𝐼𝑃 𝑉𝑃.𝐼𝑃
2
𝐼 𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝑃
=𝑉 .
=2 ( − )
𝑃 𝜋 4
 Overallefficiency,

𝑃 𝑉𝑃.𝐼𝑃 π 𝑉 𝑉
𝜂𝑜=
𝑃
𝑜(𝑎𝑐)
𝑃𝑖𝑛(𝑑𝑐)
= 𝑉
2
2𝐼𝑃
.𝑉𝑃𝐶 =0.785𝑉 𝐶𝐶
.
=
𝐶
4
𝐶𝐶𝜋

Forthelargestpossibleoutputsignal,thepeakvalueoftheoutputvoltageisequaltothe 𝑉𝐶𝐶supply
(i.e.,𝑉𝑃= 𝑉𝐶𝐶). In the case, the overall efficiency is maximum, and its value,


𝜂𝑜(𝑚𝑎𝑥)=0.785=78.5%

 Thevalueofcollectorefficiencyisequaltotheoverallefficiency,whosemaximumvalueisalso 78.5%.

iv. Class-Camplifier:
 Aclass-Camplifierisoneinwhichtheoperatingpointischosensothattheoutputcurrent(or voltage)
is zero for more than one-half of an input sinusoidal signal cycle.
 Inclass-Camplifier,theQ-pointisfixedbeyondtheextremeendofthecharacteristics.Theoutput current
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remains zero for more than half cycle.

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  TheunturnedaudioorvideovoltageamEpnlgifigeTr
wr ei teh . ac or ems i s t i v e loadisoperatedassmallsignal amplifier under class-A operation.
 class-Bamplifiersaremostlyused forpoweramplificationin push-pull arrangement.
 class-ABandclass-Boperationareusedwithunturnedpoweramplifiers,whereasclass-Coperation is used
with tuned radio frequency amplifiers.

AdditionalQuestions:

Explainbrieflyaboutpush-pullamplifier
 Introduction:
 Thismeansonein on andanotheroneis off.
 Itneedssametype oftransistors(i.e.,NPNorPNP ).
 Alsoitneedstwotransformersinbothinputandoutputsides.
 Oneisinputtransformer andotheriscalledoutputtransformer.
 Inputisappliedtoinputdrivertransformer’sprimarywinding.
 Bothtransformers(inputandoutput)iscentretappedone.
 BothareNPN meansvoltageVCCis positive.
 BotharePNPmeansvoltageVCCisnegative.

 Basicprincipleofoperation:

Figure:Basicoperation diagram
 Duringthepositivehalfcycleoftheappliedinput Q1isonlyunderONcondition.Thepositivehalf cycle is
across the load.
 Similarly,DuringtheNegativehalfcycleoftheappliedinputQ2isonlyunderONcondition.Sothe Negative
half cycle is across the load.

 Push-pullclass-Bamplifier:

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Figure:Push-pullamplifier-class-B
 Intheabovecircuit,bothtransistorsisofNPNtype.
 IfbotharePNP,thesupplyvoltagemustbe –VCC.butbasicdiagramissame.
 Inputdrivertransferdrivercircuitdrivesthecircuit,thentheinputsignalisappliedtotheprimaryofthedriver
transformer.
 Thecentretaponthesecondaryofthedrivertransformer is grounded.Thecentretapontheprimaryofthe output
transformer is connected to the supply voltage +VCC.
 Whenever the input signal is under positive half cycle, when point A is positive with respect to B, then the
transistorQ1isintheactiveregion.ButQ2isunderinOFFconditionnow.Sotheloadgetsthispositivevoltage drop
output across it.
 Then,pointBispositivewithrespecttoAundernegativehalfcycle.So,Q 1isintheOFFcondition.sotheload gets voltage
in negative across it due to negative voltage. This is shown in the waveform.
 Fortheoutputtransformer,thenumberofturnsofeachhalfoftheprimaryisN1.Butinthesecondary,itisN2.
 Hence,thetotalnumberofturnsinprimarysideofoutputtransformeris2N1.
 Thenturnsratiois2N1: N2.
 D.Coperation:
 TheQ-pointisadjustedontheX-axissuchthat,VCEQ=VCCandICEQiszero.ThecoordinatesoftheQ-point are
(VCC,0). There is no d.c base bias voltage.
 D.Cpowerinput:
𝐼𝑚
 Eachtransistoroutputisintheformofhalfrectifiedwaveform.Hence,ifI misthepeakvalueoftheoutput current of
each transistor, the dc or AVvalue is , due tohalf rectified waveform.
𝜋
 Then,twocurrentsdrawnbythetwotransistors,formtheA.Csupplyareinthesame direction.
 Therefore,thetotalD.CoraveragecurrentdrawnfromtheA.Csupplyisalgebraicsumofthe

Idc= + =
individual average current drawn 𝐼by each
𝑚 𝐼𝑚 2𝐼𝑚.............................................
transistor,
(1)
𝜋 𝜋𝜋
 Thetotald.c powerinputisgiven by,
2
Pdc=VCC* Idc....................................(2)
Pdc= VCC.Im.................................(3)
𝜋

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Figure:Waveform output

 A.Coperation:
 WhenA.Csignalisappliedtotheinputdrivertransformer,forpositivehalfcycleQ1transistor is under
ON condition. Then, its current flow path is shown in the following diagram.

Figure:current path
 Fromtheabovefigure, whenQ1conducts,lowerhalfoftheprimaryoftheinputtransformer does
not carry any current. Hence. Only N1number of turns carry the current.
 While,whenQ2conducts,upperhalfoftheprimarydoesnotcarryanycurrent.Therefore again
only N1number of turns carry the current.

Hence,thereflection ontheprimary canbewritten as,
𝑅𝐿 𝑁2..............................
RL’= ……..(4)andn =
n.n 𝑁1
(5)
 Notethatthestepdownturnsratiois2N1:N2butwhilecalculatingthereflectedload,theratio n
becomes N2: N1.
 Soeachtransistorshares equalloadwhichisthereflectedloadRL’.

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 Theslopeofthea.cloadlineisE−1ng,wg hTi rl ee teh .ecdo. cml o a d lineistheverticallinepassingthroughthe
RL’


Qon theX-axis. Theload linesareshown below.

Figure:loadlinesforpush-pullclass Bamplifier
 Theslope ofthe a.c load line(magnitudeofslope)canberepresentedin termsofVmandIm,
1 𝐼𝑚………..(6)
RL’ 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑚
RL’= ………(7)
𝐼𝑚

Here,Vm=peakvalueof thecollectorcircuit

 A.Cpoweroutput:
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
 AsImandVmarethepeakvaluesoftheoutputcurrentandtheoutputvoltagerespectively. Then
Vrms= …..(8)andIrms= ……(9)
√2 √2
Thepower output is,Pac=Vrms.Irms
=Irms.RL’.Irms
=I rms2.R’........................................
L (10)
=V 2 ’
rms /RL
 Efficiency:Theefficiency ofclass-Bamplifiercanbecalculatedasfollows:
%η=𝑃𝑎𝑐x100.....................(11)
𝑃𝑑𝑐
𝑉𝑚𝐼
𝑚
=2 2 * 100……(12)
𝑉 .𝐼
𝜋 𝐶𝐶 𝑚
=𝜋𝑉𝑚∗100
4𝑉𝐶𝐶
……..(13)
 Maximumefficiency:
 Asthepeakvalueofthe collectorvoltageVmincreases,theefficiencyalsoincreases.
𝑃𝑎𝑐
 Thenthemaximum valueof Vmispossiblewhichisequalto VCC.
%ηmax= *100
𝑃𝑑𝑐
=𝜋𝑉𝑚∗100=78.5%
4𝑉𝐶𝐶

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13. Evaluatethe(1)operatingpoint( 2 ) d i f f e rEe nntgi agl Tgariene(3.c)coommmonmodegain(4)CMR
Rand(5)output voltage if Vs1=70mV peak to peak at 1 Khz and Vs2=40 mV peak to peak at 1 Khz
of dual input
balancedoutputdifferentialamplitudehie=2.8KΩ.(Nov/Dec2016)

1.Operatingpointvalueare𝐼𝐶𝑄,𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑄.ApplyKVL toinputside.
−𝐼𝐵𝑅𝑆−𝑉𝐵𝐸−2𝑅𝐸𝐼𝐸+𝑉𝐸𝐸=0
−𝐼𝐸
𝑅𝑆−𝑉𝐵𝐸−2𝑅𝐸𝐼𝐸+𝑉𝐸𝐸=0
𝛽

𝐼𝐸= +𝑅𝑆
2𝑅
𝐸 𝛽
𝑉𝐸𝐸−𝑉𝐵𝐸

𝛽=ℎ𝑓𝑒=100

𝐼𝐸= 15−0.
=1.051𝑚𝐴
7 100
2×6.8 ×10 + 100
3

𝐼𝐶=𝐼𝐸=1.051𝑚𝐴

𝑉𝐶𝐸=𝑉𝐶𝐶+𝑉𝐵𝐸−𝐼𝐶𝑅𝐶=15+0.7− 1.051× 10−3× 4.7×103

𝐴𝐶

𝐴𝑑
Differentialgain,

Commonmode gain,
56

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∴ 68
�
= 2𝑅𝐸(1+ℎ𝑓𝑒)+𝑅𝑠+ℎ𝑖𝑒
ℎ𝑓𝑒𝑅𝑐
�
100× 4.7×103
�

� 𝐴 =
�

2 ×6.8× 103(1+100)+100+2.8 ×103

𝐶
�
�

=
�

1
0
.
7
5
8
�
�

= 𝑅𝑠+ℎ𝑖𝑒
ℎ𝑓𝑒𝑅𝐶

100×
4.7×1
03
�
�
�

=
�

1
0
0
+
2
.
8
×
1
0
3
=
1
6
2
.
0
57

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 Eng=g0T.3r4e1e4.com
𝐴𝑑 162.068
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅= = =474.652
𝐴𝑐 0.3414

∴𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅=20log(474.652)=53.527𝑑𝐵

Outputvoltage, 𝑉𝑜=𝐴𝑑𝑉𝑑+𝐴𝑐𝑉𝑐

𝑉𝑑=𝑉𝑠1−𝑉𝑠2=70−40=30𝑚𝑉(𝑃−𝑃)

𝑉𝑠1 70+ 40
𝑉𝑐= = = 55𝑚𝑉 (𝑃
+𝑉𝑠2 −𝑃) 2
2
𝑉𝑜=162.068×30×10−3+55×10−3× 0.3414

=4.86204+0.0187

=4.88𝑉(𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘− 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘)

14. A parallel resonant circuit has a capacitor of 250 pF in one branch and inductance of 1.2 mH and a
resistance of 10Ω in parallel branch. Find (1). Resonant frequency (2). Impedance of the circuit at
resonance (3). Q-factor of the circuit. (Nov/Dec 2018)
Solution:

1 1
i. Resonantfrequencyoftheparalleltuned circuitisdefinedas,
𝑅2
√
𝑓𝑟=
𝐿
1 2𝜋 2 10𝑋10

−
𝐿𝐶
𝑓𝑟= √ 1 −
2𝜋 1.25𝑋10 𝑋250𝑋10−12 (1.25𝑋10−3)2
−3

𝑓𝑟= 𝑋178836.493=284.7X 103Hz

1

2𝜋

fr=284.7 KHz

𝐿 1.25𝑋10−3
ii. Impedanceofthecircuit,Zrisgivenby,
𝑍 𝑟= =
𝑅𝐶 250 𝑋10−12𝑋10
Zr=500000

Zr= 500 KΩ

iii.Q-factorofthecircuitisdefinedas,

58

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𝑄= 2𝜋𝑓 2𝜋𝑋284.7𝑋10 𝑋1.25𝑋10 2236.0
3 −3
= = =223.6
𝑟𝐿 10 2
𝑅 10
Q = 223.6

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15. Comparevoltageandpoweramplifiers.(ENnogv/gDTecre2e01.c8o)m

VoltageAmplifier PowerAmplifier

1. Theamplitudeofinput A.Csignalissmall 1. TheamplitudeofA.Csignalislarge.

Thecollectorcurrentisveryhigh(greater than
2. Thecollectorcurrentislow(about1mA) 2.
100 mA)
3. RCcouplingisused. 3. Transformercouplingis used
4. TheA.Cpoweroutputislow 4. TheA.Cpoweroutputishigh
5. Heatdissipationis less 5. Heatdissipationis high
6. Thesizeofpowertransistorissmall 6. Thesizeofpowertransistorislarge
7. Currentgainislow 7. Currentgainishigh
8. Outputimpedanceishigh 8. Outputimpedanceislow

16. Explaintheself-biasingofaJFET.(Nov/Dec2018)
 Self-biasisthemostcommontypeofJFETbias.RecallthataJFETmustbeoperatedsuchthatthegate source
junction is always reverse-biased.
 TheconditionrequiresanegativeVGSforann-channelJFETandapositiveVGSforp-channelJFET.This can be
achieved using the self-bias arrangement shown in Fig.1
 Thegateresistor,RG,doesnotaffectthebiasbecauseithasessentiallynovoltagedropacrossit;and therefore
the gate remains at 0 V.
 RGisnecessaryonlytoisolateanA.C.signalfromgroundinamplifierapplications.
 Thevoltagedropacrossresistor,RSmakesgatesourcejunctionreverse biased.

