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Various types of cyber threats

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DOI: 10.5937/spm83-46059

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UDC 327.88::323.28
343.3::004
DOI 10.5937/spm83-46059
Review paper

Ivana Luknar

Institute for Political Studies, Belgrade

Filip Jovanović

Faculty of Project and Innovation Management, Educons University, Belgrade

VARIOUS TYPES OF CYBER THREATS

Resume

Security of the Internet and online communication has become an essential challenge in
contemporary world. Paper discusses different types of cyber threats: cyber-attack, cyber terrorism
and cybercrime. Individuals, companies and the states rely their communication and daily
functioning on information and communication technologies (ICT). The purpose of the study is to
highlight importance of the ICT safety use by pointing to seriousness of the cyber threats. The
main methods applied in paper to examine published scientific materials are: inductive and
deductive method, analytical and synthesis method, hypothetical-deductive method and method of
content analysis. Results of the study indicate need for actively dealing with cyber threats. The
intent of this study is both to inform and raise awareness of cyber threats within the communities.
Findings of the study contribute to the broader knowledge in research area.

Keywords: cyber threats, cyber-attack, cyber terrorism, cybercrime, cyber security, cyber defence


E-mail address: [email protected].

E-mail address: [email protected].

This paper was written within the research activity of the Institute for Political Studies, funded by the Ministry of
Science, Technological Development, and Innovation of the Republic of Serbia.
 INTRODUCTION

Nowadays world is facing race in development of technology. Such a competitive

atmosphere brings numerous challenges to adjust to new technologies as inevitable part of
everyday life. „Development of digital technology has produced many benefits to society, but it
has also produced a wide range of cyber threats. Those threats can seriously harm and target
individuals, industry, critical infrastructures and even governments” (Luknar 2020, 621).
Increasingly adopting of ICT and artificial intelligence all around the world, will push question of
ICT and AI reliability in the foreground. Since individuals, companies and states increasingly
relying on ICT and modern technology innovations, security of ICT and AI becomes more urgent.
Given the urgency of addressing these issues, the need for understanding of cyber threats has
increased. Analysing different types of cyber threats shows the demands for well-prepared cyber
defence both in government and private sector. Cyber threats are developing rapidly along with a
technological evolution. It is of great importance to be prepare for further cyber risks. This study
proposes actively carry out of expert’s research and cooperation, experience exchange and
training.
This study presented a wide array of literature related to cyber threats and perceptions of
it. The study is structured into eight sections, including the above introduction. Section 2 presents
methodology and theories, thereby constructing hypothetical exploratory framework. Section 3
emphasizes the topical importance of the cyber-attack and discusses theory implications about
cybercrime and cyber terrorism. Section 4 discusses the AI possibilities in cyber security. Section
5 discusses results of the analysis. Finally, Section 6 concludes this study.

