Photovotaic systems

(REE 532)

Hossam AbdelRazzak AbdelHadi

Associate Professor in Electrical Engineering

(Lecture 01)
 Chapter ONE: Electrical characterization of solar cells

➢ (I-V) and (P-V) curves.

➢ Short circuit current, Open circuit voltage, Fill factor and
Chapter ONE

Electrical electrical conversion efficiency.

characterization of solar ➢ Solar cells standards. Lec. 01
cells ➢ Calibrating and testing of solar cells.
➢ Factors affecting solar cells performance (reasons and
solutions)

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 Electrical characterization of solar cells
Characteristics of PV cells
Each type of PV cell is unique and has its own individual characteristics; it is very important to be aware of this when designing
an array as the characteristics of the cells in one type of module can affect the power output of the other modules connected to it.

Graphical representations of PV cell performance

▪ It is very common for the features of a PV cell to be represented graphically
as a current-voltage (I-V) curve or power-volt (P-V) curve.
▪ The current-voltage (I-V) and power-volt (P-V) curves tracks the PV cell’s
performance and highlights key features such as:
1. The short circuit current (Isc),
2. The open circuit voltage(Voc),
3. The Maximum Power point (Pmax)
4. The Fill Factor (F.F), and
5. Solar cell efficiency (ηel)
▪ The I-V and power curves are important because it is necessary to know the
characteristics of each individual cell when designing a module.

▪ Connecting cells with dramatically different characteristics together will have

a large (generally negative) effect on the power output of the PV module.
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The (I-V) curve is obtained experimentally by exposing the PV cell or module to a constant level of irradiance while
maintaining a constant cell temperature, varying the load resistance, and measuring the current produced.

The horizontal and vertical axes measure voltage and current, respectively.
The (I-V) curve typically passes through the two end points: the short-circuit
current, Isc, and the open-circuit voltage, Voc.

The PV cell may be operated over a wide range of voltages and currents.

By simply varying the load resistance from zero (a short circuit) to infinity
(an open circuit), it is possible to determine the highest efficiency as the point
where the cell delivers maximum power.

I-V and P-V curves

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 (1) The short circuit current (Isc)
o The short circuit current (Isc) is the maximum current generated by a cell or module and is measured when an external
circuit with no resistance (no load) is connected (i.e., the cell is shorted).
o It can be achieved by connecting the positive and negative terminals directly by a copper wire. (at V = 0 when I = Isc)
o Its value depends on on a number of factors which are described below:
▪ The cell’s surface area
▪ The amount of solar irradiance incident upon the surface (power of the incident light source).
▪ The optical properties (absorption and reflection) of the solar cell.

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(2) The open circuit voltage(Voc)
o The open-circuit voltage, Voc, is the maximum voltage available from a solar cell or module when a maximum value for the
load is connected (the circuit is open). This makes the current to be zero (at I = 0 when V = Voc).

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(3) The Maximum Power point (Pmax)
o It is the point on the I-V curve at which the PV cell or module generates the maximum available power (Pmax)
o No power is produced at the short-circuit current (Isc) with no voltage or at open-circuit voltage (Voc) with no current, so
maximum power generation can be expected to be somewhere between these points.
o Because power is the product of voltage time's current, the maximum-power point (Pmax) occurs on the I-V curve where
the product of current (Imp) time's voltage (Vmp) is a maximum.

Note that I mp
▪ The maximum power is generated at only one point on the
power curve; this occurs at the knee of the curve.

▪ This point represents the maximum efficiency of the device

in converting sunlight into electricity.

▪ If a module operates outside its maximum power value, the

amount of power delivered is reduced and represents
needless energy losses.

▪ As far as possible, the load equipment such as an electric V mp

motor should be operated at this point (Vmp & Imp).
𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒑 = 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑽 × 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑨 (𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔ሻ
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(4) The Fill factor (FF) Isc
o The Fill factor (FF) is defined as the ratio of the maximum power
from the solar cell or module to the product of Voc and Isc so that: Imp

o It is commonly used to collectively describe the degree to which Vmp

matches Voc and Imp matches Isc.