Fig1:self-biascircuitforJFET
Step1:ObtainexpressionforVGS
 Forthen-channelFETinFig.1(a),ISproducesavoltagedropacrossRSandmakesthesourcepositivewithrespectto ground.
Since IS= IDand VG= 0, then VS= ISRS= IDRS. The gate to source voltage is,
VGS=VG–VS=0 –IDRS=-IDRS
 Forthep-channelFETinFig.1(b),ISproducesavoltagedropacrossRSandmakesthesourcenegativewithrespectto ground.
Since IS= IDand VG= 0, then VS= - ISRS= -IDRSthe gate to source voltage is
VGS=VG–VS=0–(-IDRS)=+IDRS
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 
InthefollowingD.C.analysis,then-channelJFEETngshgowTnrieneF.igc. o1(ma)isusedtoforillustration.
 ForD.C.analysiswecanreplacecouplingcapacitorsbyopencircuitsandwecanalsoreplacetheresistorR Gbya short
circuitequivalent,sinceIG=0.ThisisillustratedinFig.2.

Fig2:Simplifiedself-biascircuitfordcanalysis
Step2:CalculateIDQ

𝑉𝐺
2
𝑆
𝐼𝐷=𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆[1− ]
�𝑃

Substituting valueofVGSinaboveequationweget,

−𝐼𝐷𝑅 𝐼𝐷 𝑅
𝐼𝐷=𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆 =𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆[1
𝑆
2
𝑆
2

[1− ] ]
𝑉𝑃 + 𝑉𝑃

Step3:CalculateVDS

ApplyingKVLtotheoutputcircuitweget,

𝑉𝑆+𝑉𝐷𝑆+𝐼𝐷𝑅𝐷−𝑉𝐷𝐷=0

𝑉𝐷𝑆=𝑉𝐷𝐷−𝑉𝑆−𝐼𝐷𝑅𝐷=𝑉𝐷𝐷−𝐼𝐷𝑅𝑆−𝐼𝐷𝑅𝐷=𝑉𝐷𝐷−𝐼𝐷(𝑅𝑆+𝑅𝐷)

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EC8353-ELECTRONDEVICES
m AND CIRCUITS

UNIT-V FEEDBACKAMPLIFIERSANDOSCILLATORS

PART-A
FEEDBACKAMPLIFIERS

1. Definefeedbackandfeedbackfactor.DefinePositivefeedbackandNegativefeedback.

Feedback:The processof injecting a fraction of the outputvoltage of an amplifier into the inputso that it becomes apart
of the input is known as feedback.

Feedback Factor: Feedback factor is defined as the ratio of feedback signal (Voltage/Current) to the amplifier output
whichis𝑓g𝑉ivenasinputtothe feedback network. Hence, it isalsocalledasfeedback ratio andis denoted by β.
i.e.,𝛽= ; 𝑉−𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉−𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑉𝑜 𝑓 𝑂

Positive feedback: If thefeedback voltageis in-phasetotheinput fromthesource, i.e.,feedback signal in-phase with the
original input signal. It is called positive feedback.

Negative feedback: If the feedback voltage is opposite (out of phase) to the input from the source, i.e., feedback signal
opposes the original input signal. It is called negative or degenerative feedback.

Advantagesofnegativefeedback

2. Mention/Listtheadvantagesofnegativefeedbackcircuits.(Nov/Dec2015),(May/June2016)
 Innegativefeedbackamplifiers,thevoltagegainoftheamplifierremainsstable.
 Highinputresistanceofavoltageamplifiercanbemadelarger
 Lowoutputresistanceofavoltageamplifiedcanbelowered
 Frequencyresponseimproves
 Significantimprovementinthelinearityofoperation
 Thetransfergainoftheamplifierwithfeedbackcanbestabilizedagainstvariationinthehparameters.

3. Writethedisadvantagesofnegativefeedbackinamplifiercircuitsandhowitcanbeovercome?(April/May 2015)
ThemaindisadvantageofusingnegativeordegenerativefeedbackinamplifierisReductioninGain.
TherequiredGaincanbeattainedbyincreasingthenumberofamplifierstages

4. Whataretheeffectsofanegativefeedback?
a) Reducesnoise
b) Reducesdistortion
c) Reducesgain
d) Increasesbandwidth
e) Thegainbecomesstabilizedwithrespecttochangesintheamplifieractivedeviceparameterslikehfe.
f) The non-linear distortion is reduced there by increasing the signal h andling capacity or the dynamic range of the
amplifier.

5. Whatistheconditionrequiredforsatisfactoryoperationofanegativefeedbackamplifier?(April/May2019)
Theopen-loopvoltagegainmustbemuchgreaterthantherequired closed-loopgain.
𝐴𝑣
= 1+𝛽𝐴𝑣
OverallVoltageGainwith-vefeedback(Closed-loopGain),𝐴𝑣𝑓

𝐴𝑣 =𝐴𝑣 {𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒,𝛽 ≫1}

𝑓
𝛽𝐴 𝐴𝑣
Therefore,𝐴𝑣𝑓=𝛽 1 𝑣

{Where 𝐴𝑣isthevoltage gainwithout afeedback and βis thefeedback factoris dueto negative feedback thegainisreduced by
factor 1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑣}

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6. Withnegativefeedbackthebandwidthoftheamplifierincreases- True/False?
True.
m
Bandwidthofamplifierwithfeedbackisgreaterthanbandwidthofamplifierwithoutfeedback.

Voltage/current,Series,Shuntfeedback

7. MentionthefourconnectionsinFeedback.
a. Voltageseriesfeedback.
b. Voltageshuntsfeedback.
c. Currentseriesfeedback.
d. Currentshuntfeedback.

8. Explainthevoltageseriesfeedback.
In this case, the feedback voltage is derived from the output voltage and fed in series with input signal. The input of the
amplifier and the feedback network are in series is also known as series parallel in parallel, hence this configuration is
also known as series parallel feedback network.

9. Explainthevoltageshuntfeedback.
The input of amplifier and the feedback network are in parallel and known as parallel –parallel feedback network.
This type of feedback to the ideal current to voltage converter, a circulating having very low input impedance and
very low output impedance.

10. Explainthecurrentseriesfeedback.
Whenthefeedbackvoltagederivedfrom theloadcurrent andisfedinserieswiththeinput signal,thefeedbackissaid to be
current seriesfeedback, the inputs ofthe amplifier and the feedback networkare in series and the output are also in
series. This configuration is also called as series-series feedback configuration.

11. Explainthecurrentshuntfeedback.
When the feedback voltage is derived from the load current and a fed in parallel with the input signal, the feedback is
said to be current shunt feedback. Here in the inputs of the amplifier and the feedback network are in parallel and the
outputs are in series. This configuration is also known as parallel series feedback.

12. Whichisthemostcommonlyusedfeedbackarrangementincascadedamplifierandwhy?(Nov/Dec-2013-R13)
A voltage series feedback s commonly used in cascaded amplifiers. Since, it has high input impedance and low output
impedance that is needed for cascaded amplifiers.

Positivefeedback(Oscillators)
13. WhatisOscillator?
Oscillatoris anelectronic device which generates electrical oscillations(i.e., repeated waveforms) ofrequiredfrequency. It
is used for converting DC energy into AC energy of the desired frequency.
{Anoscillatorisacircuitwhichgeneratesanalternatingvoltagewithoutanyinputsignal.Insteadofexternalinput signal, it uses
feedback path through which it provides its own input signal.
ItisusedforconvertingDCenergyintoACenergyofthedesiredfrequency.}

14. WhataresustainedOscillations?
Electrical oscillations in which amplitude does not change with time are called sustained oscillations. It is called as un-
damped oscillations.

ThefrequencyatwhichcircuitsatisfiesboththeBarkhausenconditionsi.e. |𝐴𝛽|=1and∠𝐴𝛽=0°or360°
15. WhatisfrequencyofOscillations?

simultaneouslyiscalledfrequencyof oscillations

16. Classifythevariousoscillatorsbasedontheoutputwaveforms,circuitcomponents,operatingfrequenciesand feedback

used.
Accordingtothenatureofwaveformgenerated.
1. SinusoidalorHarmonicOscillators
2. Non-sinusoidalorRelaxationoscillators
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Basedoncircuitcomponents.(Nov/Dec 2017)
Accordingtothefrequencydeterminingnetworks,
1. RCoscillators(Phase-shiftOscillatorandWienBridgeOscillator)
2. LCoscillators(HartleyOscillatorandColpittsOscillator)
3. Crystaloscillators

AccordingtothefrequencyoftheGeneratedSignals

1. AFO(AudioFrequencyOscillators)–upto20KHz
2. RFO(RadioFrequencyOscillators)–20KHzto30MHz
3. VHFO(VeryHighFrequencyOscillators)-30MHzto300MHz
4. UHFO(UltraHighFrequencyOscillators)-300MHzto3GHz
5. MFO(MicrowaveFrequencyOscillators) –above3GHz

17. Whatarethetypesofsinusoidaloscillator?[or]Mentionthedifferenttypesofsinusoidaloscillator?
a) RCphaseshiftOscillator.
b) WeinbridgeOscillator.
c) HartleyOscillator
d) ColpittsOscillator
e) CrystalOscillator

18. Nametwolowfrequencyoscillators?
a) RCphaseshiftoscillator.
b) Weinbridgeoscillator.

19. Namethreehighfrequencyoscillators?
Thehighfrequencyoscillators are
a) Hartleyoscillator.
b) Colpittsoscillator.
c) Crystaloscillator

Conditionfor oscillations

20. WritetheconditionsforaOscillator.(OR)
State. Barkhausen criterion (Barkhausen condition) for sustained oscillations. (Nov/Dec-2012,2011,09), (May/June2016)
(Nov/Dec-2016) (May 2017)
TheBarkhausencriterionforobtainingsustainedoscillations,
1. The feedback voltagemustbe in-phase withthe input,i.e., total phase-shift around the closed-loopmust be 0°or

2. Magnitudeoftheloopgainmust beunityi.e.,|𝐴𝛽|=1
360°, and

Where,A–OpenloopGainofthesystem&β–Feedbackratio.

PhaseShiftandWienbridgeoscillator(RCoscillators)

21. WhyanRCphaseshiftoscillatoriscalledso?
AnRCnetworkproducts180ophaseshift.HenceitiscalledRCphaseshiftoscillator.

22. Listtheadvantagesofphaseshiftoscillator.(May/June-2012)
 Thephaseshiftoscillatordoesnotrequiredconductanceortransformers.
 Itissuitable for the low frequency range i.e., froma fewhertztoseveral 100kHz.The upper frequencyislimited because
the impedance of RC network may become so small that it loads the amplifier heavily.

23. WritethedisadvantagesofPhaseshiftoscillator.
1. ItisnecessarytochangetheCorRinallthethreeRCnetworkssimultaneouslyforchangingthefrequencyof oscillations. This
is practically difficult.
2. Itisnotsuitableforhighfrequencies.

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24.
m
Whichoscillatorusesbothpositiveandnegativefeedback?
Wienbridgeoscillator.

HartleyandColpittsoscillators.(LCoscillators)

25. DistinguishbetweenLCandRCoscillator.

LCOscillator RCOscillator

Itoperatesathighfrequencies Itoperatesatlowfrequencies
Itissuitablefor RFonly ItissuitableforAFonly
Thefrequencyisconstant.
Frequencyisvariable Itisknownasfixedfrequencyoscillator.

26. WritethemaindrawbackofLCoscillators.
1. Thefrequencystabilityisnotverygood.
2. Theyaretoobulkyandexpensiveandcannotbeusedtogeneratelowfrequencies.

27. Whatistheadvantageofacolpittsoscillatorcomparedtoaphaseshiftoscillator?(Nov/Dec2015)
ii) Theadvantageofcolpittsoscillatoristhefrequencyofoscillationisveryhigh.
iii) Wecanvarythefrequencyofoscillation.

Crystaloscillators.

28. Whatispiezoelectriceffect?(May/June-2013)
Thepiezoelectriccrystalexhibitsaproperty,thatis,ifamechanicalstressisappliedacrossoneface,anelectricalpotentialis developed across the
opposite face. The inverse is also true. This phenomenon is called piezo-electric effect.

29. WhyQuartzcrystaliscommonlyusedincrystaloscillator?
Quartzcrystalsaregenerallyusedincrystaloscillatorbecauseoftheirgreatmechanicalstrength,simplicityofmanufactureand abeyance to the piezo
electric effect accurately.