METHODOLOGY AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Dealing with cyber-attack is important and not easy task. In the current research our main
objective is to draw attention to cyber threats and prevent this issue. Consideration of cyber threats
can be developed by using theoretical framework presented here. As Zhuge mentioned new
methodology to be insightful and predictable should evolved continuously with technology
development and “break the boundaries of existing disciplines” (Zhuge 2011, 1014).
 Cyber security experiences and trust to the security systems of cyber services is important
part of cyber security. Cyber security continuously developing. Exchange of best practices have a
crucial role in the cyber defence. By doing this, we aim to provide a clearer description of the
possible cyber threats. In this paper we closely examine the existing approaches to address wide
range of cyber threats. „Louvain method” may be useful in detection of cyber terrorist groups. The
identification of terrorist communities is of crucial importance as they may help to uncover and
track their cyber activities. Researchers found that this method was successful to detect “the
community structure of large networks” (Blondel et al. 2008, 1) such as cyber space (Croitoru et
al. 2015). That is a heuristic method, based on modularity optimization. Social network services
and mobile phone networks characterize large size. So, decomposing the networks into sub-units
or communities appears as promising approach (Fortunato et al. 2007). Blondel and colleagues
(2008) mentioned detection algorithms to distinguish several types of community: „divisive
algorithms detect inter-community links and remove them from the network, agglomerative
algorithms merge similar nodes/communities recursively and optimization methods are based on
the maximization of an objective function” (Blondel et al. 2008, 2).
There were numerous attempts to present a cyber-security framework. Here find enclosed
vital theories for the consideration of all kinds of cyber threats. According to that, author suggest
„a formal model of the similarity ratio” that „enables aggregation of experiences from many
services about the security system of a specific service” (Bahtiyar and Cag˘layan 2013, 290).
According to The Routine Activity Theory mitigation of cyber threats should become
routine. Theory suggests “Reducing the opportunities for cybercrime to occur, making cybercrime
more difficult to commit and by increasing the risks of detection and punishment associated with
committing cybercrime” (Choo 2011, 719). Scholars mentioned “cyber threat modelling” as “an
analytical process that is used for identifying the potential threats against a system and supporting
the selection of security requirements in the early stages of the system development life cycle”
(Mamdouh Khalil et al. 2023).
To understand how science and technology might contribute to countering all types of
cyber threats we must evaluate the nature of the threat. There are many approaches to that:
1) human approach – dealing with the cyber-attack from the aspect of the cyber-
attacker or cyber user. Weather is cyber-attack individual/personal act or act of a
member of a specific organization: terroristic or criminal, the human element is
 important part of cybersecurity. Researcher of cyber-attacks have noticed the rising
number of incidents caused by social engineering (Abraham and Chengalur-Smith
2010; Jansson and Solms 2010). Social engineering malware appear as a major
threat nowadays (Mitnick, Simon and Woyniak 2002). Jansson and Solms (2010)
presented „a holistic solution in the form of a flowchart” (Jansson and Solms 2010,
24) as guidance that may to help employees ‘do the right thing’ when they faced
with a potential social engineering attack. Researches (Siponen 2000; Luknar 2022)
found that each of us play important role in shaping the reliability of ICT. The lack
of awareness about cybersecurity policies and best practices has been identified as
trigger for malware attack (Siponen 2000);
2) technological approach – dealing with the availability of technical solutions to the
vulnerabilities that are most likely to be exploited by cyber-attackers;
3) policy approach – dealing with the vulnerabilities of targets in civil society,
examine active cyber policies and strategies;
4) legal approach – dealing with the vulnerabilities of cyber law regulation;
5) consequential approach – dealing with the nature of cyber-attack impacts; the
proportions of the cyber-attack damage.
Cyber threat is complex. This concept contains two dimensions: social and technological.
Considering the nature of researched issue, combining methods both from technical and social
sciences appears as useful solution. Below, we present a summary of scholar works experienced
in our own academic work, combined with insights from the research findings of others.

CYBER-ATTACK

Since ICTs have become fundamental tools for contemporary communication, protecting
cyber security and preventing cyber-attacks appears as crucial tasks in nowadays world. ICT use
haven’t changed the goals of communication; however, the methods and techniques continue to
evolve as new ICT means. Trust in ICT depends on the ability to securely communicate. Cyber
security main goal is to protect information and cyber service from a wide range of threats.
Identifying and classifying threats to information systems is key step to building defensive
mechanisms (Luknar 2022). Concurrently, as ICT and cyber defence procedures evolve, cyber
threat also evolves. There are so many different kinds of cyber-attacks on cyber-physical systems
(CPSs): denial of service (DoS) attacks, bias injection attack, zero dynamics attack, replay attack,
stealthy attack, eavesdropping attack, covert attack, dynamic false data injection attacks etc.
Cyber-attacks can be classified according to the one or multiple security criteria they are
threatening on: “disclosure (confidentiality) attacks, deception (integrity) attacks and disruption
(availability) attack” (Canaan et al. 2020, 5). Figure 1 shows connection between physical and
cyber layer and three types of cyber-attacks.

Figure 1.

Source: Three types of cyber-attacks (Canaan et al. 2020, 5)

Cyber-attackers increased the sophistication of their attacks. To deceive a target

contemporary cyber-attackers invest time and resources to gather personality traits and other
information about their target. Scholars found in their study a percentage of different cyber-attacks
in energy sector and trustworthy space, Figure 2 (Priyadarshini et al. 2021).
 Figure 2.

Percentage Contribution

Social Engineering

Phishing

Spoofing
9% 6%
6%
9%
8% Session Hijacking
6%
6% DoS/DDoS
3%

8% 11% Identity theft/Fraud

14% 6% Password/Brute
8% Force/Known Key Attack
Interception

Others

Source: Percentage contribution of cyber-attacks in energy sector and trustworthy space (Priyadarshini et al.
2021).

