BCA 2 UNIT 2

What is Data Transmission? Types of Data Transmission.

Definition Data Transmission:
When we enter data into the computer via keyboard, each keyed element is
encoded by the electronics within the keyboard into an equivalent binary coded
pattern, using one of the standard coding schemes that are used for the interchange
of information. To represent all characters of the keyboard, a unique pattern of 7 or
8 bits in size is used. The use of 7 bits means that 128 different elements can be
represented, while 8 bits can represent 256 elements. A similar procedure is
followed at the receiver that decodes every received binary pattern into the
corresponding character.
The most widely used codes that have been adopted for this function are the
Extended Binary Coded Decimal (EBCDIC) and the American Standard Code
for Information Interchange codes (ASCII). Both coding schemes cater to all the
normal alphabetic, numeric, and punctuation characters, collectively referred to
as printable characters and a range of additional control characters, known as non-
printable characters.
Data transmission refers to the movement of data in form of bits between two or
more digital devices.
This transfer of data takes place via some form of transmission media (for example,
coaxial cable, fiber optics etc.)

Types of Data Transmission

Parallel transmission
Defination:
Within a computing or communication device, the distances between different
subunits are too short. Thus, it is normal practice to transfer data between subunits
using a separate wire to carry each bit of data. There are multiple wires connecting
each sub-unit and data is exchanged using a parallel transfer mode. This mode of
operation results in minimal delays in transferring each word.

• In parallel transmission, all the bits of data are transmitted simultaneously on

separate communication lines.
• In order to transmit n bits, n wires or lines are used. Thus each bit has its own line.
• All n bits of one group are transmitted with each clock pulse from one device to
another i.e. multiple bits are sent with each clock pulse.
• Parallel transmission is used for short distance communication.
• As shown in the fig, eight separate wires are used to transmit 8 bit data
from sender to receiver
.

Advantage of parallel transmission

It is speedy way of transmitting data as multiple bits are transmitted simultaneously
with a single clock pulse.
Disadvantage of parallel transmission
It is costly method of data transmission as it requires n lines to transmit n bits at the
same time.
Serial Transmission
Defination:
When transferring data between two physically separate devices, especially if the
separation is more than a few kilometers, for reasons of cost, it is more economical
to use a single pair of lines. Data is transmitted as a single bit at
a time using a fixed time interval for each bit. This mode of transmission is known
as bit-serial transmission.
• In serial transmission, the various bits of data are transmitted serially one after the
other.
• It requires only one communication line rather than n lines to transmit data from
sender to receiver.
• Thus all the bits of data are transmitted on single line in serial fashion.
• In serial transmission, only single bit is sent with each clock pulse.
• As shown in fig., suppose an 8-bit data 11001010 is to be sent from source to
destination. Then least significant bit (LSB) i,e. 0 will be transmitted first followed by
other bits. The most significant bit (MSB) i.e. 1 will be transmitted in the end via
single communication line.
• The internal circuitry of computer transmits data in parallel fashion. So in order to
change this parallel data into serial data, conversion devices are used.
• These conversion devices convert the parallel data into serial data at the sender
side so that it can be transmitted over single line.
• On receiver side, serial data received is again converted to parallel form so that
the interval circuitry of computer can accept it

• Serial transmission is used for long distance communication.

Advantage of Serial transmission

 Use of single communication line reduces the transmission line cost by the factor
of n as compared to parallel transmission.
Disadvantages of Serial transmission
1. Use of conversion devices at source and destination end may lead to increase in
overall transmission cost.
2. This method is slower as compared to parallel transmission as bits are
transmitted serially one after the other.
Types of Serial Transmission
There are two types of serial transmission-synchronous and asynchronous both these
transmissions use ‘Bit synchronization‘
Bit Synchronization is a function that is required to determine when the beginning
and end of the data transmission occurs.
Bit synchronization helps the receiving computer to know when data begin and end
during a transmission. Therefore bit synchronization provides timing control.

