Digital Communication

Course Code: 20ECE301T

B.Tech. 5th Sem. EC
Dr. Devlina Adhikari
Assistant Prof., ICT Dept., PDPU, Gandhinagar
Contents:

•Unit I: Digital Baseband

Communication Techniques
•Unit II: Digital Carrier Communication
Systems
•Unit III: Signal Shaping, Transmission
and Optimum Reception
•Unit IV: Advanced Concepts and Way Forward
Pre-requisite: Circuits & Systems, Analog Communication
Unit III:
Signal Shaping, Transmission and Optimum Reception

Baseband transmission of binary data, Line Coding Formats and Properties,

Inter Symbol Interference (ISI), Cross talk and solutions, Different Pulse
Shaping and Signaling Schemes, Eye Diagram, Baseband Receiver:
Equalizations, Regenerative Repeater, Optimum Receiver for AWGN
channels, Matched Filter, Likelihood ratio receiver and Correlation receiver
designs, Noise performance of various digital modulation schemes and
comparisons.
• Ref. Books:
1. P. Chakrabarti, “Analog and Digital Communication”, Dhanpat Rai &
Co.
2. B. P. Lathi, Zhi Ding, “Modern Digital and Analog Communication
Systems”, Oxford University Press.
3. Simon Haykin, “Digital Communication Systems”, John Wiley
MODULE - I

Line Coding
 Fundamental Building Block of Baseband Data
Communication System:

•Baseband signal: The original band of frequencies of a signal. No actual carrier or high
frequency modulation is involved.
•Baseband transmission use Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) to send data from vario
us sources to utilize the full bandwidth of the transmission channel.
6
•Source coding also involves compression and/or encryption optionally.
 Line Coding: Transmission Coding:
Data Formatting
• In order to transmit, an information signal over a digital
communications system; it must first be formatted so that it is
represented by digital symbols (usually binary digits or bits).
• Next, these digital or binary representations must be converted
into electrical waveforms that are suitable for transmission over
the communication channel (e.g. telephone cable ).
• In baseband digital transmission, the electrical waveforms used
are pulses and this conversion from digital data to digital
waveforms is known as line coding.
• Related issues: Synchronization between transmitter and receiver
(clock recovery), DC component, interference (ISI - Cross talk),
noise etc.

7
 Line Coding: Binary Waveform Formats:

Biploar (Alternate
Unipolar (ON-OFF) Polar Mark Inversion (AMI),
Pseudoternary)

Non Return Non Return Non Return

to Zero (NRZ) to Zero (NRZ) to Zero (NRZ)

Return to Return to Return to

Zero (RZ) Zero (RZ) Zero (RZ)

Manchester:
Biphase:
Split phase

• And many more others

 What is RZ and NRZ?
• It specifies Pulse Duration for pulse signal p(t):
• Non return-to-zero (NRZ) where the pulse duration Tp = the bit period Tb. Full
width pulse: 1 signal/bit.
• Return-to-zero (RZ) where the pulse or signal duration Tp = 0.5Tb. Half width
pulse. 2 signals/bit.

p(t)- NRZ pulse Data (Bit) Rate Versus Signal (Symbol or

A Baud) Rate :
Tp
•The data rate: Rb=1/Tb defines the number
0 Tb of data elements (bits) sent in 1s. The unit
p(t)- RZ pulse is bits per second (bps).
A
• The signal rate is the number of signal
Tp
elements sent in 1s. The unit is the baud.
0
Tb The signal rate is sometimes called the
baud or pulse or symbol rate Rp or Rsym =
1/Tp.
 NRZ Vs. RZ Pulses:
• The pulse duration will usually have an effect on the
synchronization properties of the line code (i.e. it determines the
presence or absence of a frequency component at the clock
frequency).
• The main problem with NRZ encoding is timing extraction or clock
recovery.
• The receiver does not know when one bit has ended and the next
bit is starting.
• One solution is the return-to-zero (RZ) scheme. In RZ, the signal
changes during the bit.
• The main disadvantage of RZ encoding is that it requires two signal
changes to encode a bit and therefore occupies greater bandwidth.
So it requires twice the transmission BW compared to
corresponding NRZ scheme.
• In synchronous communication cases NRZ coding is not preferred
even though it needs half bandwidth.
 Unipolar NRZ and RZ line coding:
• Unipolar encoding uses only one voltage level.
• Unipolar encoding is so named because it uses only one polarity.
• 1 is transmitted by NRZ or RZ pulse p(t) and zero is transmitted by no pulse
(zero signal).