Cyber-attackers use vulnerable entry points to break through the smart grid communication
systems. For these interventions they often use the help of numerous mediums, such as the (USB)
thumb drive, viruses, and even software patches and updates. People certainly made progress in
forensic investigation, although each case and circumstances are different. Different authors have
been proposed several cyber-attack detection schemes in recent time. Rago and Hosmer (2013)
provided a basic model (Table 1) for uncovering data hiding and steganography activities in three
steps:
1) Steganography Use Discovery, refers to actions that requires access to the suspect data
storage containers in order to create a forensically sound image of the suspect’s data storage
devices. That means to examine any actions performed by the suspect that would point to
a discovery and examine of all local or remote storage devices, memory sticks, SD Cards,
web history, downloaded applications, network searches etc.
 2) Steganography Carrier Discovery means three types of analysis of each of the collected
object made in previous step: a) “signature-based anomaly detection algorithms”; b)
“sophisticated blind steganography detection algorithms”, c) human analyst examines
manually the results from two previous steps;
3) Hidden Content Extraction – essential ingredient for cracking is
discovering the steganography program that was used by the
suspect (Rago and Hosmer 2013, 214−215).

Table 1.

Source: Basic model for uncovering data hiding and steganography activities (Rago and
Hosmer 2013, 214)

Authors worldwide propose various methods to detect cyber-attack. Mo et al. propose a

computationally-efficient scheme to detect deception attacks on sensors (Mo, Chabukswar and
Sinopoli 2014). Fooladivanda and colleagues (2019) propose “dynamic state estimation schemes”
(Fooladivanda et al. 2019) that enable us to detect cyber-attacks efficiently, but these solutions do
not mitigate all possible adverse effects. These authors demonstrate the effectiveness of secure
state estimation method through simulations of the two types of attacks: synchronous generator
attacks and inverter-interfaced power supply attacks in three simulated scenarios:
1) Scenario 1: There is no cyber-attack on the microgrid.
 2) Scenario 2: The microgrid is under cyber-attack, and it is not protected by any secure
state estimation.
3) Scenario 3: The microgrid is under cyber- attack, and it is protected by the proposed
secure state estimation (Fooladivanda et al. 2019). Other scholars mentioned “noise filtration”
(Basseville and Nikiforov 1993) or “disturbance attenuation techniques” (Jiao et al. 2016) to detect
and remove malicious attacks. Diversity of cyber-attacks led to creation of different detection and
defense methods and mechanisms. That is why cyber-attackers are developing increasingly
complex stealth tactics to avoid progressive forensic procedures and data concealing detection.
“Cyber defenses need to be implemented or adapted to keep pace. A key distinction is in the nature
of cyber-attackers – they are malicious, persistent, and evolve their attacks over time” (Byrne et
al. 2014, 524). Cyber-attack could severely impact states in many different ways. Yue suggested
three techniques that each country should be run to achieve the cybersecurity: “optimal design,
persistent network vigilance and next-generation security” (Yue 2003, 565‒569).

CYBERCRIME

The rapid adoption of ICT created opportunities for crime and deviance online. ICT use
dramatically has changed crime. Cybercrime means “crimes that exist simply as a result of the use
of the Internet as a means to transmit, access, or share data” (Holt 2016, 31) There are various
forms of cybercrime. Many of them are simply electronic parallels of traditional crimes.
Cybercrime may involve a wide range of attacks that can be classified in three categories:
1) “crimes specific to the internet”;
2) “traditional” crimes such as fraud and forgery committed online;
3) “illegal online content”, including pornographic and child sexual abuse material,
glorification of violence, terrorism, racism and xenophobia etc. (Luknar 2022, 149).
Henson noticed that “cybercrime victimization is often considered less serious than
traditional street crime because of the lack of direct physical contact between the offender and
victim” (Henson, Reyns, and Fisher 2016, 567). Studies found that individuals felt emotional upset
produced by cybercrime victimization (Symantec 2010). Some types of cyber victimization were
very extreme and may influence mental health (Hinduja and Patchin 2010; Mitchell, Finkelhor,
and Becker-Blease 2007). Although a lot has been done regarding this issue, there are still several
major limitations that affect our cybercrime defense and knowledge:
● the lack of official data sources that can be use to estimate prevalence or incidence of
cybercrime, and may help better to understand the nature of this criminal events.
● the lack of information – People are aware of cybercrime threat. In 2019 the Cyber
Barometer from Europe Assistance and LEXIS published results of survey that was
conducted in 9 countries (the United States, Italy, France, Spain, Switzerland, Austria,
Hungary, Czech Republic, and Romania). 800 consumers from each country, ages 25-75
took part in this survey. Study has found that “46% of consumers are worried about
cybercrime. This number rises to 49 percent for respondents with elderly parents and 54
percent for those with children” (Europ Assistance 2019). Other study found that “the
general public must become more cognizant of the threat and severity of cybercrimes.
There is some evidence that citizens either do not know whom to contact in the event that
they experience cybercrimes or think that this experience may not be treated in the same
fashion as being the victim of street crime” (Holt 2016, 41).
● cybercrime law – People (criminologists, lawyers, policy makers etc.) have begun to
examine ways in which individual utilize technology to engage in crime. The Cybercrime
Convention is multinational agreement (Sunde 2018) in which parties must criminalize
certain cybercrimes in their national substantive criminal law. Local law enforcement,
should be “capable of ensuring that cybercrimes can be properly investigated at all levels
of law enforcement” (Holt 2016, 41). “One major issue is that ‘traditional’ lawyers may
not be fully aware of technological developments, whereas technical security experts may
not be fully aware of legal issues. This has given rise to a new category of legal advice
involving hybrid specialists with legal and technical knowledge, rather than a coordinated
team of legal experts working with cyber security experts” (Boobier 2020, 239).
There is a need for the development and assessment of contemporary policy and contra measures
against cybercrime. Here are some “recommendations that can be taken to ensure
multilevel defense of cybercrime:
1) Consciousness use of the internet;
2) Consciousness implementation of new digital technology
3) International monitoring, juridical cooperation
 4) Multilevel transnational cooperation
5) Reducing dark number
6) Law enforcement responses
7) Improve cybercrime policing
8) Dedicated well trained police personnel” (Luknar 2022, 149)

