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A u t o m At i o n A n d C o n t r o l E n g i n E E r i n g S E r i E S
Modeling
and Control
for
Micro/NaNo
Devices aND
systeMs
E ditE d by
Ning Xi
Mingjun Zhang
Guangyong Li
MoDeliNg
aND coNtrol
for
Micro/NaNo
Devices aND
systeMs
E ditE d by
Ning Xi
Mingjun Zhang
Guangyong Li
Boca Raton London New York
CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
AUTOMATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING
A Series of Reference Books and Textbooks
Series Editors
FRANK L. LEWIS, Ph.D., SHUZHI SAM GE, Ph.D.,
Fellow IEEE, Fellow IFAC Fellow IEEE
Professor Professor
The Univeristy of Texas Research Institute Interactive Digital Media Institute
The University of Texas at Arlington The National University of Singapore
PUBLISHED TITLES
Modeling and Control for Micro/Nano Devices and Systems,

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Linear Control System Analysis and Design with MATLAB®, Sixth Edition,
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Real-Time Rendering: Computer Graphics with Control Engineering,
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Anti-Disturbance Control for Systems with Multiple Disturbances,
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Tensor Product Model Transformation in Polytopic Model-Based Control,
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Fundamentals in Modeling and Control of Mobile Manipulators, Zhijun Li;
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End to End Adaptive Congestion Control in TCP/IP Networks,
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Robot Manipulator Control: Theory and Practice, Frank L. Lewis;
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Quantitative Process Control Theory, Weidong Zhang
Classical Feedback Control: With MATLAB® and Simulink®, Second Edition,
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Intelligent Diagnosis and Prognosis of Industrial Networked Systems,
Chee Khiang Pang; Frank L. Lewis; Tong Heng Lee; Zhao Yang Dong
Synchronization and Control of Multiagent Systems, Dong Sun
Subspace Learning of Neural Networks, Jian Cheng; Zhang Yi; Jiliu Zhou
Reliable Control and Filtering of Linear Systems with Adaptive Mechanisms,
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Reinforcement Learning and Dynamic Programming Using Function
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Modeling and Control of Vibration in Mechanical Systems, Chunling Du;
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Analysis and Synthesis of Fuzzy Control Systems: A Model-Based Approach,
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Lyapunov-Based Control of Robotic Systems, Aman Behal; Warren Dixon;
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Linear Control Theory: Structure, Robustness, and Optimization,
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Contents
Preface..................................................................................................................... vii
The Editors...............................................................................................................ix
List of Contributors.................................................................................................xi
1. On the Principles of Quantum Control Theory........................................ 1

Re-Bing Wu, Jing Zhang, and Tzyh-Jong Tarn
2. Modeling and Simulation of Silicon Nanowire–Based Biosensors.... 15

Guangyong Li, Yucai Wang, and Quan Tao
3. Modeling and Simulation of Organic Photovoltaic Cells..................... 31

Guangyong Li, Liming Liu, and Fanan Wei
4. Optimization of Organic Photovoltaic Cells........................................... 55

Fanan Wei, Liming Liu, and Guangyong Li
5. Developing a Dynamics Model for Epidermal Growth Factor

(EGF)-Induced Cellular Signaling Events................................................ 69
Ning Xi, Ruiguo Yang, Bo Song, King Wai Chiu Lai, Hongzhi Chen,
Jennifer Y. Chen, Lynn S. Penn, and Jun Xi
6. Modeling and Experimental Verifications of Cell Tensegrity............. 87

Ning Xi, Ruiguo Yang, Carmen Kar Man Fung, King Wai Chiu Lai,
Bo Song, Kristina Seiffert-Sinha, and Animesh A. Sinha
7. Modeling Swimming Micro/Nano-Systems in Low Reynolds

Number.......................................................................................................... 103
Stefan Nwandu-Vincent, Scott Lenaghan, and Mingjun Zhang
8. Modeling and Analysis of the Cellular Mechanics Involved in

the Pathophysiology of Disease/Injury.................................................. 121
Benjamin E. Reese, Scott C. Lenaghan, and Mingjun Zhang
9. Hybrid Control for Micro/Nano Devices and Systems........................ 139

Xiaobo Li, Xinghua Jia, and Mingjun Zhang
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC v

Preface
It remains an especially daunting challenge for micro/nanoscale engineering

to engineer ultra-fast and ultra-scale devices for implementation. Modeling
and control play an essential role in advanced engineering and have contrib-
uted to many breakthroughs in modern technology revolutions. The need
for modeling and control for micro/nanoscale devices and systems is fast
emerging. We thus hope that our book on modeling and control will address
the long-term challenge to advanced engineering for micro/nanoscale sen-
sors, energy devices, and cellular and molecular systems. Unfortunately, few
books in the literature offer an integrated view from theory to practice of this
fast emerging subject. This book aims to provide an integrated view of this
emerging field with a focus on theories and practices for practical implemen-
tation. The applications of the discussions are modeling and control over
biosensors, energy devices, and molecular and cellular systems.
This book consists of nine chapters contributed by leading researchers
in modeling and control for micro/nano devices and systems. Chapter 1
introduces the fundamental principles in modeling and design methods
in quantum control theory as well as the major results obtained in phys-
ics, chemistry, and control sciences, and perspectives on future directions
in this field. Chapters 3 and 4 focus on energy devices. Chapter 2 presents a
modeling and simulation study of biosensors made of single nanowires for
detecting biomolecules. Chapter 3 provides both continuous and statistical
approaches for modeling and simulation of organic solar cells made of bulk
heterojunctions in nanoscale. Chapter 4 discusses the optimization design
of organic solar cells via multiscale simulation. Beginning with Chapter 5,
the book shifts its focus to biological systems and bio-inspired systems.
Chapter 5 discusses the viscoelastic property of the human epidermoid car-
cinoma cell line and investigates the cell modeling of the dynamic signaling
pathway induced after epidermal growth factor simulation. Chapter 6 studies
the cell tensegrity model by considering the cell body as an inhomogeneous
structure, which consists of force-bearing elements, the cytoskeleton that
is bounded by the cell membrane. Chapter 7 deals with modeling of swim-
ming micro/nano-systems in a low Reynolds number with the goal of engi-
neering micro/nanoscale propulsion systems for controlled drug delivery.
Chapter 8 proposes integration of mathematical modeling and experimental
techniques to connect local and systemic dynamics associated with cellu-
lar functions while affording alternative methods for uncovering the fun-
damental mechanisms behind the complex biological processes. Chapter 9
presents a hybrid control strategy for micro/nanoscale devices and systems
that can be employed in broader applications.
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC vii

viii Preface
We see the emergence of many theories and techniques in this rapidly

growing field. It is difficult for any single book to capture all the essential
developments. We hope this book can serve as a starting point for more case
studies. Interested readers may benefit from learning about new concepts
and techniques to model micro/nanoscale devices and systems and employ-
ing the techniques in their research. In the long term, we believe we will
witness significant growth in the subject by integrating expertise from dif-
ferent fields.
The editors would like to express their sincere thanks to the National
Science Foundation and Naval Research Office for providing financial sup-
port for the research efforts reported in this book.
MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product
information, please contact:
The MathWorks, Inc.