Vmp Voc
(5) Solar cell efficiency (ηel)
o The efficiency is the most commonly used parameter to compare the performance of one solar cell to another.

o Efficiency is defined as the ratio of energy output from the solar cell to input energy from the sun.

𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑽𝒐𝒄 𝑰𝒔𝒄 𝑭𝑭

𝜼𝒆𝒍 = 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑽𝒎𝒑 𝑰𝒎𝒑 = 𝑽𝒐𝒄 𝑰𝒔𝒄 𝑭𝑭 𝜼𝒆𝒍 =
𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒊𝒏

o In addition to reflecting the performance of the solar cell itself, the efficiency depends on the spectrum and intensity
of the incident sunlight and the temperature of the solar cell as will be discussed later.
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Solar Cells Standard Test Conditions (STC)

❑ Standard Test Conditions are the industry standard for the conditions
under which a solar panel are tested.
❑ By using a fixed set of conditions, all solar panels can be more
accurately compared and rated against each other.
❑ There are three standard test conditions which are:

1) Temperature (T) of the cell must equal 25 °C (The temperature of the solar
cell itself, not the temperature of the surrounding).

2) Solar Irradiance (I) must equal 1000 W/m2 (Watts per square meter, one
sun) (This number refers to the amount of light energy falling on a given area
at a given time).

3) Mass of the air (AM) must equal 1.5 (If the sun is perpendicular to the
earth’s surface, sunlight only has to pass through the air mass (AM) of the
atmosphere once and this state is called AM 1).

AM increases as the sun goes farther from the reference

point and has to go at an angle to hit the same spot.

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10
Module Measurement without Load
▪ Measuring the full power output of a solar module requires a load.
▪ However, as a first step, we can use a simple multimeter to measure with no load
to get the open circuit voltage, (VOC) and short circuit current (ISC).
➢ Measuring (Voc)
✓ Connect multimeter leads as shown below to the solar panel leads (power
to power and ground to ground) and record the voltage.
✓ The Voc readings will decrease as the module heats up.

A handheld multimeter. Measurement

of a solar panel usually uses the 10
A and the 200 V settings

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➢ Measuring (Isc)
✓ Disconnect the multimeter from the module before changing the setting.
✓ For Isc, set the multimeter to a DC current scale greater than the expected
module current.
✓ Connect the multimeter leads to the solar panel leads and record the current.

A handheld multimeter. Measurement

of a solar panel usually uses the 10
✓ Multiplying the Voc and Isc together gives a rough estimate of the power. A and the 200 V settings
✓ For example, the Voc equals 35.8 V, the current equals 10.07 and the product is 363.5 W.
✓ However, we must also take into account the fill factor.
✓ The maximum power (PMAX, or sometimes written MPP) equation is: 1
Module Measurement with Load (Graphic representations of PV cell performance)
▪ This module measurement method uses the variable of resistance to determine the power IV curve.
▪ By changing the resistance of the connected load and measuring voltage and current, the power IV curve can be generated for a specific panel.

Material needed 1. Two Multimeters - One for voltage and one for current.
2. Resistors (serving as a load).
3. Water to cool the resistors.
4. Two or more alligator clip cords.
5. Protective gloves - modules and resistors get hot.
6. Solar Module
Proper connection

The red meter is reading

voltage and the blue
meter is reading current.
Use alligator clips on the
resistors to easily
change values.

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Measurement procedure
1. Place the module in a position where it will have full sunlight.
2. Set one meter to the voltage scale and one to the current scale.
3. Don’t add the resistors just yet. Follow the instructions on the previous
page to measure Voc and Isc.
4. Now add the resistors using the schematic above and record the voltage
and current for each resistor.
5. Change the resistor values to cover the IV curve.
6. After measuring with all the resistors, remeasure Voc and Isc.