Unipolar NRZ

Unipolar RZ
 Polar NRZ and RZ line coding:
• Polar encoding uses two voltage levels (positive and negative).
• 1 is transmitted by NRZ or RZ pulse p(t) and 0 is transmitted by
NRZ or RZ pulse – p(t).

Polar NRZ

Polar RZ
Polar Manchester: Split Phase: Bi-phase
– Transition in middle of each bit period
– High to low transition pulse p(t) represents 1 (+ to
– transition)
– Low to high pulse transition –p(t) represents 0 (-
to + transition)
– Used in Ethernet LAN
– Requires absolute sense of polarity at the receiver
end
A/2 A/2

-A/2
-A/2
Bipolar NRZ and RZ: Alternate Mark (1)
Inversion (AMI): Pseudoternary line
coding
• In bipolar encoding, we use three levels: positive, zero, and negative.
• 0 is encoded by no pulse. The 1s are represented by alternating positive and
negative NRZ/RZ pulses p(t) or –p(t).
• Ambiguities due to transmission sign inversion are eliminated.
• It has single error detection capability because if the bipolar rule is violated at
the receiver the error is immediately detected; although not corrected.
• Receiver has to distinguish 0 from ±A instead of 0 from A in unipolar;
otherwise the performance is similar.

A
0
-A
Bipolar NRZ Bipolar RZ
 Important Requirements from line
codes:
 No dc component or Significant power in very low frequency components:
Allows DC powering of lines and AC coupling (isolation transformer,
capacitor) of lines with the receiver and regenerative repeaters.
 Avoid long duration of any +ve or –ve voltage level (“DC Wander”): create
errors in reception due to AC coupling used and limited low frequency
response of channels.
 The code should have zero PSD at f=0 (DC null).
 Polar (Manchester) and Bipolar (NRZ and RZ) line codes have this
property.
PSD of various line codes: Comparison

16
 Important Requirements from line
codes: (cont.)
 Permit clock extraction or Timing
Signal Recovery from the received
signal for synchronization
between transmitters and
receivers.
 An unipolar RZ signal in Figure(a) is a sum of a
random polar signal (b) and a clock frequency
periodic signal (c).
 A polar RZ signal when full wave rectified results
in a periodic signal at clock frequency.
 Manchester scheme also has transition in each
bit period which allows clock extraction.
 A bipolar RZ signal when full wave rectified
becomes unipolar RZ signal and clock can be
recovered in same way as above.
 However, RZ schemes and Manchester scheme
needs twice BW compared to BW of of NRZ
schemes.
 Important Requirements from line
codes: (cont.)
• Transmission BW should be as small as possible
(Theoretical limit: Rb/2 Hz for NRZ and Rb Hz for RZ with
data rate Rb)
• For a given BW and a specified detection error rate (BER
or Pb), the transmission power should be as low as
possible.
• Transparency: Transmission and reception should be
independent from bit pattern. For every possible
sequence of data, the coded signal is to be received
faithfully. No loss of data due to particular bit pattern.
• Error detection and correction capability (desirable).
Error control coding techniques can be used for that
separately.
Unipolar Polar Polar (Manchester) Biploar or AMI
It has DC component It has DC component (nonzero There is no DC There is no DC component
(nonzero PSD at f=0). PSD at f=0). component (null in (null in PSD at f=0).
PSD at f=0).
Discrete component in PSD No discrete component in PSD Clock recovery is No discrete component in PSD
at Rb Hz for RZ. Clock signal at Rb Hz. Rectification is possible because of at Rb Hz. Rectification is
can be extracted. needed to extract clock timing. transition in every bit needed to extract clock timing.
period.
Non-transparent scheme. Transparent scheme as there is Transparent scheme Non-transparent scheme. Long
Long stream of 0s causes always some pulse regardless because transition in stream of 0s causes error in
error in timing extraction. of the bit sequence. every bit period. timing extraction.