3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA 01760-2098 USA
Tel: 508 647 7000
Fax: 508-647-7001
E-mail: [email protected]
Web: www.mathworks.com
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

The Editors
Ning Xi, DSc, is a University Distinguished Professor and John D. Ryder

Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Michigan State
University, where he served previously as the director of the Robotics
and Automation Laboratory. Currently, he is the head and chair professor
of the Department of Mechanical and Biomedical Engineering at the City
University of Hong Kong. He received his D.Sc. in systems science and math-
ematics from Washington University in St. Louis. He is the author of several
award-winning papers in conference proceedings and recognized journals
in his field.
Guangyong Li, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of Electrical

and Computer Engineering at the University of Pittsburgh. He received
his PhD in electrical engineering from Michigan State University. He has
published numerous papers in peer-reviewed journals and conference pro-
ceedings on nanorobotic manipulation, nanoscale characterization, and
multiscale simulation of organic solar cells.
Mingjun Zhang, DSc, is an associate professor at the University of Tennessee,

Knoxville. He received his DSc from Washington University in St. Louis,
and his PhD from Zhejiang University, China. He was awarded the Young
Investigator Program Award by ONR and the Early Career Award by the
IEEE Robotics and Automation Society. Research results from his group
have been published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Nano
Letters, Advanced Functional Materials, and PLOS Computational Biology, and
highlighted by Science, Nature, and AAAS Science Update.
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ix

List of Contributors
Hongzhi Chen Xiaobo Li

Department of Electrical and Department of Mechanical,
Computer Engineering Aerospace and Biomedical
Michigan State University Engineering
East Lansing, Michigan University of Tennessee
Knoxville, Tennessee
Jennifer Y. Chen
Department of Chemistry Liming Liu
Drexel University KLA-Tencor, Shanghai R&D
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Shanghai, China
Carmen Kar Man Fung
Hong Kong Productivity Council Stefan Oma Nwandu-Vincent
Hong Kong Department of Mechanical,
Aerospace and Biomedical
Xinghua Jia Engineering
Department of Mechanical, University of Tennessee
Aerospace and Biomedical Knoxville, Tennessee
Engineering
University of Tennessee Lynn S. Penn
Knoxville, Tennessee Department of Chemistry
Drexel University
King Wai Chiu Lai Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Department of Mechanical and
Biomedical Engineering
Benjamin E. Reese
City University of Hong Kong
Department of Mechanical,
Hong Kong
Aerospace and Biomedical
Scott C. Lenaghan Engineering
Department of Mechanical, University of Tennessee
Aerospace and Biomedical Knoxville, Tennessee
Engineering
University of Tennessee Kristina Seiffert-Sinha
Knoxville, Tennessee Department of Dermatology
University at Buffalo
Guangyong Li and
Department of Electrical and Roswell Park Cancer Institute
Computer Engineering Clinical and Translational Research
University of Pittsburgh Center
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Buffalo, New York
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC xi

xii List of Contributors
Animesh A. Sinha Rebing Wu

Department of Dermatology Department of Automation
University at Buffalo and Roswell Tsinghua University
Park Cancer Institute and
Clinical and Translational Research Center for Quantum Information
Center Science and Technology (TNLIST)
Buffalo, New York Beijing, China
Jun Xi
Bo Song Department of Chemistry
Department of Electrical and Drexel University
Computer Engineering Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan Ning Xi
Department of Electrical and
Quan Tao Computer Engineering
Department of Electrical and Michigan State University
Computer Engineering East Lansing, Michigan
University of Pittsburgh and
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Department of Mechanical and
Biomedical Engineering
City University of Hong Kong
Tzyh-Jong Tarn Hong Kong
Center for Quantum Information
Science and Technology Ruiguo Yang
Beijing, China Department of Electrical and
and Computer Engineering
Electrical and Systems Engineering Michigan State University
Department East Lansing, Michigan
Washington University
St. Louis, Missouri Jing Zhang
Department of Automation,
Yucai Wang Tsinghua University
Department of Electrical and and
Computer Engineering Center for Quantum Information
University of Pittsburgh Science and Technology (TNLIST)
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Beijing, China
Mingjun Zhang
Fanan Wei Department of Mechanical,
Department of Electrical and Aerospace and Biomedical
Computer Engineering Engineering
University of Pittsburgh University of Tennessee
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Knoxville, Tennessee

1
On the Principles of Quantum
Control Theory
Re-Bing Wu, Jing Zhang, and Tzyh-Jong Tarn
CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Mechanism of Quantum Control.................................................................2
1.3 Modeling and Analysis of Quantum Control Systems............................. 5
1.4 Control Design Methodologies.....................................................................7
1.4.1 Open-Loop Control of Quantum Systems...................................... 7
1.4.2 Closed-Loop Control of Quantum Systems....................................9
1.5 Perspectives................................................................................................... 10
Acknowledgments................................................................................................. 11
References................................................................................................................ 11
1.1 Introduction
In his 1959 famous lecture “Plenty of Room at the Bottom” [19], Richard
Feynman considered the possibility of manipulating and controlling things
at microscopic scales in the near future. Now his prediction has become real-
ity with system assembly at the nanoscale level. When such systems are at a
sufficiently low temperature, quantum effects will appear. From a cyberneti-
cal point of view, quantum control is a very useful theory for solving relevant
problems in measurement, information transmittal, and state engineering.
What makes quantum control interesting are the nonclassical features of
quantum mechanics. Unlike the classical world, the wave–particle duality
sets no explicit boundary between particles and waves. An electromagnetic
field can be quantized into particle-like photons, and wavelike properties
such as diffraction can be observed with an atom or an electron. This makes
it possible to manipulate waves like particles or vice versa. In other words,
the essence of quantum control is to manipulate the coherence properties.
Early works on quantum control were motivated by control problems
in plasma and laser devices, nuclear accelerators, and nuclear power
plants [9–11]. In the 1980s, a serial study was casted to the modeling [46],
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1