CYBER TERRORISM

Cyber terrorism and cybercrime are two different concepts. Imagine the following
scenario: terrorist hacks into a personal bank account to steal funds. This is a case of cybercrime
committed by a terrorist, even if the gained money will be used to support terrorism. Although
cybercrime and cyber terrorism may seem difficult to divide, cyber terrorist’s actions characterize
ideological motivation, not pure profit. Cybercriminals intent to satisfy their personal needs and
desires. Criminal violence is often opportunistic. Cyber terrorist’s aim is to achieve a political,
social, or religious change. Cyber terrorist’s activities imply fatal level of distraction so they can
send certain political message or produce fear on a larger scale. Terrorist are motivated by the
future outcomes of their acts. They see present and past as opposite of their aims. “Terrorists now
have the unprecedented ability to disrupt our lives, hold information hostage, and/or cause
widescale damage by attacking just a few non-human targets that comprise single points of failure
within our technology infrastructures” (Rogers 2003, 90). To discuss cyber terrorism, it is
necessary to understand the attraction of cyberspace for the terrorist, and the nature of traditional
terrorism. The motivation for cyber terrorism attack is the same as for the traditional terrorism.
Studies have found different motivation for becoming terrorist. It seems to vary as much as the
personalities of the terrorists themselves (Rogers 2003; Reich 1990).
Rogers (2003) defines cyber terrorist as “individual who uses computer/network
technology to control, dominate or coerce through the use of terror in furtherance of political or
social objectives” (Rogers 2003, 78). “The targets selected by terrorists will depend on their goals,
but the choice of attacks will depend on five important criteria: opportunity to
(a) Inflict loss of human life in large numbers,
(b) Destroy important physical facilities,
(c) Exact severe economic damage for a persisting period of time,
 (d) Disrupt the institutions of government, and
(e) Attack symbols of civil culture most detested by the terrorists” (Branscomb 2004, 274).
Bennet (2017) mentioned some of the objectives of terrorism:
● “Demonstrate the group’s power over the population and government;
● Show the existing government’s lack of power to interfere or stop terrorist
operations.
● Exact revenge for perceived persecution and satisfy the group’s vengeance.
● Gain worldwide, national, or local publicity for the group’s cause by attracting
media coverage” (Bennet 2017, 9). Cyber-attack may couse various kinds of effects
like misinformation, degradation of GPS, confusion, displaying private data etc.
(Yannakogeorgos 2012) .
Confronting cyber terrorism requires readiness and vigilance at all time, despite the
apparent absence of visible terrorist activity. “To understand how science and technology might
contribute to countering terrorism, one must evaluate the nature of the threat, the vulnerabilities of
targets in civil society, and the availability of technical solutions to the vulnerabilities that are most
likely to be exploited by terrorists” (Branscomb 2004, 272).

