1

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Addis Ababa University

Addis Ababa Institute of Technology

School of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

Division of Thermal and Energy Conversion

CHAPTER TWO

Performance and Operating Characteristics of IC Engine

 Contents
2

 Geometrical parameters of reciprocating engine

 Engine performance parameters
 Indicated work per cycle
 Brake torque and power
 Mean Effective Pressure
 Specific Fuel Consumption
 Engine Efficiencies
 Air to Fuel ratio and Fuel to Air Ratio
 Geometric parameters of reciprocating engine
3

 The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) standard for engine rotation is

counterclockwise when viewed from the rear of the engine (flywheel side).
 All automotive engines rotate in this direction.
 Geometric Parameters of Reciprocating Engine
4

 The performance of an internal combustion engine is

characterized with several geometric and
thermodynamic parameters

 The following geometric parameters are of

particular interest: bore(B), connecting rod length (l),
crank radius (a), stroke (S) and crank angle (ө) for
further analysis

 Pressure, temprature, density are some of

thermodynamic parameter that characterized IC
Engine performance, and we wiil see their effect in
chapter 3

 For any single cylinder, the cranks shaft, connecting

rod, piston, and head assembly can be represented
by the mechanism shown to the left
 Geometric parameter of reciprocating engine
5

 The top dead center TDC of an engine refers to

the crankshaft being in a position such that ө=00.

 The volume at TDC is minimum and is often called

the clearance volume Vc

 The bottom dead center (BDC) refers to the

crankshaft being at ө=1800, the volume at BDC
is maximum and often denoted by VT

 The difference between the VT and Vc is the

displacement volume Vd
 Geometric parameter of reciprocating engine
6
 Geometric parameter of reciprocating engine
7

 Engine Capacity (Ve)

TDC

 B 2  Vd Vd Vd Vd
Ve  Vd  n   nS 
Stroke

 4 
BDC

 Where n- is number of cylinders Bore

Vd - cylinder swept volume or displacement volume

 Displacement Rate
 This is how much volume the engine displaces per minute at a given RPM.

 Ne Ne - Engine RPM
V  Vd 2 - For 4-Stroke Engine
2
 Geometrical Properties of Reciprocating Engines
8
Compression ratio r,

o r = 8 to 12 for SI engines and

o r = 12 to 24 for CI engines;

10:1
 Geometrical Properties of Reciprocating Engines
9

Ratio of Connecting rod length to crank radius:

l
R
a

 R = 3 to 4 for small- and medium-size engines,

increasing to 5 to 9 for large slow-speed CI engines.

Ratio of Cylinder bore to piston Stroke:

 B/S = 0.8 to 1.2 for small- and medium-size

engines, about 0.5 for large slow-speed CI engines;
 The stroke and crank radius are related by
 Piston Speed
10

 The piston velocity changes during the strokes

 Piston speed is zero at the beginning , it reaches maximum at the middile
and zero at the ends
 Mean Piston Speed is the average speed of the piston as it travels up and
down in the cylinder.
 Mean piston speed is used for analysis purpose for compelete round of the
crankshaft
 ω = 2𝝅Ne, where ω is the crankshaft angular velocity in rad per second
and Ne is the crankshaft rotational speed in revolution per second (RPS)
 One revolution of the crankshaft is taken as the displacement (twice the
stroke) and time taken for 𝞓t=1/Ne
 fc =Ne/𝜺 , where fc frequency of the working cycle and 𝜺 = 2 for four
stroke and 1 for two stroke engine
 Piston Speed
11
Mean piston speed
 Mean piston speed is given by U p  2 N e S
 The factor "2" accounts for two piston strokes (up and down) per revolution
in a four-stroke engine.
 Mean piston speed for all engines will normally be in the range of 5 to 20
m/sec with large diesel engines on the low end and high-performance
automobile on the high end
Note
With the same engine RPM, long stroke engines have high mean piston speed)
 Mean piston speed is critical in engine design as higher speeds increase
frictional losses and wear.
 The mean piston speed is more appropraite to corollate most of the the
engine processes such as
 Gas flow velocities in intake and exhaust pipes at the cylinder entery,
they scale with U p
 Piston Speed
12

 Heat losses through the walls of the combustion chamber, they scale with
1/U p
 Inertia forces due to masses in receprocating movement such as pistons
and connecting rods etc ,they scale with U p
Example
Calculate the mean piston speed for a four-cylinder engine with the
following specifications:
 Stroke (S): 92 mm=0.092 m
 Engine speed (Ne): 5000 RPM=5000/60 = 83.33 RPS

U p  2 Ne S
= 2 x 0.092 x 83.33
U p =15.33 m/s
 Piston Speed
13
Instantaneous piston velocity

Instantaneous piston speed is essential for

understanding the dynamic behavior of the piston,
optimizing performance, and preventing mechanical
failure. The calculation helps in designing robust
engines and improving fuel efficiency.

From the geomtry of crankshaft mechanism, we can

determine the Piston displacement by

dx
Instantaneous piston velocity: Up 
dt
 Piston Speed
14
15
 Piston Velocity vs Crank Angle
16

R = l/a

TDC BDC
 Piston Speed
17

 When the crank angle (θ) is around 90° or 270°, the piston instantaneous
speed is at its maximum due to the crank's position causing rapid
movement.
 When the crank angle is 0° or 180° (corresponding to TDC or BDC), the
instantaneous piston speed is zero because the piston is changing direction.