Asynchronous Transmission
• Asynchronous transmission sends only one character at a time where a character
is either a letter of the alphabet or number or control character i.e. it sends one byte
of data at a time.
• Bit synchronization between two devices is made possible using start bit and stop
bit.
• Start bit indicates the beginning of data i.e. alerts the receiver to the arrival of
new group of bits. A start bit usually 0 is added to the beginning of each byte.
• Stop bit indicates the end of data i.e. to let the receiver know that byte is finished,
one or more additional bits are appended to the end of the byte. These bits, usually
1s are called stop bits.

• Addition of start and stop increase the number of data bits. Hence more
bandwidth is consumed in asynchronous transmission.
• There is idle time between the transmissions of different data bytes. This idle time
is also known as Gap
• The gap or idle time can be of varying intervals. This mechanism is called
Asynchronous, because at byte level sender and receiver need not to be
synchronized. But within each byte, receiver must be synchronized with the
incoming bit stream.
Application of Asynchronous Transmission
Asynchronous transmission is well suited for keyboard type-terminals and paper tape
devices. The advantage of this method is that it does not require any local storage at
the terminal or the computer as transmission takes place character by character.
2. Asynchronous transmission is best suited to Internet traffic in which information is
transmitted in short bursts. This type of transmission is used by modems.
Advantages of Asynchronous transmission
1. This method of data transmission is cheaper in cost as compared to
synchronous e.g. If lines are short, asynchronous transmission is better, because
line cost would be low and idle time will not be expensive.
2. In this approach each individual character is complete in itself, therefore if
character is corrupted during transmission, its successor and predecessor character
will not be affected.
3. It is possible to transmit signals from sources having different bit rates.
4. The transmission can start as soon as data byte to be transmitted becomes
available.
5. Moreover, this mode of data transmission in easy to implement.
Disadvantages of asynchronous transmission
1. This method is less efficient and slower than synchronous transmission due to the
overhead of extra bits and insertion of gaps into bit stream.
2. Successful transmission inevitably depends on the recognition of the start bits.
These bits can be missed or corrupted.
Synchronous Transmission
• Synchronous transmission does not use start and stop bits.
• In this method bit stream is combined into longer frames that may contain
multiple bytes.
• There is no gap between the various bytes in the data stream.

• In the absence of start & stop bits, bit synchronization is established between
sender & receiver by ‘timing’ the transmission of each bit.
• Since the various bytes are placed on the link without any gap, it is the
responsibility of receiver to separate the bit stream into bytes so as to reconstruct
the original information.
• In order to receive the data error free, the receiver and sender operates at the
same clock frequency.

Application of Synchronous transmission

• Synchronous transmission is used for high speed communication between
computers.
Advantage of Synchronous transmission
1. This method is faster as compared to asynchronous as there are no extra bits
(start bit & stop bit) and also there is no gap between the individual data bytes.
Disadvantages of Synchronous transmission
1. It is costly as compared to asynchronous method. It requires local buffer storage
at the two ends of line to assemble blocks and it also requires accurately
synchronized clocks at both ends. This lead to increase in the cost.
2. The sender and receiver have to operate at the same clock frequency. This
requires proper synchronization which makes the system complicated.
Comparison between Serial and Parallel transmission

Comparison between Asynchronous and Synchronous.

Data Communication
Data communication refers to the exchange of data between a source and a
receiver via form of transmission media such as a wire cable. Data
communication is said to be local if communicating devices are in the same
building or a similarly restricted geographical area.
The meanings of source and receiver are very simple. The device that transmits
the data is known as source and the device that receives the transmitted data is
known as receiver. Data communication aims at the transfer of data and
maintenance of the data during the process but not the actual generation of
the information at the source and receiver.
Datum mean the facts information statistics or the like derived by calculation or
experimentation. The facts and information so gathered are processed in
accordance with defined systems of procedure. Data can exist in a variety of
forms such as numbers, text, bits and bytes. The Figure is an illustration of a
simple data communication system.