Connect resistors in series. Use an additional black alligator clip to

connect the resistors for a value needed.

Handle the resistors with caution, they will be hot. Use protective
gloves and spray the resistors with water to help with cooling.

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Results and Discussion
o Record the cell voltage and current for each resistor.
o The power is (P = I×V) and the resistance is also calculated from (R = V/IR= V/I ) but it is not necessary.
The module PMAX is the maximum in the
power column, which is 213 W in the
Isc example above.
The fill factor (FF) is calculated from the
equation:

For the measurement above, Isc is the first

line of the table (where V = 0) and equals
9.33 A and Voc is the last line of the table
(where I = 0 ) and equals 32.6 V.
The resulting FF is 0.70. Comparing the
measured results to the specifications
listed on the module label we have:

Voc 15
Characteristic resistance (Rch)
▪ The value of maximum power produced from the PV cell or module can be directly measured by connecting a resistance
(load) with a value equals to the characteristic resistance (Rch).
▪ The characteristic resistance (Rch) of a solar cell is the output resistance of the solar cell at its maximum power point.

We can calculate the characteristic resistance (Rch) which make the PV module operate at its maximum power point.

▪ For the shown module data sheet, where Vmp equals 32.4 V and Imp
equals 9.1 A, RCH should be 3.5 ohms.

A collection of power resistors for

measuring a module IV curve.

Placing the resistors in series and

parallel gives a multitude of values.
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Factors Affecting the Photovoltaic Cells Performance.
o Photovoltaic cells are limited in efficiency by many losses; some of these are avoidable but others are intrinsic to the system
and may be described as follows:
(1) Characteristic Resistance (Rch)
▪ The characteristic resistance of a solar cell is the output resistance of the solar
cell at its maximum power point.
▪ If the resistance of the load is equal to the characteristic resistance of the solar
cell, then the maximum power is transferred to the load and the solar cell
operates at its maximum power point.
▪ And if not, the module will operate outside its maximum power value, and the
amount of power delivered is reduced and represents needless energy losses.

(2) Photon quantum energy

▪ Lower photons of quantum energy hv < Eg cannot contribute to photovoltaic current generation
(For silicon, the inactive wavelengths include 23% of the insolation).
▪ The excess energy of active photons (hv >> Eg) appears as heat (This loss is about 33% of the
insolation).
▪ Quantum efficiency – is the fraction of incident absorbed active photons producing electron-hole
pairs and should be very high (The design of the cell should be such that at least 95% absorption
takes place). 17
(3) Reflectance from semi-conductors
▪ Without special precautions, the reflectance from semi-conductors
is high (about 40% of the incident solar radiation).
▪ However, this may be reduced to 3% or less by the use of a thin-
film surface called antireflective coating.

Anti-Reflection Coating Color

▪ The color of the film is affected by the thickness as well as the
refractive index, so the film color is merely a rough guide to thickness.
▪ There are multiple tables for determining the films thickness for films
of silicon dioxide or silicon nitride such as those shown below.

▪ Four multi-crystalline wafers covered with films of silicon nitride.

▪ The difference in color is only due to the thickness of the film.
▪ The green wafers are very thick films and so don't appear in the color chart of the
next figure. 18
(4) Solar irradiance intensity.
▪ Changing the intensity of the solar incident irradiance on a solar cell changes all solar cell parameters, including the Isc,
Voc, FF, and ηel.
▪ The light intensity on a solar cell is called the number of suns, where 1 sun corresponds to standard illumination at
AM1.5, or 1 kW/m2 (For example, a system with 10 kW/m2 incident on the solar cell would be operating at 10 suns).
▪ Photovoltaic applications power output is directly proportional to the incident solar irradiance intensity.