Piston Mean Speed vs. Instantaneous Speed

 Piston Mean Speed is a simple average, as calculated earlier, providing a

general sense of how fast the piston moves on average.
 Instantaneous Piston Speed is more precise and varies with crank angle,
giving detailed insights into how the piston's velocity changes throughout the
engine's cycle.
 Piston Speed
18

Example
Determine the instantaneous piston speed of an engine with the following
geometrical engine measurements
 Stroke Length (s): 0.1 m (100 mm)
 Crank Radius (a): 0.05 m or (50 mm)
 Connecting Rod Length (l​ ): 0.15 m (150 mm)
 Engine Speed (Ne): 3000 rpm
 Crank Angle (θ): 90° (when the piston is near its maximum speed)
ω = 2πNe / 60
​ ω = 2 × 3.1416 × 3000/60 ≈ 314.16 rad/s
 Piston Speed
19

a = 0.05 m
ω = 314.16 rad/s
θ = 900 = π/2 rad Determine also the instantaneous
piston speed At 0° (TDC) and at
l ​= 0.15 m 180° (BDC),
l
R
a
R = 0.15/0.05 = 3
Sin (900) = 1
Cos (900) = 0

0
𝑈𝑝 = - 314.16 x 0.05 x 1 (1+ )
32 −12
𝑈𝑝 = - 15.71m/s
 Piston Acceleration
20
1/ 2
  a 2 2 
Piston displacement is: x  a cos   l 1    sin  
 l 
 
For most modern engines (a/l)2 ~ 1/R = 1/R

Using series expansion approximate (1-e)1/2 ~ 1-(e/2) and substitute  = wt

 a2 
So x  a coswt   l  sin wt 
2

 2l 

Substituting sin 2 wt  (1  cos 2wt ) / 2

 a2 
yields x  a coswt   l  (1  cos 2wt ) 
 4l 
d 2x 2 a 
differentiating   aw  cos wt  cos 2wt 
dt 2  l 
 Piston Inertia Force
21

The inertia force is simply the piston mass multiplied by the acceleration
d 2x 2 a 
Inertia Force  m 2  amw  coswt  cos 2wt 
dt  l 

Primary term Secondary term

• The maximum force occurs at TDC,  = wt = 0  F ~ amw2

• The primary term varies at the same speed as the crank shaft and the secondary
term varies at twice the crank shaft speed

• For a very long connecting rod (a/l) << 1 secondary term vanishes and the force is
harmonic

• Complete cancellation of the forces is possible for in-line 6 and 8 as well as for V-
12 and V-16
 Piston Inertia Force
22
Example
Determine the piston inertia force using the following geometrical and operation
parameters of four stroke engine
Crank radius (a): 0.05 m.
Check that at (θ) 0° (TDC), Fi​=2878.68N
Connecting rod length (l): 0.3 m.
Engine speed (Ne): 3000 RPM. and at (θ) 180° (BDC) Fi​=−2055.83N
Crank angle (θ): 90° =π/2 = wt
Piston mass (mp): 0.5 kg.
ω = 2πNe/60 = 2π⋅3000 / 60 = 314.16 rad/s.
 a 
a p   aw 2  cos wt  cos 2wt 
 l 
ap = (314.16)2(0.05)(cos π/2 + (0.05/ 0.3) cos (π))
=  4934.83(0+( 0.1666) x(  1))
a p = 822.14 m/s2

Fi = mp x ap​= 0.5 x 822.14​ = 411N

 The cylinder volume V at any crank position 
23

 The volume of the cylinder can be determined as

function of crank angle ( ), from the compression
ratio, the stroke, bore and connecting rod length.

 At TDC the crank shaft is at crank angle of 0o.

(Clearance volume, Vc)

 At BDC the crank angle is at 180 o. (Maximum

cylinder volume, VT )
 The cylinder volume V at any crank position 
24

 Displacement volume = (Maximum -

minimum) cylinder volume

 The displacement volume can also be

represented as a function of the bore and
stroke

 At a given crank angle the volume is given by:

B 2
V  VC  x( )
4
 Note that x varies from 0 to S
 The cylinder volume V at any crank position 
25

 Again using geometry, a relationship for x(ө) can

be developed:

x( )  a  l   l 2

 a 2 sin 2   a cos  
or

x( )  a (1  cos  )  l   l 2
 a 2 sin 2  
 The compression ratio becomes

 Solving for Vc results in:

 The cylinder volume V at any crank position 
.

26
B 2
V  VC 
4
x( )  The cylinder volume at any crank angle 
becomes:
VD B
 l 
2
Vθ   al  2
 a 2 sin 2   a cos 

 l 
r 1 4
x( )  a  l  2

 a 2 sin 2   a cos 

x( )  a (1  cos  )  l   l 2
 a 2 sin 2   V
  

VD B 2  l   l 
2 
a 1       sin   cos   
2

r 1 4  a  a 
  

l
Since, a=S/2 and setting, R
a
, gives:

V 
VD VD

r 1 2

1  R  cos   R 2  sin 2  
Non-dimensional form of the above
V

1 1

 1  R  cos   R 2  sin 2 
VD r  1 2

equation becomes,
 Full throttle operation chemically correct mixture (Y=12.5)
Fuel C8H18 Speed 4000rpm
Tm 300k P1 1atm

The cylinder volume V at any crank position 

Friction and heat transfer neglected Fuel vaporization neglect
.