The term data used to describe information, under whatever form of words you
will be using.
A data communication system may collect data from remote locations through
data transmission circuits, and then outputs processed results to remote
locations. Figure provides a broader view of data communication networks. The
different data communication techniques which are presently in widespread use
evolved gradually either to improve the data communication techniques already
existing or to replace the same with better options and features. Then, there are
data communication jargons to contend with such as baud rate, modems, routers,
LAN, WAN, TCP/IP, ISDN, during the selection of communication systems. Hence, it
becomes necessary to review and understand these terms and gradual
development of data communication methods.

Components of data communication system

A Communication system has following components:

1. Message: It is the information or data to be communicated. It can consist of

text, numbers, pictures, sound or video or any combination of these.
2. Sender: It is the device/computer that generates and sends that message.
3. Receiver: It is the device or computer that receives the message. The location
of receiver computer is generally different from the sender computer. The
distance between sender and receiver depends upon the types of network used in
between.
4. Medium: It is the channel or physical path through which the message is
carried from sender to the receiver. The medium can be wired like twisted pair
wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable or wireless like laser, radio waves, and
microwaves.
5. Protocol: It is a set of rules that govern the communication between the
devices. Both sender and receiver follow same protocols to communicate with
each other.
A protocol performs the following functions:
1. Data sequencing. It refers to breaking a long message into smaller packets of
fixed size. Data sequencing rules define the method of numbering packets to
detect loss or duplication of packets, and to correctly identify packets, which
belong to same message.
2. Data routing. Data routing defines the most efficient path between the source
and destination.
3. Data formatting. Data formatting rules define which group of bits or
characters within packet constitute data, control, addressing, or other
information.
4. Flow control. A communication protocol also prevents a fast sender from
overwhelming a slow receiver. It ensures resource sharing and protection against
traffic congestion by regulating the flow of data on communication lines.
5. Error control. These rules are designed to detect errors in messages and to
ensure transmission of correct messages. The most common method is to
retransmit erroneous message block. In such a case, a block having error is
discarded by the receiver and is retransmitted by the sender.
6. Precedence and order of transmission. These rules ensure that all the
nodes get a chance to use the communication lines and other resources of the
network based on the priorities assigned to them.
7. Connection establishment and termination. These rules define how
connections are established, maintained and terminated when two nodes of a
network want to communicate with each other.

8. Data security. Providing data security and privacy is also built into most
communication software packages. It prevents access of data by unauthorized
users.
9. Log information. Several communication software are designed to develop
log information, which consists of all jobs and data communications tasks that
have taken place. Such information may be used for charging the users of the
network based on their usage of the network resources.
The effectiveness depends on four fundamental characteristics of data
communications
1. Delivery: The data must be deliver in correct order with correct destination.
2.Accuracy: The data must be deliver accurately.
3. Timeliness: The data must be deliver in a timely manner.late delivered
Data useless.
4. Jitter: It is the uneven delay in the packet arrival time that cause uneven
quality.
Analog Transmission
To send the digital data over an analog media, it needs to be converted into analog
signal.There can be two cases according to data formatting.

Bandpass:The filters are used to filter and pass frequencies of interest. A bandpass
is a band of frequencies which can pass the filter.

Low-pass: Low-pass is a filter that passes low frequencies signals.

When digital data is converted into a bandpass analog signal, it is called digital-to-
analog conversion. When low-pass analog signal is converted into bandpass analog
signal, it is called analog-to-analog conversion.
Digital-to-Analog Conversion
When data from one computer is sent to another via some analog carrier, it is first
converted into analog signals. Analog signals are modified to reflect digital data.
An analog signal is characterized by its amplitude, frequency, and phase. There are
three kinds of digital-to-analog conversions:

 Amplitude Shift Keying

In this conversion technique, the amplitude of analog carrier signal is modified
to reflect binary data.

When binary data represents digit 1, the amplitude is held; otherwise it is set
to 0. Both frequency and phase remain same as in the original carrier signal.