30. Whataretheadvantagesofcrystaloscillators?(NOV/DEC2012)
Theadvantagesofcrystaloscillatorsare
a) Excellentfrequencystability.
b) Highfrequencyofoperation
c) Automaticamplitudecontrol.
d) Itissuitableforonlylowpower circuits
e) Largeamplitudeofvibrationsmaycrackthecrystal.
f) Itlargeinfrequencyisonlypossiblereplacingthecrystalwith anotheronebydifferentfrequency.

31. Anoscillatoroperatingat1MHzhasastabilityof1in104.Whatwillbetheminimumvalueoffrequencygenerated? (April/May 2019)

ThetypicalfrequencystabilityofoscillatorsthatdonotuseCRYSTALisabout1in104.
Theminimumvalueoffrequencygeneratedmightbe100KHZorlowerthan1MHZfortheoscillator
operating at 1MHZ.
{Ifthecrystalisused,thefrequencystabilitycanbeimprovedtobetterthan1in106,whichgivesa±1Hz variation in the output
of a 1 MHz oscillator.}

32. Howdoesanoscillatordifferfromanamplifier?(or)Differentiateoscillator&amplifier.[Nov/Dec2013][Nov/Dec2016]

S.No. Oscillators Amplifiers

1 Theyareself-generatingcircuits. Theyarenotself-generatingcircuits.
They generate waveforms like sine,squareandtriangular They need a signal at the input and they just increase the
waveforms of their own without having input signal. level of the input waveform.
2 Ithasinfinitegain Ithasfinitegain
3 Oscillatorusespositivefeedback. Amplifierusesnegativefeedback.

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33. CompareRCPhase-ShiftOscillatorsandWienBridgeOscillator.
m

34. ClassificationofOscillators

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m PART-B
Advantagesofnegativefeedback&positivefeedback

1. What is meant by feedback? What are the types of feedback and effects of negative feedback?
(May/June-2012) (Nov/Dec 2017)

Negativefeedback
If β is negative, the voltage feedback subtracts from the input yielding a lower output and reduced voltage
gain. Hence this feedback is known as negative feedback.

Positivefeedback
Ifthephaseofthevoltagefeedbackissuchastoincreasetheinput,thenβispositiveandtheresultis positive feedback.

IncreaseStability:
Thevoltagegain dueto a negativefeedback isgiven by

𝐴𝑣𝑓 = 𝐴𝑣
……………..(1)
1+𝛽𝐴𝑣

Where 𝐴𝑣isthe voltagegainwithout a feedbackand βis the feedbackfactor isdue tonegative feedback the
gain is reduced by factor 1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑣

If𝛽𝐴>>1 𝐴 =𝐴𝑣 1
𝑣𝑓
then
𝑣 𝛽𝐴𝑣 𝛽
Hencethegainoftheamplifierwithfeedbackhas beenstabilized against suchproblems asageing of atransistoror a
transistor being re-placed by a transistor with a different value of β.

Sensitivityoftransfergain:
The fractional change in amplification with feedback divided by the fractional change without feedback is
called the sensitivity of the transfer gain

= =
𝑑𝐴𝑣𝑓 (1+𝛽𝐴𝑣)−𝐴𝑣𝛽 1
Fromequ1

𝑑𝐴 (1+𝛽𝐴𝑣).2 (1+𝛽𝐴𝑣).2
𝑣

𝑑𝐴𝑣𝑓
𝑑𝐴𝑣 = ((1+𝛽𝐴𝑣)2)
1

𝑑𝐴𝑣𝑓 = 𝑑𝐴𝑣
(1+𝛽𝐴𝑣)2

Dividingbothsideby𝐴𝑣𝑓

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𝑑𝐴𝑣𝑓
𝐴𝑣𝑓 = ((1+𝛽𝐴𝑣)2).𝐴𝑣𝑓
𝑑𝐴𝑣 m

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Insteadof𝐴𝑣 𝑠𝑢
EnggTree.com
𝑣

𝑏
inaboveequation
1+𝛽𝐴𝑣
𝑓

𝑑𝐴𝑣𝑓 𝑑𝐴𝑣𝐴
((1+𝛽𝐴)2) 𝑣)
=
𝐴 .
𝑣𝑓 𝑣 ( 1+𝛽𝐴𝑣

=
𝑑𝐴𝑣

𝐴𝑣(1+𝛽𝐴
𝑣)

Takingabsolutevalueoftheresultant equationweget
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴𝑣
𝑓 𝑣 1
= | |……………..3
𝐴𝑣𝑓 |1+𝛽𝐴𝑣| 𝐴𝑣

|𝑑𝐴𝑣𝑓|
𝐴𝑣𝑓 1
Sensitivity=𝑑𝐴𝑣=| 4
| | 1+𝛽𝐴|.............................
𝑣
𝐴𝑣

Thedensitivityisreciprocalofsensitivity.Hence

𝐷=1+𝐴𝑣β..........................5

Fromequ1wefindthatforanegativefeedbackamplifierhaving𝐴𝑣β>>1thegainwithfeedbackis
Frequencydistortion

𝐴𝑣𝑓=1/β.Ifthefeedbacknetworkdoes not containanyreactiveelementsthegainisnotfunctionoffrequency.

Reductioninnoise
Therearemanysourcesofnoiseisanamplifier.IfthenoisepresentattheoutputisNandtheamplifier gain is A. then
the noise present in the amplifier with negative feedback is

N1=
𝑁
.
1+𝛽𝐴𝑣

Reductionin distortion
LetusassumethatthedistortionintheabsenceoffeedbackisD.Becausetheeffectoffeedbackthe distortion present at
the input is equal to

𝐷𝑓=
𝐷

1+𝛽𝐴𝑣

Bandwidth
Ifthebandwidthofanamplifierwithoutfeedbackisgivenby

Bwf=BW(1+β𝐴𝑣)

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 Incurveasourcethefrequencyresponseofanamplifierwithoutfeedbackwhenanegativefeedbackis
introducedthegainoftheamplifierdecreases.

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m

Frequencyresponseofanamplifierwithandwithoutfeedback

Obtain curve C. from fig we can observe that there is decrease in the lower cutoff frequency and increase in upper

Aloopgainisusedtodescribetheproductofvoltagegain𝐴𝑣andfeedbackfactorβ.Theamountof feedback
cutoff frequency hence the bandwidth increases. Therefore β increases Bandwidth also increases Loop Gain

introduced into an amplifier may be expressed in decibels according to the following definition.

𝐴𝑣𝑓
F=feedbackindb

=20log
𝐴𝑣
1
=20log
1+ 𝛽𝐴𝑣
2. AdvantagesofNegativefeedback inamplifiers.(Nov/Dec2018)
Theadvantagesofnegativefeedbackinamplifiers arelistedasfollows.
1. Thenegativefeedback amplifiers,thevoltagegainofanamplifierremainsstable.
2. Itreducesthenon-linear distortionproducedinlargesignalamplifiers.
3. Itimprovesthefrequencyresponseoftheamplifier.
4. Itincreasesthestability ofthe circuit.
5. Negativefeedbackincreases theinput impedance anddecreases theoutputimpedanceoftheamplifier.
6. Itdecreasesthenoisevoltageintheamplifier.
7. Negativefeedbackamplifierislesssensitivetovariations inamplifier parameters.
8. Itincreasestheamplifier bandwidth.
9. Theinput andoutputimpedancesoffeedback amplifiercanbeadjustedtodesiredvalue.
10. Ithaslessphase,amplitudeandfrequencydistortion.
11. Amplifierwithnegativefeedbackoperateslinearly.
12. Operatingpoint ofamplifiercanbe stabilized.

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3. Withpropermathematicalderivation,proventhatbandwidthincreasesina
m negativefeedbackamplifier.
(April/May 2019)

The negative feedback increases amplifier bandwidth which can be proven mathematically as below

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m

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TYPESOFNEGATIVEFEEDBACKAMPLIFIER
m
4. Explainthevarioustypesoffeedbackamplifier(May2017)
(OR)
Withaneatblockdiagram,explaintheoperationofCurrentShuntFeedbackAmplifier.
(OR)
DetermineRif,Rof,Av,Avfforthefollowingfeedback amplifier
A. Voltage series feedback amplifier (Series-Shunt feedback amplifier) (Nov/Dec 2016)
(May 2017)
B. CurrentSeriesFeedbackAmplifier(Shunt-Seriesfeedbackamplifier)
C. CurrentShuntFeedbackAmplifier(Series-Seriesfeedbackamplifier)(May2017)
D. VoltageShuntFeedbackAmplifier(Shunt-Shuntfeedbackamplifier)
(OR)
Discusstheeffectofvoltageseriesfeedbackandderivetheexpressionforinputresistance,output resistance and
voltage gain.
(OR)
Discuss about the following feedback configurations of amplifiers and obtain the feedback factor and
closed loop gain. (April/May 2018-R13)
A. Shunt-ShuntFeedBack
B. Series-SeriesFeedBack
C. Shunt-SeriesFeedBack
D. Series-ShuntFeedBack

Feedbackamplifier,theoutputsignalsampledmaybeeithervoltageorcurrentandsampledsignalcanbe mixed either is

series or in shunt with the input

Thefourtypesof amplifiers, they are

 Voltageseriesfeedbackamplifier(Series-Shuntfeedback amplifier) (Nov/Dec2016)(May 2017)

 CurrentSeriesFeedback Amplifier(Shunt-Seriesfeedbackamplifier)
 CurrentShuntFeedbackAmplifier(Series-Seriesfeedbackamplifier) (May2017)
 VoltageShuntFeedbackAmplifier(Shunt-Shuntfeedbackamplifier)

(A) VOLTAGESERIESAMPLIFIER:
Withpropermathematicalderivation,proventhatoutputresistancereducesinanegativefeedback amplifier.
Assume a series shunt feedback scheme. (April/May 2019)

 Ri–inputresistance
 Rs–sourceresistance
 RL–loadresistance
 RO–outputresistance
 AV–voltagegain

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 Ri>>RSthenVi=Vs m
 RL>>RothenVo=AVVi=AvVs

Amplifierprovidesavoltageoutputproportionaltothevoltageinput

Theproportionalityfactordoesnotdependonmagnitudesofthesourceanloadresistance

Henceitiscalledvoltageamplifier

FeedbackTopology

Inputresistance

Step1:equivalentcircuit

Step2:obtainexpressionforVS
ApplyingKVLtotheinputsideweget,
VS– Ii–Vf=0 ⸫Vs= Ii Ri +Vf= IiRi +βVo
⸫Vf=βVo

Step3:obtainexpressionforVointermsofIi
TheoutputvoltageVoisgiven as

𝑉𝐴𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑅𝐿 =𝐴𝑉 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐴𝑣𝑅𝐿

𝐴 =
=
�� + � +𝑅𝐿
𝑜 𝑉 𝑣
𝑖
� 𝑅𝐿
� �

Vo =Av IiRi ⸫ Vi = IiRi

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Step4:obtainexpressionforRifm
SubstitutingvalueofV0fromaboveequationweget
VS = Ii Ri + βAv Ii Ri ⸫Rif=Vs/Ii=Ri+βAvRi Rif =
Ri (1+βAv)

OutputResistance
Step1:Equivalentcircuit

Step2:obtainexpressionforIintermsofV
ApplyingKVLtotheoutputsideweget
𝑉−𝐴𝑉𝑉𝑖
AvVi+IR0–V=0 ⸫𝐼=
𝑅0
Theinputvoltageis givenas
Vi = - Vf = -βV ⸫Vs = 0
SubstitutingtheVifromaboveequationweget

𝑉+𝐴𝑣𝛽𝑉 𝑉(1+𝛽𝐴𝑉)
𝐼= 𝑅0 = 𝑅0

𝑅𝑜𝑓=𝑉 𝑅𝑜
Step3:obtainexpressionforRof
𝑅𝑜𝑓=
𝐼 (1+𝛽𝐴)
𝑣

Step4:obtainexpressionforR’ of

(𝑅𝑂 )𝑋𝑅
𝑅𝑂𝑓𝑋 1+𝛽𝐴𝑉 𝐿
𝑅𝐿
R’of =Rof ||RL
(1+𝛽𝐴 +𝑅
= 𝑅𝑂𝑓+ 𝑂
𝑅 𝐿
𝑉)
𝑅𝐿

= RO+RL(1+βAV) =
RORL
RORL
RO+RL+βAVRL

Dividingnumeratoranddenominatorby(Ro+RL)
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𝑅′ = 𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝐿
m
𝑅+ 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝐴𝑣𝑅𝐿
′=𝑜𝐿
⸫𝑅
𝑅𝑜 𝑅
𝐿

𝑜𝑓
𝛽𝐴𝑣𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑜+𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑜+𝑅𝐿
1+ 𝑅𝑜+
𝑜 𝑣

𝑅𝐿

𝑅𝑜
′
�𝑜 =
′

𝑓 1+𝛽𝐴𝑣

(B) CURRENTSERIESAMPLIFIER:

 Ri–inputresistance
 Rs–sourceresistance
 RL–loadresistance
 RO–outputresistance
 AI–current gain