27
Crank angle Vdisp Pr Crank angle Vdisp Pr
(deg) (cc) (bar) (cc) (bar)
 The cylinder volume at any crank angle becomes:
360 636.6 1
0 636.6 1 375 629.8 1
15 629.8 1 390 609.4 1
30 609.4 1.1 405 575.3 1 120

B  1  2
45 575.3 1.2 420 V 528.1
  
2 1
V  D  1l  l 100 a sin   
2 2 2
60 528.1 1.3 435 469 a a cos
75 469 1.5 450 r  1 400.4 4  1   
90 400.4 1.9 465 326.4 1 80

pressure (bar)
105 326.4 2.5 480 252.8  1  1

 2 
1   60
2
 2

132.5 a 1  1     sin    cos  


120 252.8 3.6 495 V 186B l l
V  D 2
135 186 5.6 510 r 1 4  a   a  


150 132.5 9 525 98  1  40  
165 98 13.7 540 86 1
180 86 16.5 540 86 1
180 86 98.2 555 98 1 20
195 98 81.9 570 132.5 1 l
210 132.5 53.6
 Since, a=S/2
585 186
and setting,
1 0 R  , gives:
225 186 33.4 600 252.8 1 0 100 a200 300 400 500 600 700

 
240 252.8 21.7 615 326.5 1
V V 1  R  cos  R  sin  
volume (cc) 1
255 326.5 15.2 630 V 
400.4
D D 1 2 2 2
270 400.4 11.4 645
r 1 2
469 1  
285 469 9.1 660 528.1 1
300 528.1 7.7 675 575.3 1
315 575.3 6.9
Non-dimensional form of the above
330 609.4 6.3
V
V

1
 1  R  cos  R  sin 
1
690
705
r  1 2 
609.4
629.8
1
1
2
 2
1
2 

345 629.8 6 720 D 636.6 1
equation
360 becomes,
636.6 6
 The cylinder volume V at any crank position
28
Example
Calculate the Cylinder Volume of a single-cylinder four-stroke engine at a Crank angle (θ) = 45°
during the expansion stroke. The engine has the following parameters
Bore (D) = 100 mm
Stroke (S) = 120 mm
Connecting rod length (l) = 200 mm
Compression ratio ( r ) = 8:1

V 
VD VD

r 1 2

1  R  cos  R 2  sin 2  
VD ​= Ap​⋅S = 7.854×10−3x 0.12 = 9.425×10−4m3
a = S/2 = 120/2 = 60mm
R = l / a = 200/60= 3.33
VD / ( r−1)= (9.425×10−4) /8−1​=1.346×10−4m3

Vθ= 310.2 cm3 Check that at TDC, Vθ is Vc and at BDC it is Vt

 Engine Performance Parameters
29

 Understanding engine performance is essential for evaluating

an engine's efficiency, power delivery, fuel economy, emissions,
and overall reliability.
 These insights are crucial for designing and optimizing engines for
various applications, such as vehicles, generators, or industrial
equipment.
 There are number of performance parameters to evaluate the
engine how it performs at different operating conditions.
 The choice of performance parameters depends on the engine's
purpose, desired outcomes, and operating conditions.
 Each parameter offers unique insights into the engine's
functionality, efficiency, and limitations.
 Engine Performance Parameters
30

Why these parameters Matter

 Helps manufacturers design engines that deliver the best
performance for specific applications.
 Minimizing fuel consumption reduces costs and environmental
impact.
 Identifying stress and wear parameters ensures longer
engine life.
 Meeting emissions and efficiency standards is critical for
legal and market success.
 Engine Performance Parameters
31

 The performance of the engine depends on inter-relationship between

power developed, speed and the specific fuel consumption at each
operating condition within the useful range of speed and load.

POWER

PERFORMANCE
OF ENGINE
 Engine performance
32

 Internal combustion engine should generally operate within a useful

range of speed.

 Some engines are made to run at fixed speed by means of a speed

governor which is its rated speed

 At each speed within the useful range, the power output varies and it has
a maximum usable value.

 The specific fuel consumption varies with load and speed

 Engine performance definition
33

 Absolute Rated Power: The highest power which the engine could develop
at sea level with no arbitrary limitation on speed, fuel-air ratio or throttle
opening

 Maximum rated power: The highest power an engine is allowed to develop

for short periods of operation. Engine specifications typically indicate the
maximum rated power.
Eg. 200Kw@6500RPM

 Normal rated power: The highest power an engine is allowed to develop in

continuous operation.

 Rated speed: The crankshaft rotational speed at which rated power is

developed
 Engine Performance Parameters
34

 The performance of an engine is judged by quantifying

its efficiencies
 Five important engine efficiencies are
 Indicated thermal efficiency (ηith) Indicated Power
 Brake thermal efficiency (ηbth) Brake Power
 Mechanical efficiency (ηm)
 Volumetric efficiency (ηv)
 Relative efficiency or Efficiency ratio (ηrel)
 Engine Performance Parameters
35

 Other Engine performance Parameters

 Mean effective pressure (MEP or Pm)
 Mean piston speed (U p )
 Specific power output (Ps)
 Specific fuel consumption (sfc)
 Inlet-valve Mach Index (Z)
 Fuel-air or air-fuel ratio (F/A or A/F)
 Calorific value of the fuel (CV)
 The Energy Flow
36

 The energy flow through the engine is expressed in 3

distinct terms
 Indicated Power
 Brake Power
 Friction Power
 The Energy Flow
37

Expansion Force
 The Energy Flow
38
 Indicated work
39

 The Engine cycle on a P-V coordinates, is often called an indicator

diagram.

 The indicated work per cycle Wc,i is obtained by integrating around the
curve to obtain the area enclosed on the diagram

Wc,i   PdV
 Gross Indicated Work
40

 The upper loop of the engine cycle of the indicator diagram, the
compression and power strokes, where output work generated is
called the gross indicated work per cycle.