 Frequency Shift Keying

In this conversion technique, the frequency of the analog carrier signal is
modified to reflect binary data.
 This technique uses two frequencies, f1 and f2. One of them, for example f1, is
chosen to represent binary digit 1 and the other one is used to represent
binary digit 0. Both amplitude and phase of the carrier wave are kept intact.

 Phase Shift Keying

In this conversion scheme, the phase of the original carrier signal is altered to
reflect the binary data.

When a new binary symbol is encountered, the phase of the signal is altered.
Amplitude and frequency of the original carrier signal is kept intact.

 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

QPSK alters the phase to reflect two binary digits at once. This is done in two
different phases. The main stream of binary data is divided equally into two
sub-streams. The serial data is converted in to parallel in both sub-streams
and then each stream is converted to digital signal using NRZ technique.
Later, both the digital signals are merged together.

Analog-to-Analog Conversion
Analog signals are modified to represent analog data. This conversion is also known
as Analog Modulation. Analog modulation is required when bandpass is used. Analog
to analog conversion can be done in three ways:

 Amplitude Modulation
In this modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal is modified to reflect the
analog data.
 Amplitude modulation is implemented by means of a multiplier. The amplitude
of modulating signal (analog data) is multiplied by the amplitude of carrier
frequency, which then reflects analog data.
The frequency and phase of carrier signal remain unchanged.
 Frequency Modulation
In this modulation technique, the frequency of the carrier signal is modified to
reflect the change in the voltage levels of the modulating signal (analog data).

The amplitude and phase of the carrier signal are not altered.
  Phase Modulation
In the modulation technique, the phase of carrier signal is modulated in order
to reflect the change in voltage (amplitude) of analog data signal.

Phase modulation is practically similar to Frequency Modulation, but in Phase

modulation frequency of the carrier signal is not increased. Frequency of
carrier is signal is changed (made dense and sparse) to reflect voltage change
in the amplitude of modulating signal.

Characteristics OF Analog Signal

 These type of electronic signals are time-varying

 Minimum and maximum values which is either positive or negative.
 It can be either periodic or non-periodic.
 Analog Signal works on continuous data.
 The accuracy of the analog signal is not high when compared to the digital
signal.
 It helps you to measure natural or physical values.
 Analog signal output form is like Curve, Line, or Graph, so it may not be
meaningful to all.

Advantages of Analog Signals

 Easier in processing
 Best suited for audio and video transmission.
 It has a low cost and is portable.
 It has a much higher density so that it can present more refined information.
 Not necessary to buy a new graphics board.
 Uses less bandwidth than digital sounds
 Provide more accurate representation of a sound
 It is the natural form of a sound.
Disadvantages of Analog Signals
 Analog tends to have a lower quality signal than digital.
 The cables are sensitive to external influences.
 The cost of the Analog wire is high and not easily portable.
 Low availability of models with digital interfaces.
 Recording analog sound on tape is quite expensive if the tape is damaged
 It offers limitations in editing
 Tape is becoming hard to find
 It is quite difficult to synchronize analog sound
 Quality is easily lost
 Data can become corrupted
 Plenty of recording devices and formats which can become confusing to store a
digital signal
 Digital sounds can cut an analog sound wave which means that you can’t get a
perfect reproduction of a sound
 Offers poor multi-user interfaces

Digital Transmission
Data or information can be stored in two ways, analog and digital. For a computer to
use the data, it must be in discrete digital form.Similar to data, signals can also be
in analog and digital form. To transmit data digitally, it needs to be first converted to
digital form.

Digital-to-Digital Conversion
This section explains how to convert digital data into digital signals. It can be done
in two ways, line coding and block coding. For all communications, line coding is
necessary whereas block coding is optional.
Line Coding
The process for converting digital data into digital signal is said to be Line Coding.
Digital data is found in binary format.It is represented (stored) internally as series of
1s and 0s.

Digital signal is denoted by discreet signal, which represents digital data.There are
three types of line coding schemes available:
Uni-polar Encoding
Unipolar encoding schemes use single voltage level to represent data. In this case,
to represent binary 1, high voltage is transmitted and to represent 0, no voltage is
transmitted. It is also called Unipolar-Non-return-to-zero, because there is no rest
condition i.e. it either represents 1 or 0.