Rs>>RiandIi=Is
Ro>>RLIL=AIIi
Amplifierprovidesacurrentoutputproportionaltothecurrentinput
Theproportionalityfactordoesnotindependentonsourceandloadresistance
Henceitiscalledcurrentamplifier

FeedbackTopology

InputResistance

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Step1:equivalentcircuit m

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Step2:obtainexpression forVS
m
ApplyingKVLto theinput sideweget,
VS– Ii Ri –Vf= 0 ⸫Vs=Ii Ri +Vf= IiRi + βIo
⸫Vf=βIo

Step3:obtainexpressionforIointermsofVi

𝐺𝑚𝑉𝑖𝑅𝑜 o
𝐼 = =𝐺 𝑉where𝐺
TheoutputcurrentI isgivenby
𝐺𝑚𝑅𝑜
𝑜 𝑀𝑖 𝑀
=
𝑅𝑜+𝑅𝐿 𝑅+𝑅
𝑜

Step4:obtainexpressionforRif

SubstitutingvalueofIofromaboveequation

VS = Ii Ri + β GM Vi= Ii Ri + β GM Ii Ri {Since,Vi=IiRi}

Rif = Vs / Ii= Ri (1+ β GM)

OutputResistance

Step1:equivalentcircuit

Step 2:obtainexpressionforIin termsof V

ApplyingKVLtotheoutputnodeweget
𝑉
𝐼= − 𝐺𝑚𝑉𝑖
𝑅𝑜
The input voltage is given asVi= -Vf= - β Io= β I ⸫Io=-I

Substituting value of Vifrom above equation we get

𝐼= −𝐺 � βI
𝑉
𝑉 =𝐼 + 𝐺𝑚βI=I(1 𝑚β)
𝑅𝑜
+𝐺
𝑅𝑜

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Step3:obtainexpressionforRof
m
𝑉
𝑅𝑜𝑓= =𝑅𝑜(1+𝐺𝑚β)
𝐼
𝑅′ =𝑅 ||𝑅
𝑅𝑜𝑓𝑋𝑅𝐿
𝐿=
𝑅𝑜𝑓+𝑅𝐿
𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑓

𝑅𝑜(1+β𝐺𝑚)𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑜𝑅𝐿(1+β𝐺𝑚)
= =
𝑅𝑜(1+ )+ 𝑅 𝐿 𝑅𝑜+𝑅𝐿+β𝐺𝑚𝑅𝑜
β𝐺𝑚

Dividingnumeratoranddenominator byRo+RLweget

𝑅𝐿𝑅𝑜(1+β𝐺𝑚)
𝑅𝑓𝑜 𝑅𝑜+ 𝑅𝐿
=
β𝐺𝑅
1+ 𝑅𝑜+𝑅𝐿
𝑚𝑜

𝑅′(1+β𝐺) 𝑅𝑅 𝐺𝑅
𝑅′ = � 𝑚 ⸫𝑅′= 𝑜𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝐺 = 𝑚𝑜
𝑜𝑓 1+ 𝑜 𝑅𝑜+𝑅𝐿 𝑀 𝑅𝑜+𝑅𝐿
�

β𝐺𝑚

(C) VOLTAGESHUNTAMPLIFIER

 Ri<<RsandRo<<Rs’Since Ri<< Rs’

 Ii=IsandRo<<RL, Vo= RmIs
 WhereRm=Vo/Isis thetransferormutual
 resistance

FeedbackTopology

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InputResistance m
Step1:EquivalentCircuit

Step2:obtainexpressionforIs

ApplyingKCLatinputnodeweget

Is= Ii +If = Ii+ βVo ⸫If= βVo

Step3:obtainexpressionforRif

𝑅𝑚𝐼𝑖𝑅𝑜 o
𝑉= =𝑅 𝐼 where𝑅
TheoutputvoltageV isgivenby
𝑅𝑚𝑅𝑜
𝑜 𝑀𝑖 𝑀
=
𝑅𝑜+𝑅𝐿 𝑅+𝑅
� �

Step4:obtainexpressionforRif

SubstitutingvalueofVofromaboveequationweget Is = Ii

+ β RM Ii = Ii (1+ β RM)

TheinputresistancewithfeedbackRifisgivenby

𝑅 = = ⸫𝑅=𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖

𝐼𝑠 𝐼𝑖(1+β𝑅𝑀) 𝑖 𝐼𝑖
𝑖𝑓

⸫𝑅𝑖𝑓 =
𝑅𝑖
(1+β𝑅
𝑀)

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OutputResistance m

Step1:EquivalentCircuit

Step2:obtainexpressionforIintermsofV

ApplyingKVLtotheoutputsideweget
𝑉−𝑅𝑚𝐼𝑖
RmIi+IRo–V=0 ⸫𝐼=
𝑅𝑜

Theinputcurrentisgivenas Ii

= - If = - β V

SubstitutingIiinaboveequationweget

𝐼= =
𝑉+𝑅𝑚β V 𝑉(1+𝑅𝑚β)
𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝑜

Step4:obtainexpression for𝑹′ 𝒐
𝒇

𝑅𝑜𝑋𝑅𝐿
𝑅′ =𝑅 =𝑅 𝑜 𝑋 = 1+𝑅𝑚β 𝑅𝑜𝑅𝐿
||𝑅 𝑓
𝑅𝐿
𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝐿
𝑜 +𝑅
𝑅𝑜 + = + (1+𝑅 𝑚β)
1+𝑅 𝑅𝑜
𝑅
𝐿
𝑓 𝐿 𝑅𝐿 𝑅
𝑚β

Dividingnumeratoranddenominatorby(Ro+RL)weget

𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝐿
� 𝑓𝑜=
′ 𝑅𝑜+𝑅𝐿
β𝑅𝑚𝑅𝐿
1+ 𝑅𝑜+𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝘍
′𝑅𝐿𝑋𝑅𝑜𝑓
𝑅𝑅
𝑓𝑜
𝑅′ = 𝑜 where𝑅 1+β𝑅𝑀 𝑜
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= 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑅 =
𝑀
EnggTree.co
𝑚𝐿 (𝑅𝑜+𝑅𝐿)
𝑅𝐿 +𝑅
m
𝑜𝑓

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(D) CURRENTSHUNTAMPLIFIER:
m

Ri<<Rs andRo<<Rs’

 SinceRi<<R’ s

Ii=IsandRo<<
RL,Vo=RmIs

FeedbackTopology

InputResistance
Step1:EquivalentCircuit

Step2:obtainexpressionforIs

ApplyingKCLtotheinputnodeweget Is =

Ii + If = Ii + β Io ⸫ If = β Io

Step3:obtainexpressionforIointermsofIi
𝐴𝑖𝐼𝑖𝑅𝑜=𝐴𝐼
𝐼=
𝑜 𝐼𝑖
where𝐴=𝐴𝑖𝑅𝑜
𝐼
𝑅𝑜+𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑜+𝑅𝐿

Step4:obtainexpressionforRif

SubstitutingvalueofIoinaboveequationweget Is =

Ii + β AI Ii = Ii (1+ β AI)

Theinputresistancewithfeedbackisgivenas
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 Eng g𝑉Tree.com𝑉
𝑅 = 𝑖 𝑖
= 𝐼 (1+β𝐴)
𝐼𝑠
𝑖𝑓
𝑖 I

𝑅𝑖 = 𝑅𝑖
(1+β𝐴𝐼)
𝑓

OutputResistance
Step1:EquivalentCircuit

Step2:obtainexpressionforIintermsofV

ApplyingKCLtotheoutputnodeweget

𝑉
𝐼=−𝐴𝑖𝐼𝑖
𝑅𝑜
Theinputcurrentisgivenas

Ii = - If = - β Io ⸫Is=0

Ii = β I ⸫ I = - Io

SubstitutingvalueofIiinaboveequationweget
𝐼= −𝐴βI ⸫𝑉=𝐼+𝐴β=I (1+β𝐴)
𝑉

𝑅𝑜 𝑖 𝑅𝑜 𝑖 𝑖

Step3:obtainexpressionforRof

𝑅′ =𝑅 ||𝑅
𝑅𝑜𝑓𝑋𝑅𝐿
=
𝑅 𝑜 +𝑅𝐿
𝑜𝑓 𝐿
𝑜𝑓
𝑓

𝑅𝑜(1+β𝐴𝑖)𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑜𝑅𝐿(1+β𝐴𝑖)
= 𝑅 (1 +β𝐴 ) ⸫= 𝑅𝑜+ 𝑅𝐿+ β𝐴𝑖𝑅𝑜
𝑜 𝑖
+𝑅𝐿
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Dividingnumeratoranddenominatorby(Ro+RL)weget

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 𝑅𝑜𝑅𝐿(1+β𝐴𝑖
EnggTree.co

)
m
� =
′
𝑜𝑓
𝑅𝑜+ 𝑅𝐿
β𝐴𝑖𝑅𝑜
1+ 𝑅𝑜+𝑅𝐿
𝑅′(1+β𝐴)
𝑅
𝑜𝑓 = (1+ β𝐴𝐼)
′ 𝑜 𝑖

𝑅𝑜𝑅𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝐴 𝐴𝑖𝑅𝑜

𝑅′𝑜= 𝐼= 𝑅
𝑅𝑜+𝑅𝐿 𝑜+𝑅𝐿

OSCILLATORS:

5. Explaintheconstructionand workingofthefollowingoscillatorsandderivetheexpressionfor
frequency of oscillation. Also, write about advantages and disadvantages.
A. Phase-ShiftOscillator(RCtypeOscillator)
B. Wein BridgeOscillator(RCtypeOscillator)
C. HartleyOscillator(LC typeOscillator)
D. ColpittsOscillator(LCtypeOscillator)
E. CrystalOscillator

(A) RCPhaseShiftOscillator:
ExplaintheconstructionandworkingofRCPhase-Shiftoscillatorandderivetheexpressionforfrequency of
oscillation.

 Itconsists ofanamplifierand feedbacknetworkconsisting ofresistorsandcapacitors.

 AnamplifiercanbeBJT,FEToroperationalamplifier.

AnalysisofRCcircuit:
 Inthiscircuit outputistakenacrossresistorR.

1
ThecapacitivereactanceXCisgivenby𝑋𝐶= Ωwherefisfrequencyoftheinput.
2𝜋𝑓𝐶


1
 Thetotalimpedanceofthecircuitis,
𝑍=𝑅−𝑗𝑋𝐶 =𝑅−𝑗( )Ω
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m

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 m =|𝑍|<−Ф Ω
EnggTree.co
0

 Thecurrent‘I’flowinginthecircuitis,

𝐼= 𝑉𝑖< 00 𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝑖<0=
0
=| |<+Ф0𝐴
𝑍 |𝑍|<−Ф0 𝑍

𝑋𝐶
|𝑍|=√𝑅2+𝑋2𝐶𝑎𝑛𝑑Ф=tan−1 𝑅
 Inthisequationthecurrent‘I’leadsinputvoltagebyangleФ
 TheoutputvoltageisdropacrossRhence VO=VR=IR
 TheoutputvoltageisinphasewithcurrenthenceitleadsinputvoltagebyangleФ
 Thus,RCcircuitintroducesaphaseshiftФbetweeninputandoutputwhichdependsonR,Candfrequencyf.

RCFeedbackNetworkforphaseshiftoscillator:
 InRCphaseshiftoscillator,amplifierintroducesa phaseshiftof 1800
 Thus,thefeedback networkmustintroduceaphaseshift of1800tosatisfyBarkhausen condition.
 TheRCfeedbacknetworkconsistsofthreeRCsections, witheachRCsectioncontributing 600phase-shift.
 HenceinRCphaseshiftoscillator,thefeedbacknetworkconsistsofthree RCsections areshownin fig.
 Inallthethreesections,resistancevaluesandcapacitancevaluesaresamesothatataparticularfrequency, each
section produces precisely 600 phase-shift. This is the operating frequency of oscillator.

TransistorizedRCphaseshiftoscillator:
 TheRCphaseshiftoscillatorusesBJTamplifierstagewhichissinglestageamplifierincommonemitter
configuration.
 Aphaseshift networkhas threeRC sections
 TheoutputofCEamplifier is connected asinputto theRCphaseshifting network
 TheoutputofRCphaseshiftingnetwork isconnected asinput tothe amplifier
 Dueto common emitteramplifier it introduces a phaseshift of1800 between its input andoutput
 TheRCphaseshiftnetwork contributesfurther 1800 phaseshift sothat phaseshift aroundaloop is3600

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m

 Fromthefig.neglectingR1andR2wecanwrite hie=input impedanceofamplifierstage

 Thus,tohaveallthreeresistancevaluesinthreeRCsectionequal,resistanceinthelastsectionis selected as R3 so
that R3+hie=R
R3+hie=R i.e R3 =R-hie - eq.1
 IfR1andR2arenotneglectedthen, R3=R-[R1||R2||hie] - eq.2
 WhengainAoftheamplifierstageand feedback factorβareadjustedtogive|Aβ|=1,thenthecircuit works as
an oscillator, satisfying both Barkhausen condition.