2 Modeling and Control for Micro/Nano Devices and Systems
controllability [24], invertibility [31], and quantum nondemolition filter prob-

lems [13]. Meanwhile, in Europe Belavkin started investigating filtering prob-
lems in quantum state estimation and feedback control applications [2–4].
Later, photonic control of chemical processes using lasers inspired a large
number of quantum control studies that are still active today [1,36,37,43,49].
During this period, optimal control theory (OCT) was introduced to pulse
shape design [33,45] based on known quantum Hamiltonians for the con-
trolled molecules. In 1992, model-independent learning optimization algo-
rithms [26] for real laboratory controls were proposed, which has led to over
150 successful experimental applications [7].
In the late 1990s, another tide of quantum control applications was devel-
oped by quantum information sciences. Since elementary quantum bits can
be physically constructed by natural and artificial atoms (e.g., trapped ions,
quantum dots, and superconducting circuits [8,22]), solving typical control
problems, for example, state initialization, gate operation, error correction,
and networking of quantum computers, is key to hardware implementation
of quantum information processors.
The field of quantum control is still growing rapidly. Several monographs
have been published on quantum control by authors from chemistry, quan-
tum optics, and control theory [16,37,43,50], and on the state-of-art of quantum
control from various review articles [7,17,47]. This chapter sketches fundamen-
tal concepts and problems in quantum control theory. In Section 1.2, physical
mechanisms behind quantum control theory are discussed. Modeling and
analysis problems are introduced in Section 1.3. In Section 1.4, open-loop
and feedback control methods are briefly summarized. Finally, perspectives
are presented.
1.2 Mechanism of Quantum Control

A nanoscale system can be modeled as either classical or quantum, although
the former is nothing but an approximation of the latter under proper physi-
cal conditions. Mathematically, the quantum description is quantized from a
classical model by replacing physical observables with operators that satisfy
certain commutation relationships. In particular, to characterize the dynam-
ics of quantum systems, it is essential to know the Hamiltonian that involves
a potential energy function. As shown in Figure 1.1, the value of potential
energy of a classical system can be an arbitrary real number. However, in
quantum systems, only eigenvalues of the operator corresponding to the
Hamiltonian can be recognized by a classical observer; they are called the
energy levels. When the potential is a well, the energy levels are usually
discrete, and the number of levels can be infinite when the well is infinitely

On the Principles of Quantum Control Theory 3
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 1.1
Spectrum with four different potentials: (a) potential well with finite depth, where both dis-
crete (lower horizontal lines) and continuous levels (upper shaded area) exist; (b) an infinitely
deep potential that is lower bounded; (c) an infinitely deep potential that is upper bounded.
deep (Figures 1.1b,c). The discretization of energy values is where we get the
terminology “quantum,” but it should be clarified that quantum energy levels
are not always discrete, because a continuous spectrum (see Figure 1.1a) can
exist when the energy is beyond the top of the potential.
These classically discernable levels form an orthogonal basis of the Hilbert
space on which the quantum observables operate. Any physically admissible
states can be expressed as a linear combination (with complex coefficients) of
these basis vectors. In the so-called Schrödinger picture, the coefficients rep-
resent the probability amplitude of the corresponding states. For example,
suppose a quantum system has only two energy levels, e1 and e2, then any
physical allowable state (after normalization) can be expressed as
2 2
e = c1e1 + c2e2 , c1 + c2 = 1,
where ∙c1,2∙2 represents the probability of the system staying at the state e1,2.
The phase difference between complex numbers c1 and c2 manifests the
wavelike coherence feature of the quantum system.
Any physically measurable quantity can be represented by an operator
Ô defined on the same Hilbert space, whose eigenvalues correspond to its
recognizable values by a classical observer. Its expectation value under a
quantum state ψ in the Hilbert space is calculated by the quadratic form
〈Ô〉 = ψ†Ôψ. These notations enable us to describe the famous Heisenberg
uncertainty principle,
ˆ Bˆ ≥ 1  A
A ˆ , Bˆ  ,
2  
which reveals that two arbitrary noncommutative observables cannot be

simultaneously precisely measured.

(a) (b)
FIGURE 1.2
Schematics for quantum control scenarios based on field–matter interactions: (a) a two-level
atom is controlled by a coherent field, and (b) a quantum field going through a bulk optimal
medium is controlled by designed structures.
Control actions in quantum systems are based on the physical interaction

between matter (e.g., atoms, ions, nuclear spins or quantum dots) and field
(e.g., x-ray, light, or radio-frequency waves). Accordingly, the object to be con-
trolled can be either a field or some matter. The control of matter is usually
done using manipulable electromagnetic fields (see Figure 1.2a), while the
control of field is done using a properly designed structure of the waveguide
(e.g., photonic crystals, Figure 1.2b). It is also possible to use one field to control
another field, but this has to be done with some linear or nonlinear medium
because there is no direct interaction between electromagnetic fields.
For example, shaped coherent (laser) fields are widely used to manipu-
late quantum molecular dynamics. When the photon number contained in
the field is large (~105 ∕cm3 in each mode), the field amplitude can be approx-
imated with high precision by its average value, which can be taken as a
classical electromagnetic field. Moreover, when the size of the matter being
radiated is far smaller than the wavelength of the light, the interaction with
the field is only dependent on the position of the center of mass. Under prop-
erly chosen gauge, the interaction Hamiltonian can be written as
H int = E(r0 , t)·D , (1.1)
where D is the dipole operator of the quantum system and the control field
parameter E(·) is taken to be classical. When the size of the matter is com-
parable with the wavelength, a coupled Maxwell equation representing the
evolution of the field will be required.
To simplify the analysis and design, it is always desirable to separate from
the field–matter interacting system a minimal subsystem whose quantum
effects cannot be ignored, and treat the rest as a classical system. Generally,
a system has to be described by quantum mechanics if the fluctuation of the
concerned observable is comparable with the gap between the eigenvalues of
the observable. The following criteria are frequently used:

1. The control precision is comparable with the Heisenberg uncertainty.

2. An atom (natural or artificial) is taken as quantum when the environ-
ment temperature T is so low that the thermal fluctuation kT, where k
is the Boltzmann constant, is smaller than the quantum energy gap δE.
3. An optical field is taken as quantum if it does not contain sufficiently
many photons.
Following these rules, in the next section we introduce the general model
of quantum control systems and an analysis of its controllability properties.
1.3 Modeling and Analysis of Quantum Control Systems

The evolution of the quantum state ψ(t) is governed by the following
Schrödinger equation:
∂ψ (t) ˆ
i = H (t)ψ (t), (1.2)
∂t
where Hˆ (t) is the operator quantized from the classical Hamiltonian defined
on the Hilbert space.
Without any classical approximation, the evolution of the joint state ψtot(t)
of the controller and the system can be written as
∂ψ tot (t)  ˆ 
r
i
∂t
= H0 +

∑
k =1
uˆ k (t)Hˆ k  ψ tot (t),

(1.3)
where the control uˆ k (t) is a time-dependent operator defined on the control-

ler’s Hilbert space. When the control can be treated as a classical variable, we
can obtain the following bilinear quantum control system:
∂ψ (t)  
r
i
∂t
= H0 +

∑
k =1
uk (t)H k  ψ (t) ,

(1.4)
where ψ(t) is the quantum state of the system to be controlled. The opera-
tor H0 is the internal Hamiltonian, and Hk is the control Hamiltonian via
time-dependent control parameters uk(t). Here, the quantum system to be
controlled can be either matter or field.

In quantum information sciences, the implementation of a quantum algo-

rithm requires a directed evolution represented by the unitary operator
U(t) such that ψ(t) = U(t)ψ(0) for any initial state ψ(0). The control of U(t) is
described as follows:
∂U (t)  
r
i
∂t
= H0 +

∑ u (t)H U(t) ,
k =1
k k (1.5)
where U(0) is always an identity operator (i.e., nothing is changed at the begin-
ning of control).
Controllability is referred to as the ability to steer quantum systems
between arbitrary states (or evolution operators) by varying the control in
Equations 1.3, 1.4, or 1.5. From a practical point of view, it appears that con-
trollability is not so important because not all state transitions are desired.
However, a recent study [53] revealed that the loss of controllability may
increase the complexity of finding optimal controls (i.e., search efforts)—the
more the system is controllable, the easier is the search to reach a global
optimal solution. Thus, it is warranted to delve further into the fundamental
study of controllability.
First described in the early 1980s, the controllability criterion was proposed
in terms of rank conditions of the Lie algebra generated by the system’s free
and control Hamiltonians. This was later extended to time-dependent sys-
tems [29] and systems with an infinite-dimensional controllability Lie alge-
bra generated by internal and control Hamiltonians in Equation 1.4 [54].
Recently, a geometric analysis [6] showed that a two-level system interact-
ing with a single optical mode is controllable over any finite-dimensional
subspace without rotating-wave approximation, which is crucial for under-
standing the dynamics of strongly interacting quantum systems.
The controllability of infinite-dimensional systems, in particular those
with unbounded or continuous spectrum, is extremely difficult because the
set of states accessible from a fixed initial state is at the most dense in the
Hilbert space. Therefore, the controllability will always have to be studied
in a proper domain on which the functional analysis makes sense [24,54].
The results on a finite-dimensional case are much richer. For example, for
molecular systems that can be approximated as finite dimensional, there are
many studies on controllability with respect to the dipole structure [42] and
degeneracies of the levels. With respect to the fully quantum model (1.3),
an interesting result [38] shows that the state of a two-level system can be
completely controlled by tuning the initial state of a coupled two-level sys-
tem. Controllability of general systems can be enhanced by enriching the
entanglement with the control source (or probe).
The previously mentioned studies assume that the quantum system to be
controlled can be well isolated from the environment and can be precisely

addressed by the control source. A typical example is the IVR (intramolecular

vibrational resonance) that hindered the control of molecular reactions for
quite a long time. Such uncontrollable environment interaction should be
integrated into the model as a noise or a dissipation term [50], which may
drive the system dynamics to its classical limit. Except when the control pro-
cess can be completed within the decoherence time (e.g., in ultrafast control
experiments), active controls should be posed against the decoherence effect.
This is a fundamentally important control problem in quantum control
theory [14,48,55].
1.4 Control Design Methodologies

The terminology “quantum control” is used rather loosely in the literature,
as any attempt to choose a parameter can be called quantum control no mat-
ter what method is used. If the model can be precisely constructed and no
significant disturbances exist, the open-loop control will be sufficient with-
out having to measure the system output [7]. Otherwise, feedback control
needs to be introduced for correcting the errors according to the measured
result of the evolving state [17]. According to whether the controller and the
plant are quantum or classical, one can classify the structure of the control
system into the following four types:
1. Open-loop control (Figure 1.3a): The controller is treated as a classical

system that has unidirectional causal action on the system.
2. Direct coherent feedback control (Figure 1.3b): The controller is treated as
a quantum system with bidirectional causal relation with the system.
3. Measurement- based feedback control (Figure 1.3c): The controller is
treated as a classical system that adjusts itself according to the classi-
cal information acquired from the measurement result of the system.
4. Field-mediated coherent feedback control (Figure 1.3d): The controller is
treated as a quantum system with control loop closed by unidirec-
tional field mediation.
1.4.1 Open-Loop Control of Quantum Systems

Open-loop control is the simplest and most broadly used control structure
in the literature. Some of the open-loop control strategies were from physi-
cal intuition (e.g., dynamical decoupling method learned from the spin-echo
phenomena in NMR systems [5,12]), and some were designed by more uni-
versal quantum optimal control theory and algorithms. In the following, we
introduce the basic idea of quantum optimal control theory in the literature.