Polar Encoding
Polar encoding scheme uses multiple voltage levels to represent binary values. Polar
encodings is available in four types:

 Polar Non-Return to Zero (Polar NRZ)

It uses two different voltage levels to represent binary values. Generally,
positive voltage represents 1 and negative value represents 0. It is also NRZ
because there is no rest condition.
NRZ scheme has two variants: NRZ-L and NRZ-I.

NRZ-L changes voltage level at when a different bit is encountered whereas

NRZ-I changes voltage when a 1 is encountered.
 Return to Zero (RZ)
 Problem with NRZ is that the receiver cannot conclude when a bit ended and
when the next bit is started, in case when sender and receiver’s clock are not
synchronized.

RZ uses three voltage levels, positive voltage to represent 1, negative voltage

to represent 0 and zero voltage for none. Signals change during bits not
between bits.
 Manchester
This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-L. Bit time is divided
into two halves. It transits in the middle of the bit and changes phase when a
different bit is encountered.

 Differential Manchester
This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-I. It also transit at the
middle of the bit but changes phase only when 1 is encountered.

Bipolar Encoding
Bipolar encoding uses three voltage levels, positive, negative and zero. Zero voltage
represents binary 0 and bit 1 is represented by altering positive and negative
voltages.

Block Coding
To ensure accuracy of the received data frame redundant bits are used. For
example, in even-parity, one parity bit is added to make the count of 1s in the frame
even. This way the original number of bits is increased. It is called Block Coding.
Block coding is represented by slash notation, mB/nB.Means, m-bit block is
substituted with n-bit block where n > m. Block coding involves three steps:
 Division,
 Substitution
 Combination.
After block coding is done, it is line coded for transmission.
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
Microphones create analog voice and camera creates analog videos, which are
treated is analog data. To transmit this analog data over digital signals, we need
analog to digital conversion.
Analog data is a continuous stream of data in the wave form whereas digital data is
discrete. To convert analog wave into digital data, we use Pulse Code Modulation
(PCM).
PCM is one of the most commonly used method to convert analog data into digital
form. It involves three steps:

 Sampling
 Quantization
 Encoding.

Sampling

The analog signal is sampled every T interval. Most important factor in sampling is
the rate at which analog signal is sampled. According to Nyquist Theorem, the
sampling rate must be at least two times of the highest frequency of the signal.

Quantization

Sampling yields discrete form of continuous analog signal. Every discrete pattern
shows the amplitude of the analog signal at that instance. The quantization is done
between the maximum amplitude value and the minimum amplitude value.
Quantization is approximation of the instantaneous analog value.

Encoding

In encoding, each approximated value is then converted into binary format.

Characteristics of Digital Signals

  Digital signal are continuous signals
 This type of electronic l signals can be processed and transmitted better
compared to analog signal.
 Digital signals are versatile, so it is widely used.
 The accuracy of the digital signal is better than that of the analog signal.

Advantages of Digital Signals

 Digital data can be easily compressed.

 Any information in the digital form can be encrypted.
 Equipment that uses digital signals is more common and less expensive.
 Digital signal makes running instruments free from observation errors like parallax
and approximation errors.
 A lot of editing tools are available
 You can edit the sound without altering the original copy
 Easy to transmit the data over networks

Disadvantages of Digital Signals

 Sampling may cause loss of information.
 A/D and D/A demands mixed-signal hardware
 Processor speed is limited
 Develop quantization and round-off errors
 It requires greater bandwidth
 Systems and processing is more complex.