Essential BW of 2Rb Hz for Essential BW of 2Rb Hz for RZ, Essential BW of 2Rb Hz Essential BW of Rb Hz for
RZ, Rb Hz for NRZ: Excessive Rb Hz for NRZ: Excessive BW : Excessive BW RZ/NRZ: Excessive BW is not
BW needed. (Theo. Rb/2 Hz needed. needed. needed (RZ is preferred
for bit rate of Rb bps) because of timing extraction).

Less power efficient for a Most power efficient scheme since it requires the least Less power efficient for a given
given noise immunity. power for a given noise immunity (error probability); noise immunity. Requires
Requires double power than which depends on difference of amplitudes representing double power than polar for
polar for same noise 1 & 0. (Normalized Avg Power=A2/4) same noise performance.
performance. (Normalized (Normalized Avg Power=A2/2)
Avg Power=A2/2)
No error detection and No error detection and No error detection and It is possible to detect one
correction capability correction capability correction capability single error in pulse detection
at receiver; however the error
can’t be corrected. 4.19
M-ary line coding (M-ary Pulse Amplitude Modulation:
M-ary PAM) for higher transmission rate:
– The utilisation of bandwidth can be made more
efficient by adopting an M-ary format for the
representation of the binary data.
– M-ary PAM is a multi-level signaling where each
symbol takes one of the M (>2) allowable amplitude
levels, each representing k bits (M=2n) of binary data.
– Instead of transmitting one pulse for each bit (in
binary case), we transmit one multilevel pulse a
group of n-bits .

20
 Ex. M=4; n=2: Quaternary
– A Binary code consists of two symbols- '1' and '0'. A
quaternary (i.e. 4 level) code would consist of 4 symbols.
The 4 symbols could be assigned to 00, 01, 10 and 11 (group
of 2 bits). This would allow us to half the signal (symbol)
rate on a transmission line compared to one bit per symbol.
Both NRZ and RZ schemes can be used.
– ‘00’  waveform (symbol) 1
– ‘01’  waveform (symbol) 2
– ‘10’  waveform (symbol) 3
– ‘11’  waveform (symbol) 4
– Signal (Symbol) rate Rsym = bit rate Rb/2; Tsym=2Tb

21
 M-ary PAM: Advantages and
Disadvantages
• Advantages:
– M-ary signals reduce required bandwidth (increases
transmission rate)
• Needed bandwidth goes down by n (=log2M) and rate of
transmission increases by the same factor

• Disadvantages:
– Low signal to noise ratio (due to multiple amplitude pulses)
• Results in relatively high bit error rate (BER)
• For a given average pulse power, binary signal is easier to detect
than M-ary PAM signal.
• To achieve same performance as binary system the transmitted
power needs to be increased by a factor equal to M2/ log2M in M-
ary system.

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 MODULE - II

ISI and Solutions (Pulse Shaping)

 Limitations of Binary baseband data
communication:
1. Suitable for wired transmission only: No carrier modulation involved, so
can’t transmit using practical antennas over wireless channels. Use
schemes like ASK, FSK, PSK and variants for wireless data transmission.