Classical Quantum Quantum Quantum

controller system controller system
(a) (b)
Quantum Quantum
system system
Classical Quantum
controller controller
(c) (d)
FIGURE 1.3
Types of quantum control: (a) open- loop control; (b) direct coherent feedback control;
(c) measurement-based feedback control; and (d) field-mediated coherent feedback control.
Every target of control can be characterized by one or multiple costs as

functional(s) of the control function, say J[u(·)]. For example, the length of a
chemical bond to be broken in chemical reactions can be taken as a cost to be
maximized. Other cost functionals are, for example, the state transition prob-
ability [5], gate fidelity [32], coherence degree [55], fluence minimization [15],
and the time consumed for control [27]. According to the Schrödinger equa-
tion (taken as a restriction on the control and state), one can derive the nec-
essary condition for some u(t) to minimize the cost functional if the control
functions are not restricted. Otherwise, the generalized maximum princi-
ple [16] must be introduced to deal with the restrictions (e.g., limited field
strength or bandwidth).
The optimal control is obtained by resolving the equations set by the nec-
essary condition. When such equations (usually appearing in the form of
nonlinear differential equations) are not analytically solvable, iterative algo-
rithms can be designed to search the solution from an initial guess. From
the control model Equation 1.4, it is possible to calculate the gradient of the
cost with respect to the control function, following which a gradient-type
algorithm [28,39,40] can be designed to steer the search of control solutions
toward an optimal one. Iterative-type algorithms generally converge quickly,
but can easily diverge if the initial guess was improperly chosen. By contrast,
gradient-type algorithms are more stable as long as the step-size is suffi-
ciently small, but the drawback is their convergence is very slow especially
near the optimal solutions.
Quantum optimal control theory has been proven to be effective for finite-
level or simple few-body systems [7]. However, the system Hamiltonians
have to be precisely known, which is almost impossible in the laboratory.
Even when the Hamiltonian is available, heavy computation will be not
realistic on the numerical integration of the time-dependent Schrödinger

Fresh Chemical
sample reaction
Control
Detection
pulse
Computer-
aided shaper
FIGURE 1.4
Schematic diagram of iterative learning control. The chemical reaction is controlled by a
shaped laser pulse that is iteratively adjusted according to the measurement result. In each
iteration, the control is performed on a fresh sample prepared at the same initial state.
equation in each iteration. To avoid this difficulty, evolutionary-type algo-

rithms [26,44] were proposed (see Figure 1.4), where only the measurement
output is needed for iterating the control function. This actually leaves the
most difficult part of computation done by nature. Therefore, although the
convergence may be much slower, learning algorithms are advantageous in
the laboratory because not every detail of the real system must be known.
In quantum optimal control theory, all algorithms may suffer from the
possible existence of false traps, that is, the search may converge to an unde-
sired locally optimal solution that is not globally optimal. When the resource
for optimization is not sufficient, the trapping behavior will become more
severe. However, quick convergence was observed toward global optimal
solutions in most reported simulations, and the reported experimental yields
were remarkably improved as well [34]. This implies that traps are rare in
practical control of quantum systems. Recently, this conjecture was sup-
ported via geometric analyses on the so-called quantum control landscape
[34]. It was proven that if the system is controllable, then upon some mild
assumptions there exist no obstacles on the landscape for maximization of
observable expectation value [52], gate fidelity [35] in both closed and open
systems [51]. Quantum control landscape theory has grown into a new
research field, from which the details of the geometric landscape structure
will provide greater understanding of quantum control and optimization so
that more efficient algorithms can be developed.
1.4.2 Closed-Loop Control of Quantum Systems

In contrast to classical control theory, the body of literature on open-loop
control is much larger than that of feedback control. This is not because feed-
back control is disadvantageous, but because the measurement required for

feedback is much more difficult than what can be done with the control. The
trade-off between inevitable backaction and the obtained information needs
to be well understood. Nevertheless, quantum feedback control has already
become a worldwide focus, as indicated by the 2012 Nobel Prize in physics
awarded to Haroche and Wineland [23,41].
Measurement-based feedback control strategies can be further divided into
two classes. The first is Markovian quantum feedback developed by H. M.
Wiseman and G. J. Milburn [50], where quantum continuous weak measure-
ment is adopted for feedback. With an idea learned from the quantum trajec-
tory theory developed in quantum optics, the backaction of the measurement
on the system is modeled as classical noise (either discontinuous jump noise
or continuous Wiener white noise) that disturbs the system dynamics. The
other approach is the Bayesian feedback control, initially proposed by A. C.
Doherty [18], where the control strategy is determined based on the esti-
mated state from the measurement output. The estimator is also called a
“quantum filter” [2]. In principle, Bayesian feedback may outperform the
Markovian feedback because more information extracted from the measure-
ment history can be used to determine the control.
In addition to the backaction, the measurement-based feedback approaches
are mainly limited by the time scale of quantum dynamics, which is often
too fast to be followed by a classical controller. Regarding these difficulties,
coherent feedback strategies have received much attention in recent years. As
proposed by S. Lloyd [30], the simplest way to introduce coherent feedback is
to couple directly the controlled quantum system to the quantum controller
(Figure 1.3b). An alternative approach that is closer to measurement-based
feedback control is field-mediated coherent feedback, where the quantum
signal is carried by an intermediate field from the system to the controller
(Figure 1.3d). This approach [21,25] was based on the quantum descrip-
tion of input–output theory developed by Gardiner et al. [20] in the 1980s.
Compared with measurement-based feedback, the coherent feedback loop
is more easily realized in experiments, thereby making it more suitable for
scalable control circuits in future applications.
1.5 Perspectives
Quantum control is a developing field that is open to studies in various
areas. Limited by fundamental experimental technologies for manipulating
and observing quantum phenomena, experimental application of quantum
control is still in its infancy except for the case of learning control. The fusion
of control theory and quantum physics calls for collaborations between
physicists and engineers. In the past decade, the gap between physicists