Difference Between Analog and Digital Signal

Analog Digital
An analog signal is a continuous signal Digital signals are time separated
that represents physical signals which are generated using
measurements. digital modulation.
It is denoted by sine waves It is denoted by square waves
It uses a continuous range of values Digital signal uses discrete 0 and 1 to
that help you to represent represent information.
information.
Temperature sensors, FM radio Computers, CDs, DVDs are some
signals, Photocells, Light sensor, examples of Digital signal.
Resistive touch screen are examples
of Analog signals.
The analog signal bandwidth is low The digital signal bandwidth is high.
Analog signals are deteriorated by Relatively a noise-immune system
noise throughout transmission as well without deterioration during the
as write/read cycle. transmission process and write/read
 cycle.
Analog hardware never offers flexible Digital hardware offers flexibility in
implementation. implementation.
It is suited for audio and video It is suited for Computing and digital
transmission. electronics.
Processing can be done in real-time It never gives a guarantee that digital
and consumes lesser bandwidth signal processing can be performed in
compared to a digital signal. real time.
Analog instruments usually have s Digital instruments never cause any
scale which is cramped at lower end kind of observational errors.
and gives considerable observational
errors.
Analog signal doesn’t offer any fixed Digital signal has a finite number, i.e., 0
range. and 1.

What is Transmission media

o Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information
from the sender to the receiver. Data is transmitted through the
electromagnetic signals.
o The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the information in
the form of bits through LAN(Local Area Network).
o It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data communication.
o In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals.
o In a fibre based network, the bits in the form of light pulses.
o In OSI(Open System Interconnection) phase, transmission media supports the
Layer 1. Therefore, it is considered to be as a Layer 1 component.
o The electrical signals can be sent through the copper wire, fibre optics,
atmosphere, water, and vacuum.
o The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined by the
characteristics of medium and signal.
o Transmission media is of two types are wired media and wireless media. In
wired media, medium characteristics are more important whereas, in wireless
media, signal characteristics are more important.
o Different transmission media have different properties such as bandwidth,
delay, cost and ease of installation and maintenance.
o The transmission media is available in the lowest layer of the OSI reference
model, i.e., Physical layer.

Some factors need to be considered for designing the transmission

media:
o Bandwidth: All the factors are remaining constant, the greater the bandwidth
of a medium, the higher the data transmission rate of a signal.
o Transmission impairment: When the received signal is not identical to the
transmitted one due to the transmission impairment. The quality of the signals
will get destroyed due to transmission impairment.
o Interference: An interference is defined as the process of disrupting a signal
when it travels over a communication medium on the addition of some
unwanted signal.
Causes Of Transmission Impairment:

o Attenuation: Attenuation means the loss of energy, i.e., the strength of the
signal decreases with increasing the distance which causes the loss of energy.
o Distortion: Distortion occurs when there is a change in the shape of the
signal. This type of distortion is examined from different signals having
different frequencies. Each frequency component has its own propagation
speed, so they reach at a different time which leads to the delay distortion.
o Noise: When data is travelled over a transmission medium, some unwanted
signal is added to it which creates the noise.

Classification Of Transmission Media:

o Guided Transmission Media

UnGuided Transmission Media

Guided Media
It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted. It is
also known as Bounded media.
Types Of Guided media:
Twisted pair:
Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other.
A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media. Installation of
the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable. The frequency range for
twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.
A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral
pattern
The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined by the number of turns
per foot. Increasing the number of turns per foot decreases noise interference.

Types of Twisted pair:

Unshielded Twisted Pair:

An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication. Following are the
categories of the unshielded twisted pair cable:
o Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.
o Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
o Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.
o Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for long-
distance communication.
o Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.
Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:
o It is cheap.
o Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
o It can be used for high-speed LAN.
Disadvantage:
o This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.

Shielded Twisted Pair

A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire that
allows the higher transmission rate.

Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:

o The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.
o An installation of STP is easy.
o It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
o It has a higher attenuation.
o It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.
Disadvantages
o It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.
o It has a higher attenuation rate.
Coaxial Cable
o Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire
is usually a coaxial cable.
o The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each
other.
o It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
o The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer
conductor is made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-
conductive cover that separates the inner conductor from the outer conductor.
o The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper
mesh prevents from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).