2. Inter-Symbol interference (ISI) -Unwanted interference from adjacent

(usually previous) symbols due to finite channel bandwidth and nonlinear
phase response of channel.
• The rectangular pulses require infinite channel BW for distortionless transmission
ideally. However, practically we consider essential BW which is finite one because
transmission channels are bandlimited.
• Due to this fact, the transmitted pulses tend to spread during transmission. This
pulse spreading or dispersion causes overlap of pulses into adjacent pulse time
slots. This signal overlap may result in an error at the point where the receiver
makes a decision as to which pulse has been transmitted.
• This effect of pulse overlap and the resultant difficulty of discriminating between
symbols at the receiver are termed inter symbol interference (ISI).
• In TDM ISI causes crosstalk between adjacent data channels (stations).

3. Channel Noise:
• Measured by Bit Error Rate (BER) or Probability of Bit error (Pb) for given Eb/No (SNR
per bit).
ISI:
V input pulse

pulse response

(a) Time

1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0

(b)

Effect of ISI due to

finite channel BW

V input pulse

pulse response

(a) Time

1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0

(b)

Effect of ISI due to

too low channel BW
 Can ISI be eliminated?

• Time limited pulses can’t be bandlimited: Finite

duration pulses result in ISI.
• Use Bandlimited pulses: But they are not time
limited: Results in ISI.
• Theoretically we can’t avoid ISI: Inherent in finite
transmission BW system.

27
  Tb 
 1; t   t
p (t )   2   ( )
0; else  Tb

Tb
P( )  Tb sin c( )
2
P( f )  Tb sin c( fTb )......(1)
sin (x)
sin c ( x) 
 Tb  x
 1; t   t 2t
p (t )   4   ( )  ( )
0; else  Tb Tb
2
Tb Tb
P( )  sin c( )
2 4
T fT
P( f )  b sin c( b ).....(2)
2 2 28
 sin (x)
sin c ( x) 
x

29
 Nyquist’s three criteria and pulse shaping:
– Pulse amplitudes can be detected correctly despite pulse spreading
or overlapping (ISI), if there is no ISI at the decision-making instants
• 1: At sampling points, no ISI
• 2: At threshold, no ISI
• 3: Areas within symbol period is zero, then no ISI
• This requires proper shaping of bandlimited pulses at the
transmitter. Pulse Shaping is used to reduce ISI.
• The first two Nyquist criteria is used for practical pulse
shaping: (i) Zero ISI using sinc pulse (ideal solution) and
raised cosine pulse (practical solution) (ii) Controlled ISI
using duobinary pulse and differential coding.
• Goal of pulse shaping: (i) no ISI at the decision making
instants at the receiver (ii) use the theoretical minimum
BW of Rb/2 Hz for transmission of Rb pulses/sec.
30
 Nyquist's First Criterion for Zero lSI
• In the first method Nyquist achieves zero lSI by
choosing a pulse shape that has a nonzero amplitude
at its center (Ref. time t=0) and zero amplitudes at
(t=±nTb (n = I. 2. 3 .... )). This is called Nyquist’s first
criterion pulse and it is described by equation (1)


n
or equivalently  P( f  )  Tb .....(1)
n   Tb
• Min. BW (Rb/2 Hz) Pulse satisfying the first criteria is sinc pulse. Its
spectrum is like ideal LPF transfer function (Brickwall function)

31
 – The sinc pulse is an ideal solution but Two difficulties that make its use
impractical:
1. The pulse starts at -∞ time (non causal). The spectrum P(f) be flat from –Rb/2 to
Rb/2, and zero else-where,; i.e. abrupt transition in spectrum. This is physically
unrealizable.
2. The time function p(t) decreases as 1/|t| for large |t|, resulting in a slow rate of
decay. So no margin of errors in sampling times in the transmitter and receiver.
Same thing happens if sampling instants deviate a little because of pulse timing
jitter at the receiver, which is inevitable even in the most sophisticated systems.
Practical Solution by Nyquist: Use a pulse that satisfies the Nyquist’s first criterion but decays
faster than 1/t. Give relaxation in BW requirement from ideal Rb/2 Hz to kRb/2 Hz; 1≤k≤2. The
spectrum has gradual change rather than abrupt change called Vestigial (raised cosine)
spectrum.
32
• BW of P(f)=0.5Rb+fx; fx= BW in excess of theoretical min.
Rb/2 excessBW f 2f
r  x x
.....(2)
• Let theo. min .BW ( B ) 0 0.5 R R b b