and engineers has been greatly reduced, along with the rapidly developing
experimental technologies and emerging common interests. There will be,
undoubtedly, tremendous research opportunities for engineers in nanotech-
nology in the next decades.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge support from NSFC (No.60904034, 61134008,
61174084) and the Tsinghua National Laboratory for Information Science and
Technology (TNList) Cross-Discipline Foundation.
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2
Modeling and Simulation of Silicon
Nanowire–Based Biosensors
Guangyong Li, Yucai Wang, and Quan Tao
CONTENTS
2.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 15
2.2 The Basics of SiNW-Based FET Biosensors............................................... 16
2.3 Theoretical Approaches............................................................................... 18
2.4 Simulation Results and Discussions..........................................................22
2.4.1 Surface Potential on SiNW..............................................................22
2.4.2 I-V Characteristics of SiNW FET Biosensors................................ 23
2.4.3 Sensitivity Analysis.......................................................................... 24
2.4.4 Discussion.......................................................................................... 26
2.5 Conclusions and Perspectives..................................................................... 27
References................................................................................................................ 28
2.1 Introduction
Quasi- one-
dimensional semiconducting nanowires are considered the
best candidates among transducer elements for biosensing because of their
appealing characteristics such as high sensitivity due to the quantum con-
finement and the large surface-to-volume ratio, high stability due to the crys-
tal structure, and potential to be configured as field-effect transistors (FETs).
Several pioneering studies have demonstrated the success of direct electri-
cal detection of biological macromolecules using carbon nanotubes [1–3],
semiconducting nanowires [4–9], and conducting polymer nanofilaments
[10,11]. Among these biosensors, silicon nanowire (SiNW)-based biosen-
sors (Figure 2.1) are considered promising label-free biomolecule detectors
because of their compatibility with microelectronics and their great stability
in liquid condition. Label-free SiNW-based biosensors configured as FETs
can detect the target/receptor binding events that affect the local chemical
potential on the surface of nanowires. The local potential on the surface of
nanowires effectively works as a “gating” voltage that modulates the source
(S) to drain (D) current.

Biomarkers
Antibody
S SiNW D
Insulating Substrate
FIGURE 2.1
SiNW biosensor configured as an FET, where the gating voltage comes from the biomarkers.
Despite advances in experimental study, the underlying detection mecha-

nism of SiNW-based FET biosensing is not well understood, and the path for
future optimization in sensitivity needs to be elaborated. Simulation stud-
ies will not only help us understand the physics of biosensing using SiNW-
based FETs but also provide guidance for optimized design of the devices
such as the size of the nanowires, the dimension of the devices, the packing
density of antibodies, and the concentration of the electrolyte.
In this chapter, we presents a comprehensive simulation study on sin-
gle SiNW-based FET biosensors for detecting biotin/streptavidin binding
[12,13]. The biotin/streptavidin system exhibits the strongest non-covalent
biological interaction known and is widely demonstrated as a model system
to study bio-recognition between proteins and other biomolecules [14]. Thus,
understanding the detection mechanism of biotin/ streptavidin binding
using SiNW-based FET biosensors is of special interest since this can serve as
a stepping stone to improving the sensitivity of SiNW-based FET biosensors.
2.2 The Basics of SiNW-Based FET Biosensors

The general schematic of a SiNW FET biosensor is shown in Figure 2.2a. A
SiNW core is placed on a silicon dioxide substrate with its two ends connected
to two electrodes (source and drain). The SiNW core is enveloped by a silicon
oxide layer whose surface is functionalized with specific receptor molecules
(Y), which can recognize and bind only to the target molecules (flower). The
SiNW is immersed in the electrolyte, which contains target molecules as well
as positively charged (e.g., Na+) and negatively charged (e.g., Cl−) ions. A back
gate electrode (UBG) and a reference electrode (UG) are connected to the sys-
tem to adjust the bulk electrolyte potential. The electrolyte is used as a buffer
solution that resists pH change upon the addition of a small amount of acid
or base, or upon dilution. The target molecules diffuse through the solution
and reach the SiNW, are captured by the receptor molecules, and finally bind

Modeling and Simulation of Silicon Nanowire–Based Biosensors 17
UG
Z(nm)
Electrolyte
SiNW
Source Drain
SiO2
UBG
(a)
Biotin Streptavidin
A
P
SiO2 SiNW SiO2 T
UBG E Electrolyte UG
S
Z(nm)
1 101 d 1 1 1 5 94 1
(b)
FIGURE 2.2
(a) General schematic of SiNW FET biosensor for detection of biotin/streptavidin binding. The
surface of SiNW is functionalized with receptors (Y) for target biomolecules (flower). (b) Cross-
section of SiNW FET biosensor for detection of biotin/streptavidin binding between the source
and drain region along the z axis. On the surface of SiNWs there is a native oxide that is cova-
lently bound to a layer of APTES molecules, and biotin molecules are chemically attached to
the APTES surface. The biosensor is immersed in aqueous solution to detect streptavidin in the
solution. The numbers denote the dimensions of various layers along the z axis.
the receptor molecules on the silicon oxide surface. Many biomolecules carry
charges under normal physiological conditions. For example, DNA carries
negative charges, whereas the net charges of protein depend on the pH value
of the electrolyte. The charges of the bound target molecules interact with the
charge in the SiNW and modulate the conductance of the SiNW. The changes
of the SiNW conductance can be used to measure the concentration of the
target molecules in the buffer solution, and thus derive the original concen-
tration of the target molecules in the source sample.
Biotin molecules cannot be directly immobilized on the silicon oxide sur-
face. A layer of aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) molecules is covalently
bound to the silicon oxide surface, and biotin molecules (receptor molecules)
are chemically attached to the APTES surface. Streptavidin molecules in

aqueous solution can be specifically bound to biotin molecules. Figure 2.2b

shows the cross-section view of the SiNW FET biosensor along the z axis.
Here, we assume the thickness of the silicon oxide substrate is about 100 nm,
the thickness of the silicon oxide layer enveloping the SiNW core is 1 nm,
and the thickness of the APTES molecule layer is 1 nm. The dimensions of the
biotin molecule and the streptavidin molecule are 0.52 nm × l.00 nm × 2.10 nm
and 4.5 nm × 4.5 nm × 5.0 nm, respectively. So we model the biotin and strep-
tavidin molecules as spheres and assume the thickness of biotin layer is 1 nm
and the thickness of streptavidin is 5 nm. The electrolyte (NaCl solution with
various concentrations; pH value is assumed as 7) region is 100 nm, and the
thickness of metal electrode is 1 nm. The length, diameter (denoted as d) and
the doping density (assuming a p-type doping) of the SiNW are variable.
2.3 Theoretical Approaches
To detect the biotin/streptavidin binding in the electrolyte, generally two
states of the SiNW FET biosensor should be simulated. In the first state, only
the receptor molecules (biotin) are attached to the APTES layer surface. In the
second state, the target biomolecules (streptavidin) are attached to the biotin
surface due to specific binding. The change of charge distribution arising
from the biotin/streptavidin binding modulates the electrostatic potential
on the silicon oxide surface of the SiNW, and hence modulates charge dis-
tribution inside the SiNW core. As a consequence, the current flows in the
SiNW will be changed accordingly. The I-V characteristics of the SiNW can
be examined to determine the sensitivity of the biosensor.
Using the drift-diffusion charge transport model, the carrier transport in
the SiNW core can be written as [15]
J e , h = qµ e , hne , h∇Φ ± qDe , h∇ne , h (2.1)
where q is elementary charge, J is the current density, μ is the mobility of the

carriers, n is the carrier density, Φ is the electric potential, and D is the diffu-
sion coefficient. The subscripts e and h denote electron and hole, respectively.
The relationship between the electrostatic potential and the carrier concen-
trations can be described using Poisson’s equation,
−∇ ( εSi∇Φ(r )) = q(nh − ne + N D − N A ) (2.2)
where εSi is the dielectric constant of silicon, r is the spatial coordinate, and
ND and NA are the donor and acceptor concentrations within the SiNW,
respectively. Here we assume the dopants are completely ionized.