Wc ,ig  A  C
 Pump work
41

 The lower loop, which includes the intake and exhaust is called Pump work
per cycle and absorbs work from the engine.

 Wide-Open Throttle (WOT) Engine operated with throttle valve fully open
when maximum power and/or speed is desired.

Net indicated work per cycle is

Wc , pump  B  C
Wc ,inet  Wc ,ig  Wc , Pump
 Indicated Work at Part Throttle
42

 At WOT the pressure at the intake valve is just below atmospheric

pressure, however at part throttle (PTO) the pressure is much lower
than atmospheric

Therefore at part throttle the pump

work (area B+C) can be significant
compared to gross indicated work
(area A+C)
 Indicated Work with Supercharging/Turbocharged
43

 Engines with superchargers or turbochargers can have intake

pressures greater than the exhaust pressure, giving a positive pump
work

Wnet   Area A   Area B 

Supercharges increase the net indicated work but is a parasitic load since
they are driven by the crankshaft
 Indicated power per cylinder/ engine cycle
44

A (m2) F (N)
p = imep (N/m2)
a
c
S (m)

F= p x A (N)

b
Work (W) = F x S (N m)
Indicated power (Pi) cylinder/cycle = W/t = (F x S) x (Ne/ (n R x 60) [w]
(Pi) cylinder = (imep x A x S x Ne) / (n R x 60) [w] n R = 2 (four stroke)
n R = 1 (two stoke)
(Pi) engine = [imep x (A x S x n) x Ne] / (n R x 60) [w] n = number of cylinder

(Pi) engine = [imep x VD, engine x Ne )/ (n R x 60)] [w]

 Indicated work and power per cycle per cylinder /engine
45
(Pi) cylinder = (imep x A x S x Ne) / (n R x 60) [w]
(Pi) engine = [imep x (A x S x n) x Ne] / (n R x 60)]
(Pi) engine = [imep x VD, engine x Ne ) / (n R x 60)] [w]
Work (W) = F x S = imep x A x S
Where Wi  imep  A  S  n  imep  VD ,engine
The indicated power per engine per cycle can also be given in terms of indicated
work per cycle per engine:

Wi  N e Pi  nR ( J cycle)(rev s )
Pi   Wi   J /s  w
nR Ne rev cycle
Power can be increased by
Where Ne - Crankshaft speed in rev/s increasing:
nR - Number of crank revolutions for each
power stroke per cylinder • The engine size, VD, engine
= 2 for 4-stroke • Engine speed, Ne
= 1 for 2-stroke
 Mean effective pressure (mep)
46

 Torque is a valuable measure a particular engine ability to do work,

however it depends on engine size

 A more useful relative engine performance measure is the mean effective

pressure (an average pressure), which is obtained by dividing the work per
cycle by cylinder volume displaced per cycle
Wcycle Pcycle  nR Pcycle  nR
mep  , Wcycle   mep 
VD ,cycle Ne VD ,cycle N e
 There are different kinds of mean effective pressure based on the type of
work used in the definition of mean effective pressure

 The gross indicated mean effective pressure (gimep) is defined as the work
per unit displacement volume done by the gas during the compression and
expansion stroke.
gimep = Wc,ig /VD
 Mean effective pressure
47

 Brake mean effective pressure (bmep) is the pressure measured at the output shaft
in terms of engine torque and defined as brake work per unit displacement volume
bmep = Wb /VD

 Pumping Mean Effective Pressure (pmep) is the net pump work per displacement volume
required to pump the working fluid into and out of the engine during the intake and
exhaust strokes is termed as the pumping work ( WP, net)

pmep = WP, net/VD

 The net indicated mean effective pressure (imep net) is definde as work delivered to
piston over the entire four stroke per cycle,
imep net = gimep ± pmep

 The net indicated mean effective pressure is defined as net indicted work per
displaced volume
imep,net = Wi,net/Vd
bmep = imep - fmep
 Indicated power, brake power and gross indicated power
48

 (Pi) is the indicted power , the rate of work transfer from the gas within the
cylinder to the piston

 Pi differs from the brake power (Pb) by the friction power Pf ( power absorbed in
overcoming engine friction, driving engine accessories.)

 Pi differs from gross indicated power by pumping power, power taken during gas
exchange process in intake and exhaust process

 Pumping work is positive (pumping work transfer will be from cylinder gas to
piston) if intake pressure is larger than exhaust pressure for engine fitted with
pressure boosting system (Turbocharger and Supercharger)

 Pumping work is negative (pumping work transfer will be to cylinder gas), if the
intake pressure is less than the exhaust pressure, ( this is a case for naturally
aspirated engine)
 Brake and Indicated Mean effective pressure as a function of power
49

Wcycle Pcycle  nR Pcycle  nR

mep  ,Wcycle   mep 
VD,cycle Ne VD,cycle N e

Pi ,net  nR Pi ,net  nR
Wi ,net  imep 
Ne VD  N e

Pb  nR Pb  nR
Wb  bmep 
Ne VD  N e
 Brake Mean effective Pressure
50

 Four stroke engines:

SI engines: bmep = 850 - 1050 kPa*

CI engines: bmep = 700 - 900 kPa

Turbocharged SI engines: bmep = 1250 - 1700 kPa

Turbocharged CI engines: bmep = 1000 - 1200 kPa

 *Values are at maximum brake torque and WOT

 Note, at the rated (maximum) brake power the bmep is 10 - 15% less due
to the interplay of mechanical losses, thermal losses, and design
constraints.
 Maximum bmep
51