Rb
f x max .is ; 0  r  1.....(3)
2
R rRb R
BWofP( f )  BT  b   (1  r ) b  (1  r ) B0 ....(4)
2 2 2
• r is called roll-off factor and can be expressed in %. 33
 Raised Cosine Pulse:
• Vestigial spectrum pulse also is not physically realizable as
it is bandlimted; However it can be closely approximated
by raised-cosine spectral function given by:

 cos(2f x t ) 
p (t )  sin c( Rb t ) .....(6)
2 2 
 1  16 f x t 

• 34
• For full roll-off: r=1 (fx=Rb/2)
 cos(Rb t ) 
p(t )  sin c( Rb t ) 2 2 
.....(7)and
 1  4 Rb t 
f f
P( f )  Tb cos 2 ( ) ( )......(8)
2 Rb 2 Rb
• The pulse decays rapidly, as 1/t3.
• It has zero crossings at all sampling instants and also at
points midway between all the sampling instants.
• BW of Rb Hz.
• Relatively insensitive to deviations of Rb, sampling rate,
timing jitter etc.
• Pulse generating filter with transfer function P(f) in eq.
8 is closely realizable and have very nearly linear phase
characteristics, means no additional phase equalization
is needed. 35
 Example -1
• (a) What is the theoretical minimum system bandwidth
needed for a 10 Mb/s signal using 16-level PAM without ISI?
• (b) How large can the filter roll-off factor (r) be if the
applicable system bandwidth is 1.375 MHz?

36
 Example - 2
• Binary data at 9600 bits/s are transmitted using 8-ary PAM
modulation with a system using a raised cosine roll-off filter
characteristics. The system has a frequency response out to 2.4
kHz.
• (a) What is the symbol rate
• (b) What is the roll off factor r

37
 Example 3
A voice signal in the range 300 to 3300 Hz is sampled at 8000 samples/s. We
may transmit these samples directly as PAM pulses or we may first convert
each sample to a PCM format and use binary (PCM) waveform for
transmission.
(a) What is the minimum system bandwidth required for the detection of
PAM with no ISI and with a filter roll-off factor of 1.
(b) Using the same roll-off, what is the minimum bandwidth required for the
detection of binary PCM waveform if the samples are quantized to 8-levels
(c) Repeat part (b) using 128 quantization levels.

38
Example 4

39
 Nyquist’s Second Criterion: Controlled ISI or Partial
Response Signaling or Correlative Coding:
• In contrast to zero ISI; the idea here is to deliberately
introduce a controlled and known amount of ISI into
the transmitted signal to reduce the BW
requirement.
• Its effect can be interpreted at the receiver in a
deterministic way.
• A practical method of achieving the theoretical
maximum bit rate of Rb bps in a bandwidth of Rb/2
Hertz without using unrealizable systems.
– Doubling of the transmission capacity compared to Nyquist first
criteria pulse.
– The Nyquist 2nd Criterion pulse satisfies the condition:
1, t  0, Tb
p(t)   .....(1)
0, t  nTb ; n  0,1
40
• Such a pulse causes zero ISI with all the pulses except the
succeeding pulse at the sampling instants t=nTb at receiver.
• The scheme works because the binary pulses take on finite
known values, and hence, there are only a finite known
number of interference patterns between pulses; which
allows correct detection of pulses at the receiver.
• The minimum BW (Rb/2) pulse satisfying this criterion is
called duobinary pulse.
41
 sin(Rb t ) sin c( Rb t )
p(t )   ......(2)
Rb t (1  Rb t ) (1  Rb t )

2 f f  jf Rb
P( f )  cos( ) ( )e ......(3)
Rb Rb Rb

• BW=Rb/2: Theoretical min.