In the silicon oxide layer, we assume that there is no defect in the native
oxide and neglect any interface traps and fixed oxide charges. The electro-
static potential in the silicon oxide is given by Poisson’s equation,
−∇ ( εOx∇Φ(r )) = 0 (2.3)
where εox is the dielectric constant of silicon oxide.

The APTES molecule layer serves as a passivation layer, and no charge car-
riers are assumed to be present within this layer. Similarly, the electrostatic
potential in the APTES molecule layer is given by Poisson’s equation,
−∇ ( ε APTES∇Φ(r )) = 0 (2.4)
where εAPTES is the dielectric constant of APTES molecule layer.

In SiNW FETs, the gate voltage is externally applied via a gate electrode
enveloping the silicon oxide layer. In SiNW FET biosensors, no gate elec-
trode is present, and the gate voltage is determined by solving the nonlinear
Poisson–Boltzman equation (NPBE) [16],
−∇ ( ε r (r )∇Φ(r )) = ρ fixed (r ) + ρmobile (r ) (2.5)
where ρfixed is the charge density in the biotin layer and the bounded strepta-
vidin molecules, and ρmobile is the charge density of mobile ions in the electro-
lyte, which accounts for the Debye screening effect. The dielectric constant
of electrolyte is shown as εr. The fixed charge density ρfixed can be modeled
using the delta function,
ρ fixed = q ∑ z δ(r − r )
i
i i (2.6)
where N is the number of fixed charges present, zi and ri are their charges
and positions, and δ(r) is the Dirac delta function. The distribution of mobile
charge density ρmobile can be described using the Boltzmann distribution,
N ions
 − qz j Φ 
ρmobile = ∑ qz n
j
j ∞ exp 
 K BT 
(2.7)
where Nions is the number of the mobile ions, zj is the charge of the ion, n∞
is the concentration of the ions at a distance of infinity from the solute, and
Φ is the electrical potential. KB is Boltzmann’s constant, and T is the abso-
lute temperature.

For the special case of a 1–1 electrolyte (e.g., Na+–Cl–) with bulk concentra-
tion n, ρmobile can be written as [17]
K BT  qΦ 
ρmobile = − ε r κ 2 sinh  (2.8)
q  K BT 
where
2 n∞ q 2
κ= (2.9)
K BTε r ε 0
is the Debye–Hückel screening parameter. κ–1 is called the Debye screen-

ing length, an important parameter to characterize the thickness of the elec-
trical double layer. For the special case of a 1–1 electrolyte (e.g., Na+–Cl–),
Debye length versus electrolyte concentration is illustrated in Figure 2.3 and
listed in Table 2.1. The SiNW can sense only charged molecules within the
Debye screening length. The charged molecules beyond the Debye screen-
ing length will be screened by the ions in the electrolyte. As can be seen,
NaCl concentrations larger than 10 mM are not suitable for detection of the
biotin/streptavidin binding because part of the charge on the biomolecules
will be screened (Figure 2.4). The lines in Figure 2.4 show the different Debye
screening lengths (from SiNW to the lines, not scaled here) according to dif-
ferent NaCl concentrations. Apparently, higher NaCl concentrations result in
shorter Debye screening lengths.
Physically, the electrostatic potential function Φ(r) should be continu-
ous at the interface of the various layers. Also, for the infinite domain, the
102
Debye Screening Length [nm]
101
100
10–1
0.1 1 10 100 1000
NaCl Concentration [M]
FIGURE 2.3
Debye screening lengths versus different NaCl concentrations.

TABLE 2.1
Debye Screening Lengths versus Different
NaCl Concentrations
NaCl Concentration Debye Screening Length (nm)
0.1 mM 30.79
1 mM 9.74
10 mM 3.08
100 mM 0.97
1M 0.31
1 mM SiNW
10 mM
Source 100 mM Drain
SiO2
FIGURE 2.4
Debye screening scheme (the distance is not to scale).
electrostatic potential at infinity should be zero, i.e., Φ(∞) = 0. As long as we

find the solution for the NPBE of Equation 2.5, the electrostatic potential in
other layers can be solved by applying the continuous condition. And finally
we can get the current density inside the SiNW using Equation 2.1.
The protein carries a net charge if the pH value of the electrolyte is not
equal to the isoelectric point (pI) value of the protein. The protein net charge
at a given pH value can be estimated using the Henderson–Hasselbalch
equation [18].
[A − ] α
pH = pK a + log 10 = pK a + log 10 (2.10)
[HA] 1-α
where α is the fractional dissociation of any ionizable group [18] and pKa is
the acid dissociation constant. In the charge determination procedure [19],
the pKa for each type of ionizable group is assigned a magnitude. Knowledge
of the amino acid sequence (or composition) of a protein is then used to cal-
culate the net charge. The protein net charge arising from ni ionizable groups
of type i, (ZP)i, is given by [18]
(Zp )i = ni ziα i (2.11)

if the ionizable group, i, is anionic (zi is negative), or
(Zp )i = ni zi (1 − α i ) (2.12)
if the ionizable group, i, is cationic (zi is positive). The pKa value of biotin is 4.66
[20], so at pH = 7, each biotin molecule carries a net charge of α = 1/(1+104.66–7)
≈ –1q. This result coincides with the experimental result in Reference 21.
The net charge of streptavidin is contributed by terminal amino acids and
charged amino acid side-chains within the protein sequence [22]. It can be
determined by computer programs given the protein sequence data and a
set of pKa values for proton dissociation from ionizable groups [19]. A web-
based server H++ [23,24] can be used to calculate the net charge of strepta-
vidin. Given atomic resolution Protein Data Bank (PDB) structures, H++ can
perform a quick estimate of pKa values as well as the protein net charge at a
specific pH value. At a pH value of 7, the calculated net charge for a strep-
tavidin molecule is +9q (9 positive elementary charges) and –q (1 negative
elementary charge) for a biotin molecule. Based on the net charge of biotin
and streptavidin molecules, along with the dimension information of the
SiNW, we can estimate the interface charge density ρ within the biotin layer
before and after the binding of streptavidin molecules.
2.4 Simulation Results and Discussions