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(5) Module operating temperature.
▪ Like all other semiconductor devices, solar cells are sensitive to temperature.
▪ Increases in temperature reduce the band gap of a semiconductor, thereby affecting most of the semiconductor material
parameters.
▪ If the operating temperature of the PV cell significantly increased, the junction begins to lose its power to separate
charges, allowing more electrons to jump into the conduction band which provides a small increase in (Isc) and
considerably reduces the (Voc ).
▪ The Isc increases slightly with the increased power of electron due to overheat, however, Voc rapidly decreases as exited
electrons easily cross the p-n junction.

Power output is voltage

multiplied by current and so
will decrease as well

▪ In addition, increases in temperature are implicated in several failure or degradation modes of PV modules, as elevated
temperatures increase stresses associated with thermal expansion and also increase degradation rates by a factor of about
two for each 10 °C increase in temperature. 20
 (6) Shading.
▪ PV cells require sunlight in order to produce electricity and if cell receives no sunlight
due to shading it will not produce any power (even a small area of cell shading can
result in a large reduction in power output).
▪ Cells in modules are normally connected in series, so when one or several cells are
shaded, the current output of the module will be reduced.
▪ If the module is part of an array, then the current output of the array will also be
reduced, and this will also occur if a cell is damaged and unable to produce power.
Shading of the array can lead to irreversible damage
Hot spot (location with extremely high temperature) heating occurs when a cell is shaded such
that its power output is reduced and most of the current being produced by the other
(unshaded) cells is forced through that one cell causing it to heat up.
This often leads to cell damage (cracking) and can also damage the glass encapsulation.

Solution
It is difficult to prevent shading; however, diodes can be used to mitigate temporary shading
(i.e. leaves that may have fallen on the array).
When a cell is shaded or damaged, a diode can be used to give current another path to follow.
This bypass diode will skip the damaged or shaded cell completely and have minimum impact
on the power output of the array. (each module may contain 2 or 3 bypass diodes) 21
 (7) Dust deposition.
▪ Dust accumulation on solar module surface is an important issue, especially in desert
regions where frequency of dust storm is very high.
▪ The accumulation of dust on the surface of PV module decreases the glass cover
transmittance and hence decreases the amount of solar irradiance reaching the cells.
▪ Reduction in glass transmittance is dependent on the amount of dust that accumulate on its
surface, inclination of plate, orientation to the dominant wind direction, exposure period
and environmental conditions.

Daily panels' exposure Weekly panels' exposure Monthly panels' exposure

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▪ Dust accumulation on solar module surface can also results in hot spots (locations with extremely high temperature) as
shown in the figure which have an adverse affect on the module performance and lifetime.

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▪ To get the most efficiency out of your solar panels and extend their life, it’s
important to clean them regularly.
▪ Keeping solar panels clean can also improve their efficiency (Some
manufacturers and solar panel users report a jump in efficiency of 30 % or
more after a cleaning).
Won’t My Panels Be Cleaned by the Rain?
▪ Many people assume their solar cells will be cleaned naturally when it rains.
▪ Unfortunately, much like your vehicle or house windows, this is not the case.
Have you ever noticed your vehicle in the days after a rainstorm? It might
seem a little cleaner at first, but then it’s likely to have a film on it.
▪ Rainwater is not clean water and the dirt it leaves behind needs to be washed
off of your solar panels.
How Do I Clean My Solar Panels?
▪ Check the manufacturer’s directions for cleaning.
▪ Keep in mind the panels might be hot, so try to clean them first thing in How Often Should I Clean My PV Panels?
the morning or later at night.
▪ At the very least you should do an annual
▪ Use your garden hose to spray down the panels. cleaning of your panels.
▪ Fill a bucket with warm, soapy water or cleaning solution designed for ▪ Most manufacturers recommend cleaning at
solar panels. Use a soft cloth or sponge and wipe them down with the least twice a month. This tends to result in a
soap solution and then rinse them with the hose. 3 to 5% increase in the annual efficiency.
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