• Bandlimited: ∞ time
duration and non realizable
• Decays rapidly at 1/t2.
• Can be closely
approximated
• Linear phase spectrum
• Relation with zero ISI (sinc)
pulse:
pb (t )  p a (t )  p a (t  Tb )....(4)
pb (t ) : Duobinary pulse,
p a (t )  sin c( Rb t )  zero ISI (sin c) pulse
42
 Modified Duobinary Signalling
• In Duobinary signalling the power spectral density of
transmitted pulse is nonzero at the origin (dc).
• By using modified duobinary technique with
correlation span of two binary digits we can correct
this undesirable feature.
1; t  Tb

p (t )   1; t  Tb
0; t  nT ; n  1,1
 b

• This type of pulse is found from zero ISI pulse (sinc

pulse) using relationship: pc (t )  p a (t  Tb )  p a (t  Tb )
p c (t ) : ModifiedDuobinary,
p a (t ) : ZeroISIPulse 43
Pulse Generation:

44
 MODULE - III

Digital Receivers and

Regenerative Repeaters
 Digital Baseband Receivers and Regenerative
Repeater (Assuming no additive channel noise)
• Three important functions:
– Reshaping incoming pulses by means of an equilizer. The attenuation can be
compensated by pre-amplifier, whereas the distortion (ISI) is compensated by
equilizer.
– Extracting timing information required to sample incoming pulses at optimum
instants.
– Making symbol detection decisions based on the pulse samples.
• A complete repeater may also include provision for separation of dc power
from ac signals -> Done by using transformer coupling.
 Modeling baseband data transmission and reception (Assuming no
channel noise):

• Pulse at the input of the receiver must be free of ISI.

• Rx – equalizing filter is configured to compensate for the distortion caused by Tx & channel
and apply zero ISI pulse to the detector in the receiver.
• Equivalent system transfer function:
P(f) = HT(f) HC(f) HR(f)
Where HT(f) – transmitting filter (Pulse shaping/generator),
HC(f) – filtering within the channel (ISI-distortion),
HR(f) – receiving filter (Equalizer): Final pulse shaping before detection
47
 Equalizer Filter:

• Design Goal of ideal equalizer filter:

– Given the channel transfer function and the transmitter filter transfer function; determine the receive-filter
(equalizer) transfer function
– Receiver filter transfer function is such that it can recover the input pulses exactly.
HR(f) = 1/C(f) = 1/HT(f)HC(f)
– Such a filter design is complex and sometimes not physically realizable. Also, it will boost noise components
within its passband range (noise amplification). This will increase detection error probability.
– Practically for digital communication exact pulse shape is not required to be reconstructed at Rx and hence
complete elimination of ISI is not required at all the time.
– The equalizer design goal can be simplified which satisfy two basic requirements:
1. ISI is reduced to zero at the decision (sampling) instants
2. Channel noise is not amplified (Not increase detection error probability)
– Such equalizer is called zero forcing equalizer and it can be realized using transversal filter structure.
– Modern digital communication systems apply adaptive filters for equalizer and more advanced equalization
algorithms. They need probabilistic tools for understanding design and working.

48
 Timing extraction: Self-synchronization scheme
• The receiver needs precise instants for sampling the signal after passing it through Rx filter.
• This needs symbol or bit synchronization (the clock at Rx in synchronism with clock at Tx, delayed by
channel response).
• Practically done by using self-synchronization scheme, where the clock (timing information) is extracted
from the received signal itself.
• If the transmitted digital signal contains a discrete component at clock frequency in its PSD (for e.g. on-off
binary signal), it is applied to a resonant circuit tuned to clock frequency to regenerate clock signal at Rx.
• If the transmitted signal does not contain a discrete component in its PSD (for e.g. bipolar), the non linear
circuits (for e.g. rectifier for bipolar case) can be used to obtain a frequency component that is related to
clock .
• Timing extractor circuit (resonant circuit oscillator) obtains transitions at clock frequency and then its
amplitude and phase can be adjusted to generate clock with precise phase, shape and required amplitude.