Derivationforfrequencyofoscillation:

 Replacingthetransistorbyitsapproximateh-parametermodel,theequivalentcircuitofRC phase
shift oscillator is shown in fig.

𝑅𝐶=𝐾
 ItisknownthatR=hie+R3andreplacecurrentsourcebyequivalentvoltagesource.

𝑅
 TheratioofresistanceRCtoRisK.

 Themodifiedequivalentcircuitisshownbelow

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1
 ApplyingKVLtothethreeloops

𝐼1𝑅𝐶− 𝐼1−𝑅(𝐼1−𝐼2)−ℎ𝑓𝑒𝐼𝑏𝑅𝑐=0 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑅𝐶=𝑘𝑅

1 𝑗𝜔𝐶
⸫𝐼1[𝑘𝑅+𝑅+ 𝑗𝜔
]+𝐼2𝑅=ℎ𝑓𝑒𝐼𝑏𝑘𝑅-----------eq. 3
𝐶
1
−𝑗𝜔𝐶
1
𝐼 −𝑅(𝐼 −𝐼 ) −𝐼 )=0𝑖.𝑒𝐼1 𝑅−𝐼 (2𝑅 +𝑗𝜔 ) 𝑅=0------eq. 4
2 2 1 −𝑅(𝐼2 3 2 𝐶 +𝐼3
1
−𝑗𝜔𝐶
1
𝐼 −𝐼 𝑅−𝑅(𝐼 −𝐼 )=0 𝑖.𝑒𝐼2 𝑅−𝐼 (2𝑅 +𝑗𝜔 )=0-------eq.5
3 3 3 2 3 𝐶

1
 Usingjω=sandCramers’srule

−(𝑘+1)𝑅− +𝑅 0
| 𝑠 |
1
𝐶
𝐷= 𝑅
𝑅 −2𝑅−𝑠𝐶
|
|
1
0 𝑅 −2𝑅−
𝑠𝐶
𝑠3𝐶3𝑅3(3𝑘+1)+𝑠2𝐶2𝑅2(4𝑘+6)+𝑠𝑅𝐶(5+𝑘)+1
 Solvingthedeterminant,weget,

𝐷=−{ }--------eq. 6
𝑠 3𝐶 3

−(𝑘+1)𝑅−
1
 TofindI3,findD3as,

𝑠𝐶 𝑅 𝐼 𝑘𝑅
𝑏
ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝐷= |
1
3
𝑅 −2𝑅− 0 |=𝑘𝑅3ℎ𝑓𝑒𝐼𝑏--------------------eq.7
𝑠𝐶
0 𝑅 0
𝐷 −𝑘𝑅3ℎ𝑓𝑒𝐼𝑏𝑠3𝐶3
𝐼3=𝐷 =𝑠3𝐶3𝑅3(3𝑘+1)+𝑠2𝐶2𝑅2(4𝑘+6)+𝑠𝑅𝐶(5+𝑘)+1---------------eq. 8
3

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I3=Outputcurrentofthefeedbackcircuit
m Ib =
Input current of the amplifier
IC=hfeIb=inputcurrentofthefeedback circuit

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 Outputofthefeedbackcircuit I3 I3
EnggTree.co
β= = =
Inputtofeedbackcircuit IC hfeIb
m

Output of the amplifier

A = I3 Input to the amplifier =
=h
Ib fe

𝐴𝛽=ℎ𝑓𝑒𝑋𝐼3=𝐼3------------------------------eq. 9
ℎ𝑓𝑒𝐼𝑏 𝐼𝑏
Fromequation8and9,

−𝑘𝑅3ℎ
𝑓𝑒𝑠 𝐶3
𝐴𝛽= −−−−−−𝒆𝒒.𝟏𝟎
3

𝑠3𝐶3𝑅3(3𝑘+1)+𝑠2𝐶2𝑅2(4𝑘+6)+𝑠𝑅𝐶(5+𝑘)+1

Using s = jω s2 = j2 ω2 = -ω2, s3=j3ω3=-jω3andseparatingtherealandimaginary part

we get,
+𝑗𝜔3𝑘𝑅3𝐶3ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝐴𝛽=
[1−4𝑘𝜔2𝐶2𝑅2−6𝜔2𝐶2𝑅2]−𝑗𝜔[3𝑘𝜔2𝑅3𝐶3+𝜔2𝑅3𝐶3−5𝑅𝐶−𝑘𝑅𝐶

Dividingnumeratoranddenominatorbyjω3R3C3andreplacing-1/j=+j
𝑘ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝐴𝛽= 1 4𝑘 6 5 𝑘
−𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶
{ 333− − }−{3𝑘+1− 22− 𝜔𝑅𝐶
𝜔𝑅𝐶 222}
𝜔𝑅𝐶 𝜔𝑅𝐶
Replacing1/ωRCbyαforsimplicity
𝑘ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝐴𝛽= -------eq.11
[−3𝑘−1+5𝛼2+𝑘𝛼2]−𝑗[𝛼3−4𝑘𝛼−6𝛼]
TosatisfyBarkhausencriterion,<Aβ=00henceimaginarypartofthedenominatorterm must be
0

⸫α3 –4kα-6α=0 i.e. α( α2 – 4 k– 6 )= 0

⸫α2 = 4 k +6(α≠0) 𝛼=√4𝑘+6

i.e.------------------------------eq. 12
1 1
⸫ 1/ωRC=√4𝑘+6 i.e. 𝜔=
i.e. 𝑓=
𝑅𝐶√4𝑘+6 2𝜋√4𝑘+6
Thisistherequiredfrequencyofoscillations.

Substituting𝛼=√4𝑘+6inequation11weget,
𝑘ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑘ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝐴𝛽= = 2
−3𝑘−1+ (4𝑘+ 6)(5+𝑘) 4𝑘 +23𝑘+29

DownloadedfromEnggTree.c
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 𝑘ℎ𝑓𝑒
But|𝐴𝛽|=1 𝑖.𝑒 | m |=1
EnggTree.co
4𝑘2+23𝑘+29

⸫ℎ=4𝑘+23𝑘+29
𝑓𝑒 𝑘

Thisistherequiredhfefortheoscillations.

Minimumvalueof hfe:

 ForsatisfyingAβ =1,theexpression forthevalueofhfeofthetransistorused in RCphase shift

oscillator is given by,
hfe≥4k+23+29wherek=𝑅𝐶
𝑘 𝑅
 Forminimumhfe,findkforminimumhfefromtheexpression𝑑ℎ𝑓𝑒=0
⸫𝑑[4𝑘+23+ ]=0
2 29
i.e.4− =0 i.e.𝑘2=
29 𝑑𝑘
9
𝑑𝑘 𝑘 𝑘2 4
k=2.6925 forminimumhfe
usingintheexpressionofhfe,
hfe(min)=4X2.6925+23+29
2.6925
= 44.54
Thusforthecircuittooscillate,thetransistormustbeselectedwithh fegreaterthan44.54
Advantages:

 Thecircuit is simpleto design

 Canproduceoutputoveraudio frequencyrange
 Producessinusoidaloutput waveform
 Itisfixed frequency oscillator

Disadvantages:

 Tovarythefrequency,valuesofRandCofallthreesectionsaretobevariedsimultaneouslywhichis practically
difficult. Hence frequency cannot be varied
 Frequencystabilityispoorduetochangesinthevaluesofvariouscomponentsduetoeffecttemperature, aging
etc.

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(B) WEINBRIDGEOSCILLATOR:(RC
mOscillator)
ExplaintheworkingofWienBridgeOscillator.Derivetheexpressionforfrequencyofoscillationand condition for
maintenance of oscillation.
(OR)
Design an oscillatorto operate ata frequency of10 KHz which gives an extremely pure sine
waveoutput,goodfrequencystabilityandhighlystabilizedamplitude.Discussthe operation of
this oscillator as an audio signal generator.

Constructionandoperation-(WienBridgeOscillatorCircuit)
 Twostageamplifiers(non-inverting)andfeedbacknetworkareusedinWienBridgeOscillator.
 Both amplifier and feedback network does not introduce any phase shift i.e. 0° phase-shift around the loop in Wien
Bridge Oscillator.
 R1&C1inseriesandR2&C2 inparallelarefrequencysensitivearms.
 TheoutputofAmplifierisappliedasinputtoFeedbackNetwork(Vin)between1and3.
 TheoutputofFeedbackNetwork(Vf)takenbetween2and4isgivenasinputtoamplifier.
 ThisFeedbackNetworkisalsoknownas Lead-LagNetwork.

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Derivetheexpressionforfrequencyofoscillation:
m
Analysisforfrequencyofoscillation:

1 1+𝑗𝜔𝑅1𝐶1
𝑍1=𝑅1+𝑗𝜔𝐶1 ⥤𝑍1= 𝑗𝜔𝐶 1 (1)

1
1 𝑅2× 𝑅2
𝑍=𝑅
2 2 𝑗𝜔𝐶2⇒ 𝑍=
2 +1𝑗𝜔𝐶2⇒𝑍2=1+ 𝑗𝜔𝑅2𝐶2
(2)
𝑅2
𝑗𝜔𝐶2

𝑉𝑓 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝛽=𝑉 (3) 𝐼= 𝑍1+𝑍2 (4)
𝑖𝑛

Sub(6)in (3) 𝑉𝑓=𝐼𝑍2 (5)

𝑍2 𝑆𝑢𝑏(4)𝑖𝑛(5)⥤𝑉𝑓= 𝑍1+𝑍2𝑉(6)
𝑍2
(7) 𝑖𝑛
𝑍1+𝑍2
⥤𝛽=

𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒(1)&(2) 𝑖𝑛(7)

𝑅2
1+𝑗𝜔𝑅2𝐶2 (8)
𝛽=
1+𝑗𝜔𝑅1𝐶1+ 𝑅2
𝑗𝜔𝐶1 1+𝑗𝜔𝑅2𝐶2

Simplifytheequation(8),

𝑗𝜔𝑅2𝐶1
𝛽= (9)
(1−𝜔2𝑅1𝑅2𝐶1𝐶2)+𝑗𝜔(𝑅1𝐶1+𝑅2𝐶2+𝑅2𝐶1)
RationalizingandSimplifyingtheequation(9),

𝜔2𝑅2𝐶1(𝑅1𝐶1+𝑅2𝐶2+𝑅2𝐶1)+𝑗𝜔𝐶1𝑅2(1−𝜔2𝑅1𝑅2𝐶1𝐶2)
𝛽= (10)
(1 − 𝜔2𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶)
1212 2+𝜔2(𝑅𝐶+
11 𝑅𝐶+𝑅𝐶)
22 2
21

Tohavezerophaseshift,imaginarypartofaboveequationmustbezero.

(1−𝜔2𝑅1𝑅2𝐶1𝐶2)=0
𝜔(𝜔2𝑅1𝑅2𝐶1𝐶2)=0but𝜔cannotbezero.So,
1
𝜔2𝑅1𝑅2𝐶1𝐶2=0⇒𝜔2=
𝑅1𝑅2𝐶1𝐶2

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⇒𝜔= √𝑅1𝑅2𝐶1𝐶2
1
(11)
m

𝒇= 𝟏Hz
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓𝑊𝑖𝑒𝑛𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑂𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟,
𝟐𝝅√𝑹𝟏𝑹𝟐𝑪𝟏𝑪𝟐
(12)

𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒,𝑅1=𝑅2=𝑅and 𝐶1=𝐶2=𝐶hence,
𝟏
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓𝑊𝑖𝑒𝑛𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑂𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟,
𝒇=𝟐𝝅𝑹𝑪𝑯𝒛

Derivetheconditionformaintenanceofoscillation:

Case (1): 𝐼𝑓 𝑅1= 𝑅2= 𝑅 and 𝐶1=𝐶2= 𝐶 𝜔=

1
𝑅
𝐻𝑧in(10),
𝐶
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑢se we get the magnitude of the feedback
3 3 𝟏 𝟏
𝖰= =9=𝟑 ⇒𝖰=𝟑
1
0+𝑅2𝐶2(3𝑅𝐶)2
network as,

As|𝐴𝛽|≥1ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒|𝐴|≥3𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑊𝑖𝑒𝑛𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑂𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟.

Thus,thegainofamplifierstagemustbeatleast3to ensuresustainedoscillationsinWienBridge Oscillator.

𝐶1≠𝐶 then use 𝜔= 𝑖𝑛 (10) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

1
Case(2):If 𝑅1≠𝑅 and
2 2 √𝑅1𝑅2𝐶1𝐶2

𝖰=𝑹𝟐𝑪𝟏 𝑹𝟏𝑪𝟏+𝑹𝟐𝑪𝟐+𝑹𝟐𝑪𝟏𝟐
⇒ ∴𝑨≥ {∵|𝐴𝛽|≥1}
𝑹𝟏𝑪𝟏+𝑹𝟐𝑪𝟐+𝑹𝟐𝑪𝟏
𝑹𝟐𝑪𝟏

LCOSCILLATORS:
OutlinetheLCtunedOscillatoranddeduceexpressionforamplifierGain,feedbackGain and
necessary condition for LC Oscillator in general.