• The maximum bmep is obtained at WOT at a particular engine speed

• Closing the throttle decreases the bmep. Closing the throttle reduces the
air and fuel entering the engine, increases pumping losses, and lowers
combustion pressures, all of which decrease the BMEP.
• For a given displacement, a higher bmep means more torque
Te  2   nR
VD 
bmep
• For a given torque, a higher bmep means smaller engine
bmep  VD
Te 
• 2   nR
• Higher bmep means higher stresses and temperatures in the engine, hence
shorter engine life, or bulkier engine.
 Engine Brake Torque Te
52

Pb  Te  w  2N e  Te Where: ω in rad/s

Ne in RPS

Pb  nR
bmep 
VD  N e

Brake mean effective pressure can also be expressed in terms of torque

2  Te  nR bmep  VD
bmep  Te 
VD 2   nR
For 4 stroke cycle engine nR is 2, hence
4 Te bmep  VD
bmep  Te 
VD 4
 Engine Torque Te
53

o There is a direct relationship

between BMEP and torque output.

o The torque curve with engine rpm is

identical to the bmep curve, with
different values.
 Power flows in an engine
54

 The power flow through the engine is expressed in 3

distinct terms
 Indicated Power
g
 Brake Power
 Friction Power

Pig  Pb  Pf
 Mechanical Efficiency
55

 The ratio of the brake (or useful) power delivered by the engine to
the indicated power is called the mechanical efficiency.

Pb Pig  Pf Pf
m    1
Pig Pig Pig

 Mechanical efficiency depends on throttle position as well as engine

design and engine speed.

 Typical values for a modern automotive engine at wide open or full

throttle are 90 percent at speeds below about 30 to 40 rev/s (1800
to 2400 rev/min), decreasing to 75 percent at maximum rated speed.
 Power Speed Curve
56

Pig  Pb  Pf

Where:
Pig - indicated power
Pb - brake power
Pf - friction power

Pb Pf
m   1
Pig Pig
 Power and Torque versus Engine Speed at WOT
57

There is a maximum in the brake power versus

Rated brake power engine speed called the rated brake power
(RBP).

At higher speeds brake power decreases as

1 kW = 1.341 hp friction power becomes significant compared
to the indicated power
Pb  Pig  Pf
Max brake torque
There is a maximum in the torque versus
speed called maximum brake torque
(MBT).

Brake torque drops off:

• at lower speeds due to heat losses
• at higher speeds it becomes more difficult
to ingest a full charge of air.
 Typical 1998 Passenger Car Engine Characteristics
58

Vehicle Engine Displ. Max Power Max Torque BMEP at BMEP at

type (L) (hp@rpm) (lb-ft@rpm) Max BT Rated BP
(bar) (bar)
Mazda I4 1.84 122@6000 117@4000 10.8 9.9
Protégé LX
Honda I4 2.25 150@5700 152@4900 11.4 10.4
Accord EX
Mazda I4 2.26 210@5300 210@3500 15.9 15.7
Millenia S Turbo
BMW I6 2.80 190@5300 206@3950 12.6 11.5
328i
Ferrari V8 3.50 375@8250 268@6000 13.1 11.6
F355 GTS
Ferrari V12 5.47 436@6250 398@4500 12.4 11.4
456 GT
Lamborghini V12 5.71 492@7000 427@5200 12.7 11.0
Diablo VT
 Ho to measure Brake Torque and Power ?
59

 Dynamometers are used to measure torque and power over

the engine operating ranges of speed and load.

 Dynamometers use various methods to absorb the energy

output of the engine, all of which eventually ends up as
heat.

 Some dynamometers absorb energy in a mechanical friction

brake, hydraulic fluid and magnetic field
 Dynamometer vs. Engine Setup
60

 The Engine is clamped on a test bed and the shaft is connected to the
dynamometer rotor.

 The rotor is coupled electromagnetically, hydraulically or by

mechanical friction to a stator

 The torque exerted on the stator with the rotor turning is measured
by balancing the stator with weights, springs or pneumatic means.

Stator Force F

Rotor

N
Load cell
 Brake Torque and Power
61

 Work is defined as the product of a force and the distance through which
the point of application of the force moves

 When the drive shaft of the engine turns through one revolution, any
point on the periphery of the rigidly attached roter moves through a
distance of equal to

 During this movement a friction force, f, is acting on the stator.

 The friction force, f, is thus acting through the distance and

producing a work
 Brake Torque and Power
62

 Work during one revolution = Distance * f

= *f

The torque , r*f , produced by the drive shaft is opposed by a turning

moment equal to the product of the length of the moment arm b and
the force F measured by the scale

T = r*f = F*b

Work during one revolution = Fb

Power = Work/Time = Fb N/60
 Road-Load Power
63

• The road-load power, Pr , is the  Where

engine power needed to • CR = coefficient of rolling
overcome rolling resistance and resistance (0.012 - 0.015)
the aerodynamic drag of the
• Mv = mass of vehicle
vehicle.
• g = gravitational
acceleration
• The road-load power, used for
• a = ambient air density
testing engines (fuel economy,
emissions) when a vehicle • CD = drag coefficient (for
assumed to be driven a level cars: 0.3 - 0.5)
road at a steady speed. • Av = frontal area of the
vehicle
• Sv = vehicle speed
Pr  (C R M v g  1  a C D Av Sv2 )  Sv
2
 Drag Force Parameters
64

 Auto manufacturers can improve the drag force by reducing Vehicle frontal area:
• 2005 Corvette is 0.57 m2
• Most cars around 0.8 m2
• 2006 Hummer H3 is 1.56 m2

 Drag coefficient CD:

• 2004 Toyota Prius – 0.26

• 2005 Porsche Boxster – 0.29
• 1983 Audi 100 – 0.3
• 2006 Dodge Challanger – 0.33
• 2003 Hummer – 0.57
• Formula 1 car – 0.7 to 1.1
 Automobile transmission
65

 Engine operates between 600 – 7000 rpm whereas car wheels rotate at 0-1800 rpm
 There is speed reduction between engine rpm and wheels rpm

• Highest torque is obtained in the mid engine speed range while the greatest torque is
often required at the lowest wheel speed

• Transmission produces high torque at low car speeds and also operates at highway
speeds with the engine operating in the same speed range
•

• Automatic transmission – gears change automatically based on input data from the
sensors on the engine and the transmission (e.g., engine speed, vehicle speed, throttle
position, brake pedal position)

• Manual transmission – gears are changed based on operator input

 Automobile transmission
66

Differential provides
Further gear ratio (3:1)

Planetary gear system

 Gears
Gears change the speed of rotation and torque transmitted between shafts

Consider a simple gear set consisting of two gears:

wo
wi
Ro Gear ratio (GR) is the
Ro GR  number of turns of the input
Ri Ri shaft required to give one
revolution of the output shaft
Vc, Fc

Vc  wi Ri  wo Ro Fc  Ti / Ri  To / Ro
R  w  Ro 
wo   i wi  i To   Ti  GR  Ti
 Ro  GR  Ri 

67
 Automobile Transmission
68

 An automobile is more complicated because you need several gear ratios so the car
can accelerate smoothly (shift for power or fuel economy)

 Automatic transmission uses two sets of planetary gears to give three or four
forward gear ratios and one reverse

 Manual transmission typically has five forward gears and a reverse

Gear GR wo/wi To/Ti

1 3:1 1/3 3
2 2.5:1 2/5 5/2
3 1.5:1 2/3 3/2
4 1:1 1 1
5 0.75:1 4/3 3/4
69
500
1999 Neon DOHC
Engine
450
1st gear (GR=3.54)
2nd gear (GR=2.13)
400 3rd gear (GR=1.36)
4th gear (GR=1.03)
350 5th gear (GR=0.72)

300
Torque (Ft-lb)

250

200

150

100

50

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
Engine speed (RPM)
 A 2004 Chevrolet Corvette C5 ZO6 with a six-speed manual transmission
70

 A 2004 Chevrolet Corvette C5 ZO6 with a six-speed manual transmission

has the following gear ratios in the transmission:

 In1st gear, the engine makes 2.97 revolutions for every revolution of the
transmission’s output.

 In 4th gear, the gear ratio of 1:1 means that the engine and the transmission's
output rotate at the same speed.
Gear Ratio
1st gear 2.97:1
2nd gear 2.07:1
3rd gear 1.43:1
4th gear 1.00:1
5th gear 0.84:1
6th gear 0.56:1
 A 2004 Chevrolet Corvette C5 ZO6 with a six-speed manual transmission
71

 5th and 6th gears are known as overdrive gears, in which the output
of the transmission is revolving faster than the engine's output.

 The Corvette above has an axle ratio of 3.42:1, meaning that for
every 3.42 revolutions of the transmission’s output, the wheels make
one revolution.

 The differential ratio multiplies with the transmission ratio, so in 1st

gear, the engine makes 10.16 revolutions for every revolution of the
wheels.
 Specific Power
72

 Specific power output of an engine is defined as the

power output per unit piston area or per unit
displacement volume.
 The choice between using specific power output based
on displacement volume and specific power output
based on piston area depends on the context of the
analysis and what aspect of engine performance is
being evaluated.
 Specific Power
73

Specific power output per unit piston area

 It is a measure of the engine designer’s success in using the

available piston area regardless of cylinder size.
Pb Pb  nR bmep  U p
specific power, SP  bmep  specific power, SP 
AP VD  N e nR
 Is used to Evaluating
 Mechanical stresses on pistons and connecting rods.

 Effectiveness of combustion and force transmission.

 Suitability of materials and cooling mechanisms under high pressures.

 Is used when
 Designing pistons for high-performance or high-compression engines.

 Assessing thermal and mechanical loads on engine components.

 Evaluating the impact of high bmep on piston and cylinder performance.

 Specific Power
74

Example
Calculate specific power output with respect to mean piston speed for both a two-
stroke and a four-stroke engine using the following engine data
Two-Stroke Engine
A two-stroke marine engine has the following parameters:
bmep = 8.5 bar = 8.5×105 Pa
Up=8 m/s
nR=1
SP​ = 8.5×105 x 8​ / 1
SP = 6.8×106 W/m2
= 6800 kW/m2
 Specific Power
75

Four-Stroke Engine
A four-stroke car engine has the following parameters:
SP =10.2 bar =10.2×105 Pa
Up = 10 m/s
nR = 2
SP = 10.2 × 105 x 10 / 2
SP​ = 5.1 × 106 W/m2 = 5100 kW/m2

Compare specific power output of a two-stroke and a four-stroke

engine under identical conditions and give conclusion.

bmep = 9.8 bar and

Up = 12 m/s
 Specific Power
76

Specific power output per unit displacement volume

Specific Power Output = Brake Power (Pb​) / Displacement Volume (VD​)

Pb/VD
 It is used for evaluating engine efficiency relative to size and performance of
naturally aspirated vs. forced-induction engines (e.g., turbocharged engines typically
have higher specific power outputs).
 It is also used when comparing engine designs across brands or categories and
evaluating the performance per unit displacement (e.g., for regulatory or competition
standards).
 The specific power output tells us how much power the engine can produce per unit
of its cylinder displacement. Higher specific power indicates a more compact and
performance-oriented engine design.
 High-specific power engines found in sports cars, where compact, powerful engines
are needed.
 Low-specific power engines seen in heavy-duty trucks or industrial machinery,
prioritizing durability and efficiency over power density.
 Specific Power
77