49
 Timing extraction: Timing Jitter Problem
• Small random variations of the incoming pulses
from their ideal location are always present, called
timing jitter.
• The transmitter may generates pulses at right
instants, subsequent operations during
transmission (for e.g. Doppler shift) tend to cause
pulses to deviate from these original positions.
• The timing extractor must provide an adequate
suppression of timing jitter.
• More sophisticated scheme uses Phase Locked
Loop (PLL) for clock recovery to reduce timing
jitter issue.
50
 MODULE - IV

ISI Measurement: Eye Diagram

Eye diagram: A tool to measure ISI practically on
oscilloscope
• The eye pattern is a visual indicator of
performance, displaying the physical limitations of
a digital data transmission system in an insightful
manner.
• The received waveform is applied to vertical
deflection plates (Y channel) of CRO and
horizontal deflection plates of CRO (X-channel) is
connected to the saw-tooth wave at a rate equal
to the transmission rate 1/Tb or its integer
multiple.
• To observe eye diagram place CRO in X-Y mode.

52
 Eye Diagram
• Ideal (perfect) signal

• Real (average) signal

• Bad signal

 53
– In the absence of channel noise, the eye opening
assumes two extreme values
• An eye opening of unity, which corresponds to zero ISI
• An eye opening of zero, which corresponds to a
completely closed eye pattern; this second extreme
case occurs when the effect of ISI is severe enough for
some upper traces in the eye pattern to cross with its
lower traces. 54
Reading a typical eye diagram for binary
signal:

• Key measures from eye diagram regarding signal

quality:
– Maximum opening point
– Sensitivity to timing jitter
– Level-crossing (timing) jitter 55
56
• Eye pattern for M-ary Transmission
– M-ary data transmission system uses M encoded
symbols
– The eye pattern for an M-ary data transmission
system contains (M-1) eye openings stacked
vertically one on top of the other.
– It is often possible to find asymmetries in the eye
pattern of an M-ary data-transmission system,
which are caused by nonlinearities in the
communication channel or other parts of the
system.

57
58
 MODULE - V

Design of Optimum Receivers in

Presence of Additive Noise
 Additive White Gaussian Noise
(AWGN) Channel Model
• Channel Noise: Modelled as additive white Gaussian noise.
• White Noise signal n(t): A random signal characterized by constant power
spectral density function Sn(f) = No/2 (Watt/Hz). The factor ½ has been
included to indicate that half of the noise power is associated with +ve
frequency range and remaining half with –ve frequency range.
• The autocorrelation function (IFT of PSD) of white noise: Rn(τ) = No/2 δ(τ).
• This means two samples of white noise taken at two different time instants (t,
t+ τ) are uncorrelated.
• The effect of white noise is observed only after passing it through a system
with finite BW.
• Further, noise is Gaussian if the joint probability distribution function of any
number of different noise samples is Gaussian function.
• If channel adds the transmitted signal with white Gaussian noise, it is
modelled as an AWGN channel.
 Optimum Digital Communication Receiver for
AWGN channel
• Objective: To determine the presence or absence of particular signal
corrupted by AWGN.
• Recognize a pulse in presence of AWGN rather than improving the pulse
shape (which is important at Tx side for reducing ISI).
Channel: AWGN data
x(t)=s(t)+n(t) De- y(t) y(kt0) Decision
Optimal output modu Device
Σ
s(t) Receiver x(t)= lator Sample at (Detector)
Minimize Pb s(t)+n(t) t=kt0 If y(kt0)>λ, s(t) is
present
n(t) Otherwise, s(t) is
Threshold: λ absent
• Two (equivalent) approaches to realize signal demodulator in Rx:
– Matched filter Rx:
• Simplest structure: a pre-detection filter (LTI system) followed by a decision device
(detector).
• Optimum filter in the sense that it maximizes the SNR at receiver output.
• Use a filter that is matched to the transmitted signal pulse.
– Correlation Rx:
• Involves a correlation of the received signal pulse with a stored replica of the
transmitted signal pulse followed by a detector.
Matched filter Rx: Maximization of output SNR
Matched filter Rx: Maximization of output SNR
Matched filter Rx: Maximization of output SNR
Matched Filter: Equivalent Form - Correlator
Matched Filter Vs. Correlation Type
Demodulator
Complete structure of MF and Correlator
type M-ary Optimum Receiver
 MODULE - VI