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m
AnalysisofAmplifier stage

ApplyingKVL,

𝐼=−
𝐴𝑉𝑉𝑖

𝑂 𝐿
and𝑉=𝐼𝑍
𝑅𝑜+𝑍𝐿

𝑽𝒐 𝑨𝑽𝒁𝑳
𝑨= =−
𝑽𝒊 𝑹𝒐+𝒁𝑳

Ro–Outputimpedanceoftheamplifier stage. A–Gainofamplifierstage.

As,I=0duetoinfiniteinputimpedance,Z1andZ3appearinseriesandthe combination
in parallel with Z2as shown in figure.
Analysisoffeedbackstage
Byvoltagedivisionin parallelcircuit,

𝑉=
𝑉𝑜𝑍1
𝑓 𝑍1+𝑍3
𝑉𝑓
𝛽= =
i.e. 𝑍1

𝑉𝑜 𝑍1+𝑍3

𝒁𝟏
Butasfeedbacknetworkintroduces180°

𝖰=−
phase-shift, use negative sign

𝒁𝟏+𝒁𝟑

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TypesofLCOscillators: m

(C) HartleyOscillator:
ExplaintheworkingofHartleyOscillator.Derivetheexpressionforfrequencyofoscillationandcondition for
maintenance of oscillation.

Circuitdiagram

Construction:
 TheHartleyoscillatorcircuitusingBJTasanactivedevice.
 TheresistancesR1,R2andREarebiasing resistors
 TheRFCisradiofrequencychockwhosereactancevalueisveryhighandhighfrequencyandcanbe treated as
open circuit. While for d.c operation, it is shorted hence does not cause problems for d.c operation.
 DuetoRFC,theisolationbetweena.candd.coperationisachieved.TheC1andC2arecouplingcapacitors while
CEis the emitter bypass capacitor. The CE amplifier provides phase shift of 1800.
 Inthefeedbackcircuit,asthecentreofL1andL2isgrounded,itprovidesadditionalphaseshiftof1800. This
satisfies Barkhausen condition. In this oscillator, X1= ωL1,
X2=ωL2,X3=-1/ωC

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Analysis: m

 ForLCoscillator,X1+X2+X3=0
⸫𝜔𝐿+𝜔𝐿− =0
1
1 𝜔𝐶
2

+𝐿2 )=
1

𝜔(𝐿1
i.e
𝜔𝑐

i.e 𝑓=
1
⸫𝜔=
2𝜋√(𝐿1+𝐿2)𝐶
1

√(𝐿1
+
𝐿2)𝐶

 TheinductanceL1+L2isequivalentinductancedenotedasLeq.Tosatisfy|Aβ|=1,thenhfeof the BJT

used must be L1/L2.

𝐿1
ℎ𝑓𝑒=𝐿2
 PracticallyL1andL2arewoundonasinglecoreandthereexistsamutualinductanceM between

𝐿𝑒𝑞=𝐿1+𝐿2+2𝑀
them.

𝑓 =1 2𝜋√𝐿𝑒𝑞𝐶 and
ℎ𝑓𝑒 =𝐿1+𝑀
Inthiscase,

𝐿2+𝑀
 IfcapacitorCiskeptvariable,frequencycanbevariedoverwiderange.

DerivationoffrequencyofOscillations
 Theoutputcurrentiscollectorcurrentwhichishfe Ib,whereIb isbasecurrent.Assumingcoupling
capacitors shorted the capacitor C gets connected between collector and base.
 Asemitterisgroundedfora.canalysis,L1isbetweenemitterandbasewhileL2isbetweenemitterand collector.
 hieistheinputimpedanceofthetransistor.Theoutputcurrentis IbwhileinputcurrentishfeIb.Convert current

𝑉𝑂=ℎ𝑓𝑒𝐼𝑏𝑗𝑋𝐿2=ℎ𝑓𝑒𝐼𝑏𝑗
source to voltage source.

𝜔𝐿2
 TotalcurrentIis,
−𝑉𝑜
𝐼= [𝑋𝐿2+𝑋𝐶]+[𝑋𝐿1||ℎ𝑖𝑒]

1 −𝜔2𝐿2𝐶+1
 NegativesignisbecausedirectionofIisoppositetothepolaritiesofVo

𝑋𝐿2+𝑋𝐶=𝑗𝜔𝐿2+ = 𝑗𝜔𝐶
𝑗𝜔𝐶
𝑋 ||ℎ
DownloadedfromEnggTree.c
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 𝑗𝜔𝐿1ℎ𝑖𝑒
EnggTree.co
= 𝐿1 𝑖𝑒
𝑗𝜔𝐿1+ℎ𝑖𝑒
m

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m −ℎ 𝐼 𝑗𝜔𝐿
⸫𝐼= −𝜔2𝐿1𝐶+1 𝑗𝜔𝐿1ℎ𝑖𝑒
𝑓𝑒 𝑏 2

𝑗𝜔𝐶 +𝑗𝜔𝐿1+ℎ𝑖𝑒
 Usingcurrentdivisionruleforparallel elements, 𝑗𝜔𝐿
𝐼
=𝐼𝑋
1
𝑏
𝑗𝜔𝐿1 +ℎ𝑖𝑒

𝐼𝑏=
−ℎ𝑓𝑒𝐼𝑏𝑗𝜔 𝑋 𝑗𝜔𝐿1
𝐿2
−𝜔 𝐿𝐶+1 𝑗𝜔𝐿ℎ
2
𝑗𝜔𝐿+ℎ
𝑗𝜔𝐶 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿1+ℎ𝑖𝑒
2 1𝑖𝑒 1 𝑖𝑒

𝑗𝜔3ℎ𝑓𝑒𝐶𝐿1𝐿2
1= 𝐿 𝐶ℎ𝑖𝑒(𝐿1+𝐿2)+𝑗𝜔𝐿1+ℎ𝑖𝑒
⸫
−𝑗𝜔3𝐿1 2
𝑗𝜔3ℎ𝑓𝑒𝐶𝐿1𝐿2
⸫ 1=
[ℎ𝑖𝑒−𝜔2𝐶ℎ𝑖𝑒( +𝐿 )] (1−𝜔2𝐿 𝐶)
1
2 +𝑗𝜔𝐿1 2
𝐿
 RationalizingR.H.Softheaboveequation,

1 2𝐶(1−𝜔 𝐿2𝐶)+𝑗𝜔 ℎ𝑓𝑒𝐿1𝐿2𝐶[ℎ𝑖𝑒−𝜔 𝐶ℎ𝑖𝑒(𝐿1+𝐿2)]

𝜔4ℎ𝑓𝑒𝐿2𝐿 2 3 2
1=
[ℎ −𝜔2𝐶ℎ(𝐿 +𝐿)]2+𝜔2𝐿2(1−𝜔2𝐿 𝐶)2
𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝑒 1 2 1 2

 ImaginarypartofR.H.SofaboveequationmustbeZero

+𝐿 )=0
1
𝑖.𝑒𝜔= (𝜔3 ℎ𝑖 𝐿 𝐿 𝐶≠0)
1−𝜔3𝐶(𝐿1
⸫
√𝐶(𝐿+𝐿) 𝑓
2 ℎ 𝑒
𝑒 1 2
1 2

11
𝑓 ==2𝜋√𝐶(𝐿1+ 𝐿2)2𝜋√𝐶𝐿𝑒𝑞
1
𝑤𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑡
 Equatingmagnitudeofbothsidesoftheequationandusing𝜔=
√𝐶(𝐿1+𝐿2)

ℎ𝑓𝑒 ℎ𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
=
𝐿
1
𝐿 𝑒
2
 Inpractice,L1andL2maybewoundonasinglecoresothatthereexistsamutual
inductance between them denoted as M.
 Insuchacase,themutualinductanceisconsideredwhiledeterminingtheequivalent
DownloadedfromEnggTree.c
Leq=L 1+L2+2M
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inductance Leq, m
 IfL1andL2areassistingeachother,thensignof2MispositivewhileifL1 andL2arein series
opposition then sign of 2M is negative.

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Advantage: m
 Thefrequencycanbeeasily variedbyvariablecapacitor
 Theoutputamplituderemainsconstant overthefrequencyrange
 ThefeedbackratioofL1 andL2remainsconstant
 Itcanbeoperatedoverwiderangeoffrequency

Disadvantage:
 Theoutputis richin harmonicshence notsuitable forpuresinewaverequirement
 Poorfrequencystability

Applications:
 UsedaslocaloscillatorsinTVandradioreceivers
 Infunctiongenerators
 Inradiofrequency sources

(D) COLPITTSOSCILLATOR:
ExplaintheworkingofColpittsOscillator.Derivetheexpressionforfrequencyofoscillationandcondition for
maintenance of oscillation.
(OR)
Withaneatcircuitdiagramdeducethenecessaryconditionforoscillationsandexpressionforoscillation frequency in the
case of Colpitts Oscillator.

Construction:

 Itusestwocapacitiveresistancesandoneinductivereactancein itsfeedbacknetwork.
 TheamplifierstageusesBJTincommonemitterconfigurationproviding180ophaseshift.Theresistance R1,
R2and REare the biasing resistors.
 The RFC is radio frequency choke providing insulation between AC and DC operations. The CC1 and
CC2arecouplingcapacitors.Inthefeedbackcircuit,as thecenterC1andC2aregrounded,itprovidesadditional
phase shift of 1800, satisfying Barkhausen angle condition.

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 Inthisoscillator𝑋1 −1 𝑋2=−1 𝑋3=𝜔𝐿
m
= 𝜔𝐶1 𝜔𝐶2

1 1 1
− +𝜔𝐿=0 i.e𝜔𝐿= [1+ ]
 ForLCoscillator,X1+X2+X3=0
1
⸫−
𝜔𝐶1 𝜔𝐶 𝜔𝐶1 𝐶2
12
⸫𝜔2= where𝐶1𝐶2 = 𝑒𝑞
𝐶
𝐿[𝐶1𝐶2
] 𝐶1+𝐶2
𝐶1+𝐶2
1

𝑓= 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1+𝐶2

⸫𝜔= i.e 1 𝐶1𝐶2
√𝐿𝐶𝑒𝑞

𝐶
 TosatisfymagnitudeconditionofBarkhausencriterion,thehfeofBJTusedisgivenby

2ℎ𝑓𝑒=
𝐶
1

DerivationofFrequencyofoscillations

 Theequivalentcircuitandsimplifiedequivalentcircuit.

= =−
𝑗
−𝑗ℎ𝑓𝑒𝐼𝑏
𝑉=ℎ 𝐼𝑋 = 𝜔𝐶2
1
…..𝑋
0 𝑓𝑒𝑏𝐶2 𝐶2
𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝜔𝐶2
2
 ThetotalcurrentdrawnIis,
−𝑉0
𝐼= [𝑋𝐶2+𝑋𝐿]+[𝑋𝐶1||
ℎ𝑖𝑒]
−𝑗
−𝑗(1−𝜔2𝐿𝐶2)
𝑋𝐶2+𝑋𝐿= +𝑗𝜔𝐿= 𝜔𝐶2
𝐶 𝜔

− 𝑗 𝑋 𝑖𝑒
2

𝜔 ℎ −𝑗ℎ𝑖𝑒
𝑋𝐶1|| 𝐶1 = −𝑗+𝜔𝐶ℎ
ℎ𝑖𝑒= 𝑗
− −[−
𝜔𝐶1 +ℎ
1𝑖𝑒

𝑖𝑒
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ℎ 𝑓𝑒𝐼𝑏
𝑗 ]
m

𝐼= 𝜔𝐶2
−𝑗(1−𝜔2𝐿𝐶 2) −𝑗ℎ𝑖𝑒
𝜔𝐶2 −−𝑗+𝜔𝐶1ℎ𝑖𝑒
 Usingcurrentdivisionruleforparallelelements

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−𝑗𝐼
𝜔
m
𝐼𝑏 =𝐼 = −𝑗 +𝜔𝐶ℎ
𝐶1
𝑋 −𝑗
+ℎ𝑖𝑒 1𝑖𝑒
𝜔
𝐶1 𝑗ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝐼 =−𝑗[ 𝐼𝑏 1 ]
][
𝜔𝐶

−𝑗(1−𝜔2𝐿𝐶2) −𝑗ℎ𝑖 −𝑗+𝜔𝐶1ℎ𝑖𝑒

2
𝑏

𝜔𝐶2
−𝑗+
𝑒

𝜔𝐶1ℎ
1=𝑓𝑒
1
−ℎ 𝑖𝑒
--------------
(1−𝜔2𝐿𝐶2)+𝑗𝜔ℎ𝑖𝑒[𝐶1+𝐶2−𝜔2𝐿𝐶1𝐶2]

i.e 𝜔 = =
2 𝐶 1 + 2𝐶 1
 Tohaveimaginarypartofaboveequa tio n zero
C1+C2-ω2LCC=0
𝐿𝐶1𝐶2 𝐶 𝐶
𝐿[𝐶11+𝐶22]
12

1 1 𝐶1𝐶2
𝜔= 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑓= 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑒𝑞= 𝐶1+𝐶2
√𝐿𝐶𝑒𝑞 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶𝑒𝑞
 Substitutingωinequation1andequatingmagnitudesofbothsides

𝐶2
ℎ𝑓𝑒=𝐶1

Advantages:
 Pureoutput waveform
 Goodstability at high frequency
 Improvedperformanceat high frequency
 Widerangeoffrequency
 Simpleconstruction

Disadvantages:
 Difficulttoadjust thefeedback
 Poorisolation
Applications:
 Itsmainapplicationishighfrequencyfunctiongenerators.