Example
Engine Type: Four-stroke, four-cylinder
Displacement Volume (VD): 2.0 L (2000 cc)
Brake Power (Pb​): 100 kW
SP = Pb / VD =100 kW / 2.0 L = 50 kW/L
 Specific Power
78

Parameter Volume-Based Specific Power Piston-Area-Based Specific Power

Formula Pb/VD​ Pb/Ap​
Efficiency of power generation Power generation relative to piston
Physical Focus
relative to volume surface
Unit W/cm3 or kW/L W/cm2

Metric Best for Evaluating Primary Application

Engine performance relative to

Specific Power (Volume) Comparing different engines or designs.
displacement; efficiency, downsizing

Stress and heat loads; combustion Component design and high-performance

Specific Power (Area)
efficiency engines.
 Specific Fuel Consumption (sfc)
79

 sfc shows how much fuel is consumed by an engine to do a certain amount

of work.
 Specific fuel consumption represents the mass or volume of fuel an engine
consumes per hour while it produces 1 kW of power.
 It depends on
 Engine size
 Operation load
 Engine design

 Specific fuel consumption is given in kilograms of fuel per

kilowatt-hour.
 For transportation vehicles fuel economy is generally given as mpg, or
L/100 km or km/L.
 Specific fuel consumption and efficiency
80

 Specific fuel consumption (sfc) is fuel flow rate per unit power output.
 It measures how efficiently an engine is using the fuel supplied to
produce work:

m f m f ( g / s ) m f ( g / h)
sfc  sfc ( g / J )  sfc( g / kW .h) 
P P (kW ) P(kW )

 Brake power gives brake specific fuel consumption:

m f
bsfc 
Pb

 Indicated power gives indicated specific fuel consumption:

m f
isfc 
Pi
 Specific fuel consumption and efficiency
81

Example:
A 4-cylinder gasoline engine is operating at a power output of 120 kW. The fuel
consumption rate is given as 18 liters per hour (L/h). The specific gravity of the fuel is
0.74kg/L , and the calorific value of the fuel is 44,000 kJ/kg. Calculate the specific
fuel consumption (sfc ) in g/kWh.
mf​˙​=18L/h × 0.74kg/L = 13.32kg/h
sfc = mf​˙​ / Pout​
sfc =13.32kg/h / 120kW ​ = 0.111kg/kWh
= 111g/kWh
 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption vs Engine Size
82

 Brake specific fuel consumption generally decreases with engine size,

being best (lowest) for very large engines.

One reason for this is less heat loss

due to the higher volume to surface
area ratio of the combustion
chamber in large engines.
cylinder surface area BL 1
 2 
cylinder volume B L B
Also large engines operate at
lower speeds which reduce friction
losses.
 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption vs Engine Size
83

Practical Example
 Large Marine Diesel Engine

 BSFC: ~160-190 g/kWh.

 Efficiency: >50%.

 Operates at low speeds (~80-120 RPM).

 Small Car Engine

 BSFC: ~200-300 g/kWh.
 Efficiency: 30-35%.

 Operates at higher speeds (~2000-5000 RPM).

 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption vs Engine Speed

84

 Brake specific fuel consumption decreases as engine speed

increases, reaches a minimum, and then increases at high
speeds. • Fuel consumption increases at
high speeds because of greater
friction losses.

• At low engine speed, the longer

time per cycle allows more heat
loss and fuel consumption goes
up.

• Engines with higher compression

ratios typically achieve better
thermal efficiency, which results in
lower specific fuel consumption
 Performance Maps
85

Using a dynamometer to measure the torque and fuel mass flow rate for different throttle
positions you can calculate:
2  Te  nR
bmep 
Vd bsfc 
m f Pb  (2  N e )  T
Wb
Performance map is used to
display the bsfc over the engines
bmep@WOT
full load and speed range.

Constant bsfc contours from a

two-liter four cylinder SI engine
 Examples on IC Engine performance
86
 Engine Performance Map
87
 Engine Thermal Efficiencies
88

 The time for combustion in the cylinder is very short so not all the fuel
may be consumed or local temperatures may not favor combustion

 A small fraction of the fuel may not react and exits with the exhaust
gas

 The combustion efficiency is defined as:

actual heat input Qin

C  
theoretical heat input m f QHV

Where Qin = heat added by combustion per cycle

mf = mass of fuel added to cylinder per cycle
QHV = heating value of the fuel (chemical energy per unit mass)
 Energy flow
89
 Indicated thermal efficiency (ηith)
90

 Indicated thermal efficiency (ηith)

 is the ratio of energy in the indicated power, Pi, to the

input fuel energy in appropriate units

Pi P Pi
ith   i 
rate of heat input per cycle Q in m f QHVC

𝜂c – combustion efficiency
 Indicated thermal efficiencies are typically 50% to 60%
and brake thermal efficiencies are usually about 30%
 Brake Thermal Efficiency(ηbth)
91

 Is the ratio of energy in the brake power Pb to the input fuel

energy in appropriate units
Pb Pb Pb
bth  


rate of heat input per cycle Qin m f QHVC
 Thermal efficiency
92

From specific fuel consumption

m f ith 
Pi

Pi

Pi
sfc  
rate of heat input per cycle Qin m f QHVC
P

1
ith 
isfc QHV C
or

1
 bth 
bsfc QHV C
 Fuel conversion efficiency
93

 Fuel conversion efficiency is defined as:

Work per cycle WC Pc 1

f    
Theortical Heat input per cycle m f QHV m f QHV sfc QHV

actual heat input Qin

C  
theoretical heat input m f QHV

 Thus thermal efficiency may be defined as:

 f Wc
t  
 C Qin
 Air-Fuel Ratio and Fuel-Air Ratio
94

 The relative proportions of the fuel and air in the engine cylinder are very
important from the standpoint of combustion and the efficiency of the engine.