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Artificial intelligence has engendered a great deal of excitement and controversy. Our
fascination with AI runs deeper than fear. The allure of AI is unquestionable. Worldwide AI debate
is based on two issues. First issue is connected with its widespread use in a nowadays world
without adequate law frame. It concerns the consequences. Second issue is about AI limitations.
With risk and consequence, arises question of substantive AI ethic. Its ethical principles are matter
of reflections and speculation. That is why some authors see AI as threat. “AI is also leading to a
whole new generation of autonomous weapons and countless variants of extremely dangerous
cyber-attack tactics, including “deep fakes”. This of course does not mean that AI is evil per se,
but that humans could rely on AI to realize both virtuous and malicious goals, including building
more deadly weapons and breaking security walls” (Renda 2019, 5).
AI algorithms showed incredible possibilities. AI has already applied in various sectors
such as: digital platforms, defense, cyber security, e-banking, healthcare, energy, insurance, e-
commerce etc. We have the chance to make AI policy choices and application of AI algorithms in
a best possible way to improve cyber security from various cyber threats. Recommendation is to
integrally connected AI algorithms to the concept of cyber threat. While different simulations can
be used for cyber defense trainings and education about diverse cyber threats. As Renda noticed
“new risks will also emerge” (Renda 2019, 22). So, governments should consider “the
restructuring of cyber security and cyber-resilience plans, with the creation of pervasive, diffuse
networks of data collection points, coupled with the centralization of processing power into high
performance computers” (Renda 2019, 22).

DISCUSSION

With all the innovations in information and communication technology it is clearly

accurate that contemporary states in general have become more dependent on network
infrastructure. It is necessary for governments to take preventative actions towards all kinds of
cyber threats. Governments should consider all infrastructures that rely on technology to run
effective cyber defense. Each technological components of the infrastructures must be analyzed to
reach high level of preparedness against cyber vulnerabilities. Economically undeveloped
countries can’t financially afford the high-tech devices, but should consider every possibility to
protect critical infrastructures. Cyber-attacker knows no boundaries. As studies have shown in the
last few years, a lot has been done on the cyber security issue. Despite, there is a problem with the
longevity of high – tech protection. Humans can very well miss out to provide effective cyber
security if they don’t continuously follow the trends of technological innovations. Stay in touch
with newest forms of technology possibilities is prerequisite for dealing with this issue. Monitoring
and evaluation of developed cyber security framework worldwide, provides opportunities to
improve on time cyber defense. It is necessary to consider all possibilities of artificial intelligence
in dealing with cyber threats. The quality of our cyber security depends on the quality of our
approach to cyber threats. A multidisciplinary approach appears as desirable, as cyber threats arise
from actions made in complex cyber-physical space. Study highlighted importance of combining
methods both from technical and social sciences. Future research directions should also propose
different methods in dealing with cyber threats.
 CONCLUSION

We have witnessed a significant growth in the use of ICT and artificial intelligence. Covid-
19 pushed information and communication technologies to become dominant means of interacting
and collaborating. The intersection of the physical and cyber spaces creates new complex virtual
spaces for collaboration and interaction. Gaining a better understanding of different kinds of cyber
threats is a substantial scientific challenge that may improve our ability to better response to cyber
threats. Cyber-attack could produce considerably different consequences, threatening people
activities and life. Despite many efforts that have been made to find solutions to cyber security
problems, contemporary defense and cyber policies deals with what was done in past. Achieve
efficient cybersecurity is not easy. Only, continuous cooperation and tracking trends in technology
development may lead to good prevention of various cyber threats.

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političke studije.
 Ивана Лукнар1

Институт за политичке студије, Београд

Филип Јовановић2

Факултет за пројектни и иновациони менаџмент, Едуконс универзитет, Београд

РАЗЛИЧИТЕ ВРСТЕ САЈБЕР ПРЕТЊИ

Сажетак

Безбедност интернета и онлајн комуникација постали су један од суштинских изазова

садашњице. У раду се разматрају различите врсте сајбер претњи као што су: сајбер напад,
сајбер тероризам и сајбер криминал. Појединци, компаније и државе се готово свакодневно
у свом раду и комуникацији ослањају на функционисање информационо-комуникационих
технологија (ИКТ). Сврха студије је да се укаже на значај безбедности информационо-
комуникационих технологија, указивањем на различите врсте сајбер претњи које могу да
настану услед примене ИКТ и да изазову озбиљне последице. Приликом истраживања
научне грађе на поменуту тему примењене су различите методе: индуктивна и дедуктивна
метода, аналитичко-синтетичка метода, хипотетичко-дедуктивни метод и метода анализе
садржаја. Резултати студије указују на потребу за континуираним и активним праћењем
свих врста сајбер претњи. Намера ове студије је да информише јавност поводом овог
проблема и подигне свест о евентуалним сајбер претњама унутар друштва. Налази студије
доприносе проширивању знања у овој области истраживања.

Кључне речи: сајбер претње, сајбер напад, сајбер тероризам, сајбер криминал, сајбер
безбедност, сајбер одбрана

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Имејл-адреса: [email protected].

Имејл-адреса: [email protected].
* Овај рад је примљен 18. августа 2023. године, а прихваћен на састанку Редак­ције 06. фебруара 2024. године.

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