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(E) CRYSTALOSCILLATOR: m
Describeandexplaintheoperationofthecrystaloscillator.
(OR)
Can you use Piezo-Electric effect for electric oscillators? If so, explain
acomponentwithsuchcharacteristics.Alsodrawacircuitforthesame.
 Thecrystalsareeithernaturallyoccurringorsyntheticallymanufactured,exhibitingthepiezoelectriceffect
 Thepiezoelectriceffectmeansundertheinfluenceofmechanicalpressure,thevoltagegetsgenerated across
the opposite faces of the crystal
 Ifthemechanicalforceisappliedinsuchawaytoforcethecrystaltovibratethea.cvoltagegetsgenerated across it.
 Everycrystalhasitsownresonatingfrequencydependingonitscut.Soundertheinfluenceofthe
mechanical vibrations, the crystal generates an electrical signal of very constant frequency
 Thecrystalhasagreaterstabilityinholdingtheconstantfrequency.Thecrystaloscillatorsarepreferred when
greater frequency stability is stability
 QuartzisacompromisebetweenthepiezoelectricactivityofRochellesalt andthestrengthofthe
tourmaline.
 Quartzisinexpensiveandeasilyavailable innaturehenceverycommonlyusedinthecrystal oscillators.

ConstructionalDetails:

 Thenaturalshapeofquartzisahexagonalprism.Butforitspracticaluse,itiscuttothe rectangularslab. This slab

is then mounted between the two metalplates.

 Themetalplates arecalledholdingplates,astheyholdthecrystal slabinbetween them.

A.C.Equivalentcircuit:
CM– Mounting Capacitance (due to two metal plates
separated by dielectric like crystal slab).
R – Resistance (internal friction loss during vibration)
L–Inductance(indicationofinertiaofmassofcrystal) C –
Capacitor (stiffness during vibrating)

 RLCformsaresonatingcircuit. Theexpressionfortheresonatingfrequencyfris,

2𝜋√𝐿𝐶√ 1+𝑄2
𝑄2
𝑓=
1
𝑟 whereQ=Qualityfactor ofcrystal

𝜔𝐿
𝑄=
𝑅

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2

√
 m
TheQfactorofthecrystalisveryhigh,typically20,000.ValueofQupto10 6
alsocanbeachieved.Hence 𝑄

1+𝑄2

1
factorapproachestounityandwegettheresonatingfrequencyas𝑓𝑟
= 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
 Thecrystalfrequencyisinfactinverselyproportionaltothethicknessofthecrystal.
 fα1wheret =Thickness
𝑡
 Sotohaveveryfrequencies,thicknessofthecrystalshouldbeverysmall
 Thecrystalhastworesonatingfrequencies,seriesresonantfrequencyandparallelresonant frequency.

Applications
 Watches
 Communicationtransmittersandreceivers

SeriesandParallelresonance:
 SeriesResonancefrequency

1
𝑓𝑠=
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

1
 ParallelResonancefrequency

𝑓𝑃 =2𝜋√𝐿𝐶𝑒𝑞

 IfweneglecttheresistanceR,theimpedanceofthecrystalisareactancejXwhichdependsonthefrequencyas,

𝑗
𝜔2− 𝜔 2
�
𝑗𝑋=−
Where,ωs=Seriesresonant

𝜔𝐶𝑀𝜔2−𝜔
�
�
frequency
2 �

 Reactanceagainstfrequencyisshowninfig.

Crystal Stability:

i. Temperaturestability
ii. Longtermstability
iii. Shorttermstability

TypesofCrystal Oscillator:
1. PierceCrystalOscillator:
2. MillerCrystalOscillator:

PierceCrystal Oscillator: MillerCrystalOscillator:

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m
ComparisonbetweenCrystalandLCOscillator:

SolvedProblems
1. In a Hartley oscillator, if L1=0.2mH, L2=0.3mH and C=0.003µF. Calculate the frequency of oscillations.
[MAY 2012]
Given:L1=0.2mH,L2=0.3mH,C=0.003µF
Tofindfrequencyofoscillationsf=1/(2π√[(L1+L2)C)]bysubstitutingf=129.949KHz

2. In a RC phase shift oscillator if R1=R2=R3=200KΩ and C1=C2=C3=100PF. Find the frequency of

oscillation? (Apr/May 2018)
Solution:
1 1
Thefrequency ofan RCphaseshiftoscillatorisgiven by
Fo= Fo=
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 2𝜋×200×103×100×10−12×√6 Fo= 3.248KHZ
√6

3. In a phase shift oscillator, R1=R2=R3=1 MΩ and C1=C2=C3=68 pF. At what frequency does the circuit
oscillate. (Nov/Dec 2018)
Given that,
Foraphaseshift oscillator, Resistance,R1=R2=R3=1 MΩ; Capacitor,C1=C2=C3=68 pF

𝑓=
1
Frequency,f=?

2𝜋𝑅𝐶√6
Frequencyofphaseshift oscillatorisgivenby,
1
Substitutingcorrespondingvaluesinaboveequation,𝑓=
2𝜋 𝑋1𝑋106𝑋68𝑋√6
=955.9𝐻𝑧 frequency,f=955.9Hz

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mat10KHz. If the value ofthe resistor R is 100Kohms, what is
4. A wien bridge oscillatoris used foroperation
the value of C required?
Solution:
Given: F=10KHZ,R =100KΩ,C=?
Thefrequencyofoscillationis
F=1 1
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 C =1 C= 2
2𝜋𝑅𝐹 𝜋×100×103×10×103

C =1.591× 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎F

5. An amplifier has a c urrent gain of 240 and input impedance of 15 k Ω without feedback. If negative
current feedback (mi = 0.015) is applied, what will be the input impedance of the amplifier? (Nov/Dec
2017)

6. DesignaWienbridgeoscillatorcircuittooscillateat afrequencyof20KHz.(Nov/Dec2015)
1
Solution:

2𝜋𝑅𝑐
f=

,𝑅=
f=20 kHz, LetC=0.01𝜇𝐹
1 1 1
= =80ohms.
2𝜋𝑅𝑐 2𝜋𝑓 2×𝜋×20000×0.01×10−6
f=
𝐶

7. A1mHinductorisavailable.Findthecapacitorvaluesofacolpitt’soscillatorsothatf=1MHzand feedback
fraction=0.25 (Nov/Dec 2018)
Solution:
Giventhat,
For a Colpitts oscillator,
Inductance,L=1mH
Resonantfrequency,f0=1MHz
Feedback factor, β = 0.25

1
TheresonantfrequencyofColpittsoscillatorisgivenby,
𝑓0= −−−−(1)
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
𝑒𝑞

Where,𝐶𝑒𝑞=
𝐶1𝐶2

𝐶1+𝐶2

1
Fromequation(1),

𝐶𝑒𝑞= 2 2 − − − −(2)
4𝜋 𝑓0 𝐿 𝐶 2
Givenfeedbackfactor,𝛽= 1
𝐶
C2=4C1
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m
Substitutingthegivenspecificationsinequation (2)

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𝐶 m=
4𝜋2(106)2𝑋10−3
𝑒𝑞
𝐶1𝐶2
=2.533𝑋10−11
𝐶1+𝐶2
4𝐶12
=2.53𝑋10−11
5𝐶1
C1= 3.166 X10-11= 31.66 pF
FromC2=4C1,
C2=4X (3.166X 10-11)

C2= 126.65 pF

8. Theoverall gainofamultistageamplifieris140.Whennegativevoltagefeedback isappliedthegainis reduced

to 17.5 find the fraction of the output that is feedback to the input. (Nov/Dec 2018)
Given that,
Foramultistagefeedbackamplifier,
Overall gain, AV= 140
Feedbackgain, Avf=17.5
Feedbackfraction,β =?

𝐴𝑣 40
Voltagegainofnegative feedbackamplifier isdefinedas,
𝐴𝑣𝑓= 17.5=
1+𝐴 � 𝛽 1+ 140𝛽

𝛽=
1
�

17.5 +2450 β =140

=0.0
20

5 β = 0.05

9. IncolpittsoscillatorC1=1nFandC2=100nF.Ifthefrequencyofoscillationis1kHzfindthevalueof inductor.
Also find the minimum gain required for obtaining sustained oscillations. (May / Jun 2016) Given
data:

C1=1nF,C2=100nF,Frequencyofoscillationf =100 kHz.

Formulaeused:

𝑓= √ ,𝐴= �
1 𝐶1+𝐶2 𝐶12𝑛
𝐿1𝐶1𝐶2
𝐶2 �

𝐿= =
𝐶1+𝐶2
Frequencyof oscillations
4𝑛2𝑓2𝐶1𝐶2
101×10−64𝑛2×(10×1000)2×
100×10−12
�
�

= ×10−5 =25.634×10−5𝐻=256.34𝜇𝐹
101
=
3.99
101×1064𝑛2×
(100000)2

𝐶1 1
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𝑉> = =0.01𝑛𝐹
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𝐶2 100

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m
hfe=𝖰 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎, 𝑪 = 𝟏.𝟓𝒏𝑭, hre=1.2KΩ(Nov.Dec 2016)
10. DesignaRCphaseShiftOscillatortogenerate5KHzsinewavewith20VpeaktoPeakamplitude. Assume

1
𝑓= 5×103=
1
𝑅=
1
2𝜋𝑅𝑐
√6 −9
2𝜋×1.5×10 √6×𝑅 2𝜋×1.5×10−9×√6×5×103

𝑅=8.67𝑘𝛺
11. InColpittsOscillator,thedesiredfrequencyis500KHz.FindthevalueofL.AssumeC=1000pF. (Apr/May 2018)

12. When negative voltage feedback is applied to an amplifier of gain 100, the overall gain falls to 50.
Calculatethefractionoftheoutputvoltagefedback.Ifthisfractionismaintained,calculatethevalueof the
amplifier gain required if the overall stage gain is to be 75. (Nov/Dec 2017)

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13. In Colpitts oscillator, C1 = C2 =C and mL=100 X 10-6 H. The frequency of oscillation is 500 KHz.
Determine the value of C. (Apr/May 2018)

14. An amplifier in required with a voltage gain of 100 which does not vary by more that 1%. If it is to use
negative feedback with a basic amplifier the voltage gain of which vary by 20%, find the minimum
voltage gain required and the feedback factor. (Nov/Dec 2018)
Solution:

𝐴𝑚
Closedloopvoltagegainof amplifier,Afisdefined as,

𝐴𝑓 = − −−−−(1)
1+𝐴𝑚𝛽
100=
𝐴𝑚
1+𝐴𝑚𝛽
𝐴𝑚=100+100𝐴𝑚𝛽 −−−−−(2)
Since,feedbackvoltagegain,Afdoesnotvarymorethan1%andamplifiergainvariesby20%equation(1)can be written
as,

99= 0.8𝐴𝑚
1+0.8𝐴𝑚𝛽
0.8𝐴𝑚=99+79.2𝐴𝑚𝛽 −−−−−(3)

0.792 𝐴𝑀=79.2 +79.2 𝐴𝑚𝛽 −−−−−(4)

Multiplyingequation(1)with0.792orbothsides,

Subtractingequation(3)and (4),

=
19.8
𝐴𝑚
0.008Am=19.8; Am= 2475
0.008

SubstitutingAminequation(2),
2475 =100 +100 X2475 Xβ
𝛽= 2475−100 β = 0.0096
2475𝑋100
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⸫Feedbackfactor, β=0.0096andminimum
m voltagegainAm=2475V.

------------------------------------------- -- ---
D o w--n--l-o--a--d---e--d---f-r-o--m-----E--n--g--g---T--r-e--e--.--c-o---
m-------------------------------------------------
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m
AdditionalImportant Questions:

6. Discusstheeffectforthefollowingnegativefeedbackamplifiersandderivetheexpressionforinput
resistance, output resistance and voltage gain for common emitter amplifier.
A. VOLTAGESERIESFEEDBACK
B. VOLTAGESHUNTFEEDBACK
C. CURRENTSERIESFEEDBACK
D. CURRENTSHUNTFEEDBACK

(A) VOLTAGESERIESFEEDBACK

DrawcircuitofCEamplifierwithVoltageSeriesfeedbackandobtaintheexpressionforfeedbackratio,voltage gain,
input and output resistances.