 Air-Fuel ratio (AF) or Fuel-Air ratio (FA) are used to describe the mixture
ratio of the charge.
 Air-Fuel Ratio and Fuel-Air Ratio
95

 For SI engine hydrocarbon fuel:

 Ideal or Stoichiometric AF is about 15:1 (14.7:1)

 Combustion possible in the range of 6:1 to 25:1

 For CI engine hydrocarbon fuel:

 Ideal or Stoichiometric AF is also about 15 (14.7:1)

 Combustion possible in the range of 18:1 to 70:1
 Fuel-Air (F/A) or Air-Fuel Ratio (A/F)
96

 In the SI engine the fuel-air ratio practically remains a constant

over a wide range of operation.

 In CI engines at a given speed the air flow does not vary with
load; it is the fuel flow that varies directly with load.

 Therefore, the term fuel-air ratio is generally used instead of

air-fuel ratio.
 Fuel-Air (F/A) or Air-Fuel Ratio (A/F)
97

 A mixture that contains just enough air for complete combustion of all the fuel in the
mixture is called a chemically correct or stoichiometric fuel-air ratio.

 A mixture having more fuel than that in a chemically correct mixture is termed as rich
mixture and a mixture that contains less fuel (or excess air) is called a lean mixture.

 The ratio of actual fuel-air ratio to stoichiometric fuel-air ratio is called equivalence
ratio and is denoted by
 Φ=1 Stoichiometric
 Actual fuel  Air ratio 
Φ>1 Rich Mixture    
 Stoichiometric fuel  air ratio 


 Φ<1 Lean Mixture

 Equivalent ratio & Relative A/F ratio
98
 Volumetric efficiency CI (V )
99

 The volumetric efficiency is used to measure the effectiveness of an engine's

induction process.

 Volumetric efficiency is usually used with four-stroke cycle engines which have a
distinct induction process.

 It is defined as the volume flow rate of air into the intake system divided by the
rate at which volume is displaced by the piston:

  

V ,CI 
V

2 m a

ma 2(ma  m f )
 v , SI 
VD e  a ,i VD N e  a ,iVD
N
 a,i VD N e
2
Where: ma is the mass of air inducted into the cylinder per cycle.

 where a is the density of air at atmospheric conditions Po, To and for an ideal gas a =Po / RaTo
and Ra = 0.287 kJ/kg-K (at standard conditions a= 1.181 kg/m3
 Volumetric efficiency
100

 Can be measured:
 At the inlet port
 Intake of the engine
 Any suitable location in the intake manifold

 If measured at the intake of the engine, it is also called the overall

volumetric efficiency.
 Volumetric Efficiency (ηv)
101

 High volumetric efficiency increases engine power.

 Volumetric Efficiency can be greater than one where Super charger or
turbocharger fitted
 Turbo charging is capable of increasing volumetric efficiency up to 50%.
 Typical values of volumetric efficiency for SI engine at wide-open throttle (WOT)
are in the range 75% to 90%, going down to much lower values as the throttle is
closed.
 Volumetric efficiency depends upon
 Induction and Exhaust system flow friction
 Induction system heat transfer
 Valve timing effect
 Valve flow friction
 Choking in the inlet valve and port
 In cylinder heat transfer
 Volumetric Efficiency (ηv)
102
 Volumetric Efficiency (ηv)
103
 Volumetric Efficiency
104

Air Entering the Engine

ηV 
Engine Displaceme nt
 Engine Specific Weight and Specific Volume
105

 Engine weight and bulk volume for a given rated power are
important in many applications. Two parameters useful for
comparing these attributes form one engine to another are:

engineWeight enginevolume
Specific Weight  Specificvolume 
rated power rated power

 These parameters indicate the effectiveness with which the engine

designer has used the engine materials and packaged the engine
components.
 Calorific Value (CV)
106

 Calorific value of a fuel is the thermal energy released per unit

quantity of the fuel when the fuel is burned completely and the
products of combustion are cooled back to the initial temperature of
the combustible mixture

 Other terms used for the calorific value are heating value and heat of
Combustion.

 When the products of combustion are cooled to 25 °C practically all

the water vapour resulting from the combustion process is condensed.
 Calorific Value (CV)
107

 When H2O is in products is condensed to liquid additional

heat is realized and the total heat liberated is called Higher
Calorific Value (HCV)

 When H2O in the products is in the vapor form heat is not

removed this calorific value is called is called Lower calorific
Values (LCV)

 L.C.V. = H.C.V. –(Mass of H2O * 2454.1 ) in kJ

 Relationships Between Performance Parameters

By combining equations presented in this section the following additional

108
working equations are obtained:

ith  v  N e Vd  QHV   a  (1 / AF )

Pi 
nR

ith  v Vd  QHV   a  (1 / AF )

T
2  nR

mep   f  v  QHV   a  (1 / AF )
 Engine Performance Curves
109
1. Imep
2. Bmep and torque
3. Indicated power
4. Brake power
5. Indicated thermal efficiency
6. Brake thermal efficiency
7. Specific fuel consumption