Coaxial cable is of two types:

1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single
signal at high speed.
2. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting
multiple signals simultaneously.
Advantages Of Coaxial cable:
o The data can be transmitted at high speed.
o It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
o It provides higher bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:
o It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.
o If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.

Fibre Optic
o Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.
o Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in plastic that are used
to send the data by pulses of light.
o The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold, electromagnetic
interference from other types of wiring.
o Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.

Diagrammatic representation of fibre optic cable:

Basic elements of Fibre optic cable:

o Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as
a core. A core is a light transmission area of the fibre. The more the area of the
core, the more light will be transmitted into the fibre.
 o Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main
functionality of the cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core
interface as to cause the reflection within the core so that the light waves are
transmitted through the fibre.
o Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The
main purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fibre strength, absorb shock and
extra fibre protection.

Following are the advantages of fibre optic cable over copper:

o Greater Bandwidth: The fibre optic cable provides more bandwidth as
compared copper. Therefore, the fibre optic carries more data as compared to
copper cable.
o Faster speed: Fibre optic cable carries the data in the form of light. This
allows the fibre optic cable to carry the signals at a higher speed.
o Longer distances: The fibre optic cable carries the data at a longer distance
as compared to copper cable.
o Better reliability: The fibre optic cable is more reliable than the copper cable
as it is immune to any temperature changes while it can cause obstruct in the
connectivity of copper cable.
o Thinner and Sturdier: Fibre optic cable is thinner and lighter in weight so it
can withstand more pull pressure than copper cable.

UnGuided Transmission
o An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using
any physical medium. Therefore it is also known as wireless transmission.
o In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic energy
can flow easily.
Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories:
Radio waves
o Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the
directions of free space.
o Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the
directions.
o The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
o In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned,
i.e., the wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by any receiving
antenna.
o An example of the radio wave is FM radio.

Applications Of Radio waves:

o A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many
receivers.
o An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.
Advantages Of Radio transmission:
o Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular
phones.
o Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
o Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.

Microwaves
Microwaves are of two types:
 o Terrestrial microwave
o Satellite microwave communication.

Terrestrial Microwave Transmission

o Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused
beam of a radio signal from one ground-based microwave transmission
antenna to another.
o Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range
from 1GHz to 1000 GHz.
o Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be
aligned, i.e., the waves sent by the sending antenna are narrowly focussed.
o In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another
antenna which is km away.
o It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the
towers are the direct sight of each other.

Characteristics of Microwave:
o Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6
GHz to 21-23 GHz.
o Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
o Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
o Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer
distance.
o Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by environmental
conditions and antenna size.

Advantages Of Microwave:
o Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.
o It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the
installation of cables.
o Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the
installation of cable in terrain is quite a difficult task.
o Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave
transmission.

Disadvantages of Microwave transmission:

o Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any
malicious user can catch the signal in the air by using its own antenna.
o Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using microwave
transmission.
o Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is susceptible
to weather condition. This means that any environmental change such as rain,
wind can distort the signal.
o Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of
microwave transmission.

Satellite Microwave Communication

o A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known
height.
o Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility
than cable and fibre optic systems.
o We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite
communication.
How Does Satellite work?
The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it
amplifies the signal. The amplified signal is retransmitted to another earth station.
Advantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:
o The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial
microwave.
o The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance from the
centre of the coverage area.
o Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication
applications.
o It is easy to install.
o It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting, radio/TV
signal broadcasting, mobile communication, etc.

Disadvantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher cost.
o The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so that it
remains in orbit.
o The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason, another launch
of the satellite has to be planned before it becomes non-functional.

Infrared
o An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication over
short ranges.
o The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
o It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between two
cell phones, TV remote operation, data transfer between a computer and cell
phone resides in the same closed area.

Characteristics Of Infrared:
o It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
o Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls. Therefore, the infrared
communication in one room cannot be interrupted by the nearby rooms.
o An infrared communication provides better security with minimum
interference.
o Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun rays
will interfere with the infrared waves.