Input is the feedback network is parallel with output of amplifier

shuntconnectiontoreduceoutputresistance𝑅𝑜seriesconnectionat the
input increase the input resistance.
𝑉𝑓
=
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝛽 𝑉
𝑜

Gain

AmplifierGain𝐴𝑣 𝑉𝑜
= 𝑉𝑖

𝑉𝑜=𝐴𝑣𝑉𝑖−− −(1)

Feedbackisconnected 𝑉𝑠=𝑉𝑖+𝑉𝑓 ; 𝑉𝑖=𝑉𝑠−𝑉𝑓

Now 𝑉𝑠=𝑉𝑖+𝛽𝑉𝑜=𝑉𝑖+𝛽𝐴𝑣𝑉𝑖

𝑉𝑠=𝑉𝑖(1+𝐴𝛽) −−− (2)

𝑉𝑖=𝑉𝑠−𝑉𝑓 & 𝑉𝑖=𝐼𝑖𝑅𝑖

∴𝑉𝑠=𝑉𝑖+𝑉𝑓=𝐼𝑖𝑅𝑖+𝐴𝛽𝑉𝑖

=𝐼𝑖𝑅𝑖+𝐴𝛽𝑅𝑖𝐼𝑖

𝑉𝑠=𝑅𝑖𝐼𝑖(1+𝐴𝛽)

Now,InputImpedance𝑍 𝑉𝑖 𝐼𝑖𝑅𝑖(1+𝐴𝛽)
𝑖𝑓 = 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑖
𝑖

𝑉𝑖
= (1+𝐴𝛽)
𝐼𝑖

𝑍𝑖𝑓=𝑍𝑖(1+𝐴𝛽)

Outputimpedance,𝑉𝑜=𝑅𝑜𝐼𝑜+𝐴𝑉𝑖,𝑉𝑖=𝑉𝑠−
𝑉𝑃

𝑉𝑠=0

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m

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∴𝑉
m 𝑜=𝐼𝑜𝑅𝑜−𝐴𝛽𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝑜+𝐴𝛽𝑉𝑜=𝐼𝑜𝑅𝑜

𝑉𝑜(1+𝐴𝛽)=𝐼𝑜𝑅𝑜

𝑉𝑜 𝑅𝑜
𝐼 =1+ 𝐴𝛽
𝑜
𝑅𝑜
=
𝑍 1+ 𝐴𝛽
𝑜

𝑅𝑜→𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘.
𝐼𝑒 𝐼𝑏+𝐼𝑐
𝐴= = =1+ ℎ

𝐼𝑏
𝑖 𝑓𝑒
𝐼𝑏
𝑅𝑖=ℎ𝑖𝑒+(1+ℎ𝑓𝑒)𝑅𝐸

𝐴 𝐶𝑅𝐿 =(1+ℎ𝑓𝑒)𝑅𝐿 =1− ℎ𝑖𝑒

𝐴=
𝑉 𝑅
� ℎ𝑖𝑒+(1+ℎ𝑓𝑒)𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑖

𝑅𝑜 =ℎ𝑖𝑒+𝑅𝑠
1+ℎ𝑓𝑒

𝑅𝑜𝑓=𝑅𝑜 ⃦𝑅𝑐

(B) VOLTAGESHUNTFEEDBACKAMPLIFIER

DrawcircuitofCEamplifierwithVoltageShuntfeedbackandobtaintheexpressionforfeedbackratio,voltage gain,
input and output resistances. (April / May 2015 -R13)

TransresistanceAmplifier Connection

Diagram:

𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛∶ 𝐴
= 𝐼𝑠
𝐹 = 𝐼
𝑖

𝐼𝑠=𝐼𝑖+𝐼𝑓

=𝐼𝑖+𝛽𝑉𝑜

𝐼𝑠=𝐼𝑖+𝐴𝛽𝐼𝑖=𝐼𝑖(1+𝐴𝛽)

𝐴=
𝑉𝑜
=
𝐴𝐼𝑖
=
𝐴 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘.
𝐹 𝐼𝑠 𝐼𝑖(1+𝐴𝛽) 1+𝐴𝛽

∴Thegainoftheamplifierwithoutfeedbackisreducedbyafactor of (1+𝐴𝛽)

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𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒: m
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖
𝑍= ; ; 𝑍= ; 𝑍= ; 𝑍= ;
𝑍=
𝑉𝑖
𝑖 𝐼 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝐼(1+𝐴𝛽
𝑖𝐼𝑖+𝐼𝑓
𝑠 𝑖 )
𝐼𝑖+𝛽𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑖+𝐴
𝑍𝑖 𝑍𝑖 𝛽𝐼𝑖
= (1+𝐴
𝛽)

Inputimpedanceisreducedbythefactor (1+𝐴𝛽)forbothseries,shuntfeedbackconnection. Output

Impedance

𝑉𝑜= 𝑅𝑜𝐼𝑜−𝐴𝐼𝑖 𝐼𝑖=𝐼𝑆−𝐼𝐹,𝐼𝑓𝐼𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝐼𝑠=0

=𝑅𝑜𝐼𝑜−𝐴𝐼𝐹 ∴ 𝐼𝑖=−𝐼𝐹

𝑉𝑜+𝐴𝛽𝑉𝑜=𝑅𝑜𝐼𝑜 𝑉𝑜(1+𝐴𝛽)=𝑅𝑜 𝐼𝑜

𝑉𝑜 𝑅𝑜 𝑉𝑜 𝑅𝑜
𝐼𝑜 = 1+𝐴𝛽
𝑍= 𝑜 =𝐼𝑜 1+𝐴𝛽

(C) CURRENTSHUNTFEEDBACKAMPLIFIER

DrawcircuitofCEamplifierwithCurrentShuntfeedbackandobtainthe expressionforfeedbackratio,voltage gain, input

and output resistances. (April / May 2015 -R13)

ConnectionDiagram

𝑉
𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛,𝐴= 𝐼𝑆 =𝐼𝑖+𝐼𝐹
𝑜

𝐼𝑖
𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝛽
𝐼𝐹=𝛽𝐼𝑜
𝐼
=
𝐹

𝐼𝑜 𝐼𝑜=𝐴
𝐼𝑖
Gainofthe Amplifier

=
𝐼𝑜 𝐴𝐼𝑖 𝐴𝐼𝑖 𝐴𝐼𝑖
𝐴=
𝐹 𝐼= = 𝐴
𝐴 𝐹=
𝑠
𝐼𝑖+𝐼𝐹
1+ 𝛽𝐴
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𝐼𝑖+𝛽𝐼𝑜 𝐼𝑖+𝛽𝐴𝐼𝑖
m

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InputImpedance: m

𝐼𝑠=𝐼𝑖 +𝐼𝐹
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖
𝐼= + 𝛽𝐼; 𝐼= +𝐴𝛽𝐼; = + 𝐴𝛽 𝑖; = (1+𝐴𝛽)
𝐼 𝑉 𝐼
𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑖
𝑠 𝑜 𝑠 𝑖 𝑠 𝑠
𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑖
Inputresistanceofamplifierwithfeedback𝑅𝑖𝑓
𝑉𝑖 𝑅𝑖
𝑅𝑖𝑓 = 𝐼𝑠 1+𝐴𝛽

OutputImpedance:

𝐼𝑠=𝐼𝑖+𝐼𝐹 𝐼𝑖=𝐼𝑠−𝐼𝐹

𝐼𝑠=0,Sourcetransferredtooutputsidetocalculatetheoutputimpedance.

𝐼𝑜 𝑉𝑜
=𝐴𝐼𝑖+
𝑅𝑜
𝑉𝑜
=(1+𝐴𝛽)
𝑅𝑜
𝑉
𝑅= 𝑜=𝑅(1+𝐴𝛽)
𝑅𝑜
𝐹 𝑜

Thus,outputimpedanceincreasedby (1+𝐴𝛽)

(D) CURRENTSERIESFEEDBACKAMPLIFIER

DrawcircuitofCEamplifierwithCurrentSeriesfeedbackandobtaintheexpressionforfeedbackratio,voltagegain, input
and output resistances. (April / May 2015 -R13)

TransconductanceAmplifier:

𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑜 𝐼𝑜
= =
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𝐴𝑉𝑖 𝐴𝑉𝑖
=
m
𝑉𝑖+𝛽𝐼𝑜 𝑉𝑖+𝐴𝛽𝑉𝑖
⥤

𝐴= 𝐴𝑉𝑖
= 𝐴
𝐹 𝑉𝑖(1+𝐴𝛽) 1+𝐴𝛽

EquivalentCircuit

InputImpedance:

𝑉𝑠=𝐼𝑖𝑅𝑖+𝑉𝐹

=𝐼𝑖𝑅𝑖+𝛽𝐼𝑜

=𝐼𝑖𝑅𝑖+𝐴𝛽𝑉𝑖

=𝐼𝑖𝑅𝑖+𝐴𝛽𝐼𝑖𝑅𝑖

=𝐼𝑖𝑅𝑖(1+𝐴𝛽)
𝑉𝑠
𝑍= =𝑅(1+𝐴𝛽)

𝐼𝑖
𝑖 𝑖

∴ 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑

𝑏𝑦𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟(1+𝐴𝛽) Output Impedance:

𝑉𝑠=0

𝑉𝑠=𝑉𝑖+𝑉𝐹

𝑉𝑖+𝑉𝐹=0; 𝑉𝑖=−𝑉𝐹
𝑉 𝑉
𝐼=𝐴𝑉+ =−𝐴𝑉+
𝑜 𝑜

𝑜 𝑖 𝑖 𝑍𝑜
𝑍𝑜
𝑉
=−𝐴𝛽𝐼𝑜 + 𝑜
𝑍𝑜
𝐼
𝐼(1 +𝐴𝛽)=
𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜
+ 𝐴𝛽𝐼 = ;
𝑜 𝑜 𝑜
𝑉𝑜 𝑜 𝑍 𝑍𝑜

𝑍 = = 𝑍(1+𝐴𝛽)

𝐼𝑜
𝑂𝐹 𝑜

Theoutputimpedanceisincreasedbyfactor(1+𝐴𝛽)

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7. Sketchthecircuitdiagramofatwo-stagecapacitorcoupledBJTamplifierthatusesseriesvoltagenegative
feedback. Briefly explain hoethe feedback operates (Nov/Dec 2015)
Itisashuntornodalsamplingandseriesmixing.Alsocascadingmeanstwoormoreamplifierareconnectedinseries using
coupling capacitor or coupling elements. This is shown in fig.

Abovefigshowscascadedvoltageseriesamplifier.Thisanalysis of
cascaded amplifiers is as follows.

Step 1:

RFandRE1actsasfeedback.The,
i) ßnetworkisdirectlytakenfromV0.Therefore,itiscalledvoltagesampled.
ii)
Also𝛽networkisnotdirectlyconnectedtobasehenceitisnotshuntmixingandthereforeitisseries feedback.

Therefore,thevoltageseriesfeedbackX0,XS,Xi,Xfarevoltages.Thenitsanalysisisasfollowings.

𝐒𝐭𝐞𝐩𝟐∶
𝛽 𝑉𝑓
=
𝑉0
𝑉0
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑉=( )𝑅
𝑓 𝐸1
𝑅𝑓+𝑅𝐸1

𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜
𝑉
(𝑅 +𝑅
0 )𝑅𝐸1

,𝛽=
𝑓 𝐸1

𝑉0
∴ 𝑅𝐸1
𝛽=
𝑅𝑓+𝑅𝐸1

𝐒𝐭𝐞𝐩𝟑∶𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒
𝑟.=

(𝑖)𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑔𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑋0=

0;𝑖.𝑒.,𝑉0= 0

(𝑖𝑖)𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑔𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑝𝑢𝑡𝐼𝑖 = 0

𝐴𝑛𝑦ℎ𝑜𝑤, 𝑅𝐸=𝑅𝐸1 ⃦𝑅𝑓 (𝑜𝑟)

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𝐸
𝑅𝐸1+𝑅𝑓

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𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜,m
𝑅𝐿2=𝑅𝐶2 ⃦(𝑅𝑓+𝑅𝐸1)

𝑅𝐶2×(𝑅𝑓+𝑅𝐸1)
𝑅 =
𝐿2
𝑅𝐶2+𝑅𝑓+𝑅𝐸1

Thisisthebasicamplifierequivalentcircuitisasinfigure 3.40

Here,thefirststageiscommon emitter connection withfeedbackresistor𝑅𝑓𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑅𝐸1isalso called𝒈𝒍𝒐𝒃𝒂𝒍𝒇𝒆𝒆𝒅𝒃𝒂𝒄𝒌.

𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝4∶𝐴𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡,

𝑖.𝑒., D=1+AVβ

A AV A
= or V
Vf D (1+
AVβ)

Rif=Ri×DorRi(1+ AVβ)
R0
R = or
R0 0f
D (1+ AVβ)

Fromtheabove analysisvoltage gain withfeedback 𝐴𝑉𝐹and output resistance𝑅0𝑓 is reducedby (1+ 𝐴𝛽)times, andinput
resistance (𝑅𝑖𝑓) with feedback is increased by ( 1 + 𝐴𝛽) times.

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