Performance Analysis of Digital

Communication systems in presence
of additive noise
 Performance Metrics (Measures)
• Analog Communication Systems
– Metric is fidelity: want m^(t) ≈ m(t)
– SNR typically used as performance metric
• Digital Communication Systems
– Metrics are data rate (Rb bps) and probability of bit error (Pb=p(b^≠b))
– Error is introduced when symbol ‘0’ is detected as ‘1’ and vice-versa.
– This error occurs when the channel noise is higher than decision
threshold.
– Pb is a theoretical expectation of Bit Error Rate (BER) for a given system
– BER is a measured (historical) record of a system’s bit error
performance.
– BER is measured and then compared with Pb to evaluate system’s
performance
– Pb is a function of ratio of Energy per bit (Eb) to the noise power spectral
density (N0) i.e. Eb/N0
– Eb/N0 : SNR per bit
– Without channel noise/distortion/sync. problem, we will never make bit
errors
Overview: The Gaussian Random Variable (R.V.)
• Let X is R.V. having Gaussian Probability
distribution function pX(x) with zero mean and
unity variance.
• X is called standard Gaussian or Normal R.V.
 Results of Noise Analysis of Baseband
Systems (No carrier modulation):
• Assuming channel contributes additive white Gaussian Noise
(AWGN) of zero mean and with uniform noise PSD N0 /2
• The expression for the bit error probability of a binary data
communication system is given by:

Polar Signaling

Unipolar (ON-OFF)
Signaling

For M-ary PAM: Symbol Error Rate:

Polar Signaling
Results of Noise Analysis of Digital Carrier
Modulation Schemes:
• Binary ASK (coherent detection):

• Binary FSK (coherent detection):

• Binary PSK (BPSK):

• Binary MSK (coherent detection):

• Binary ASK (Non- coherent detection):

• Binary FSK (Non- coherent detection):

• Binary DPSK:
 Comparison of Noise Performance of M-ary PSK
Systems
• The bit error probability for all the systems
decrease monotonically with increasing
values of Eb/No.
• For high value of Eb/No BPSK and QPSK,
produce a smaller bit error probability than
the other systems.
• QPSK and BPSK provides almost same error
performance because the reduction in error
distance for QPSK is offset by the decrease in
its bandwidth.
• Both systems provide optimum
performance..
• The QPSK system transmits, in a given
bandwidth, twice as many bits of information
as a conventional coherent BPSK system with
the same error rate performance.
• However, a QPSK system requires a more
sophisticated carrier recovery circuit than a
BPSK system.
• For higher level PSKs (≥8), the noise
performance degrades.
 Comparison of Noise Performance of QAM Systems
• For a large number of signal
points (i.e., M>4), QAM
outperforms PSK.
• This is because the distance
between signaling points in
a PSK system is smaller than
the distance between points
in a comparable QAM
system.
 Example
• With 18dB of Eb/N0 the BER is measured as
1:106. After how much time interval the bit is
expected to come with error if the bit rate is
64Kbps?
• Ans. 15.625 sec.
END OF UNIT: III