What is Topology?
Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are
interconnected to each other. There are two types of topology: physical and logical
topology.
Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network.
Bus Topology

o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected
through a single cable known as a backbone cable.
o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly
connected to the backbone cable.
o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message
over the network. All the stations available in the network will receive the
message whether it has been addressed or not.
o The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard
networks.
o The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other
topologies.
o The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the
message is broadcast to all the stations.
o The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier
Sense Multiple Access).
CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that data
integrity is maintained, i.e., the packets do not get lost. There are two alternative
ways of handling the problems that occur when two nodes send the messages
simultaneously.
o CSMA CD: CSMA CD (Collision detection) is an access method used to
detect the collision. Once the collision is detected, the sender will stop
transmitting the data. Therefore, it works on "recovery after the collision".
o CSMA CA: CSMA CA (Collision Avoidance) is an access method used to
avoid the collision by checking whether the transmission media is busy or not.
If busy, then the sender waits until the media becomes idle. This technique
effectively reduces the possibility of the collision. It does not work on "recovery
after the collision".
Advantages of Bus topology:
o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable
without passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in
bus-based networks that support upto 10 Mbps.
o Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation
and troubleshooting techniques are well known, and hardware components are
easily available.
o Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.
Disadvantages of Bus topology:
o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of
cabling.
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to
determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt
the communication for all the nodes.
o Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then
the signals of both the nodes collide with each other.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow
down the network.
o Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues.
Repeaters are used to regenerate the signal.

Ring Topology

o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will
retransmit to the next node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and
having no termination point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
o The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
o Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed
from one node to another node.
o Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Working of Token passing
o A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to
computer until it reaches the destination.
 o The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data.
o The data is passed from one device to another device until the destination
address matches. Once the token received by the destination device, then it
sends the acknowledgment to the sender.
o In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.
Advantages of Ring topology:
o Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network
without bringing the network down.
o Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network
operation and monitoring are available.
o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the
installation cost is very low.
o Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is
not dependent on the single host computer.
Disadvantages of Ring topology:
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to
determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt
the communication for all the nodes.
o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall
network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow
down the network.
o Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes.
Adding new devices increases the communication delay.

Star Topology

o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is

connected to the central hub, switch or a central computer.
o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices
attached to the server are known as clients.
o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star
topology.
o Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.
Advantages of Star topology
o Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star
topology as compared to bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager has to
inspect the kilometers of cable. In a star topology, all the stations are
connected to the centralized network. Therefore, the network administrator has
to go to the single station to troubleshoot the problem.
 o Network control: Complex network control features can be easily
implemented in the star topology. Any changes made in the star topology are
automatically accommodated.
o Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own
cable, therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
o Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are
cost-effective.
o Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to
the open ports on the hub.
o Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses
inexpensive coaxial cable.
o High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet
100BaseT is one of the most popular Star topology networks.

Disadvantages of Star topology

o A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all
the connected nodes will not be able to communicate with each other.
o Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount
of routing is required.

Tree topology

o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected
with each other in hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other
nodes are the descendants of the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission.
Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy.
Advantages of Tree topology
o Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to
provide broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long distances
without being attenuated.
o Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network.
Therefore, we can say that tree topology is easily expandable.
o Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into
segments known as star networks which can be easily managed and
maintained.
o Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree
topology.
o Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire
network.
o Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
Disadvantages of Tree topology
o Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes
difficult to troubleshoot the problem.
o High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
o Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main
bus cable will damage the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult
to reconfigure.

Mesh topology

o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are

interconnected with each other through various redundant connections.
o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a
central point of communication.
o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication
failures are a critical concern.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
o Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;
Where n is the number of nodes that represents the network.

Mesh topology is divided into two categories:

o Fully connected mesh topology
o Partially connected mesh topology

o Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected to

all the computers available in the network.
 o Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain
computers are connected to those computers with which they communicate
frequently.

Advantages of Mesh topology:

Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will
not affect the communication between connected computers.
Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.
Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication
between other devices.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

o Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as
a router and more transmission media than other topologies.
o Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to
maintain and manage. If the network is not monitored carefully, then the
communication link failure goes undetected.
o Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the
efficiency of the network.