2.4.1 Surface Potential on SiNW
In general, the NPBE of Equation 2.5 can be solved using only computational
methods due to the rapid exponential nonlinearities, discontinuous coeffi-
cients, delta functions, and infinite domain. And the accuracy and stability
of the solution to the NPBE are quite sensitive to the boundary layer between
the electrolyte and the biomolecules, which defines the solvent-accessible
surface. In this work, we employ a nanodevice simulator nextnano3 [25] to
solve the NPBE and to find the electrostatic potential values in the electro-
lyte, APTES molecule layer, and silicon oxide layer. The nextnano3 uses the
Gouy–Chapman theory [17] to solve the NPBE for a one-dimension planar
ion-selective field-effect transistor (ISFET) biosensor [26].
There are several key assumptions in the Gouy–Chapman theory. One is
that the surface of the ISFET biosensor is infinite and planar, so that the inter-
face between the biomolecules and the electrolyte can be described as an
infinite plane that separates two regions, each with a different dielectric con-
stant. Another one is that the surface of the ISFET biosensor is assumed to
contain a constant fixed charge density ρ, with unit of charge per area. Under
these assumptions, the electrostatic potential in the electrolyte is dependent

on only the distance z from the membrane surface. For our SiNW FET bio-
sensor, the electrostatic potential is dependent on only the distance r from
the APTES molecules layer along the radius direction of the SiNW. Thus, it
is feasible to use nextnano3 to solve the NPBE for our SiNW FET biosensor.
And the critical step is to calculate the interface charge density ρ, that is, the
charge density in the biotin layer before and after the binding of streptavi-
din molecules.
Nextnano3 needs the following parameters to calculate the electrostatic
potential in the electrolyte, APTES molecules layer, and silicon oxide layer:
the dimension information of various layers and the electrolyte, the dop-
ing density of the SiNW, the ion (NaCl) concentration of the electrolyte, the
interface charge density ρ, and the voltages applied on electrodes UBG and
UG. The dimension information on various layers and electrolyte is shown
in Figure 2.2b. The interface charge density ρ can be calculated using the
dimension information and the net charge of biotin/streptavidin. The volt-
ages applied on electrodes UBG and UG are set to zero. Now we are ready to
calculate the electrostatic potential corresponding to different SiNW diam-
eters, doping densities, and ions concentrations of the electrolyte.
The APTES surface potential change ΔΦs is defined as
ΔΦs = Φs (n) – Φsref , (2.13)
where n denotes the number of streptavidin molecules bound to the avidin

molecules, and Φsref is the reference voltage when no streptavidin molecules
are bound to the avidin molecules. For a SiNW with diameter d = 10 nm,
doping density p = 1015cm–3, length L = 50 nm, and in the electrolyte with
NaCl concentration 10 mM, Φsref is about 0.4V.
Assuming the number of streptavidin molecules bound to the SiNW sur-
face varies from 0 to 10, the calculated surface potential change ΔΦs is shown
in Figure 2.5. As can be seen, the surface potential at the silicon oxide layer
increases as the number of the bound streptavidin molecules increases. The
curve is nonlinear due to the Debye screening effect of the electrolyte where
the ions (Na+, Cl–) in the electrolyte screen the charges on the biotin and
streptavidin molecules.
2.4.2 I-V Characteristics of SiNW FET Biosensors

The I-V characteristics of the SiNW FET biosensor can be obtained by solving
the Poisson equation and the drift-diffusion equation using a MuGFET sim-
ulator [27]. MuGFET is a simulation tool for nanoscale multigate FET struc-
tures and SiNW FETs. It provides self-consistent solutions to the Poisson and
drift-diffusion equation via a user-friendly graphical user interface.
We assume the source and drain extension of the SiNW is 10 nm, and the
source and drain are n-type doped with doping concentration 1018 cm–3.
The source electrode is grounded. In our simulation for the silicon oxide

Change of Surface Potential [mV] 10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of Bound Streptavidin Molecules
FIGURE 2.5
Change of silicon oxide surface potential versus number of streptavidin molecules bound.
surface voltage change, the reference voltage on the silicon oxide surface
(the initial gate voltage for the SiNW FET) is around 0.4V. Binding of the
streptavidin molecules leads to the gate voltage change of several millivolts.
It is important to find a proper drain voltage to make the SiNW FET work
at a point that is very sensitive to the gate voltage change, that is, a small
change in the gate voltage will lead to a big change in the drain current so
that the drain current change is appreciable.
We calculate the I- V characteristics for three different gate voltages
(Vg = 0.40V, 0.41V, 0.42V; these values are chosen because the reference volt-
age is about 0.4 V) while keeping the following parameters constant: SiNW
diameter d = 10 nm, channel doping density p = 1015 cm–3. The calculated I-V
characteristic is shown in Figure 2.6. As can be seen, when the drain volt-
age is small, the SiNW FET works in the linear region and the drain current
change for different gate voltages is very small. When the drain voltage is
large enough, the SiNW FET works in the saturation region and the drain
current change for the different gate voltage is distinct. Thus, the SiNW FET
should work in the saturation region to have a good sensitivity for the gate
voltage change. In the remaining simulations, we will fix the drain voltage as
1 V to make sure the SiNW FET work in the saturation region.
2.4.3 Sensitivity Analysis
We define the drain current change for different silicon oxide surface poten-
tials (gate voltages) as
I d (n) − I dref
∆I d = × 100% (2.14)
I dref

×10–5
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
Drain Current [A]
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4 Vg = 0.42 V
Vg = 0.41 V
0.2 Vg = 0.40 V
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Drain Voltage [V]
FIGURE 2.6
The I-V characteristics for different gate voltages.
where n denotes the number of streptavidin molecules bound to the avidin

molecules and Idref is the reference drain current when no streptavidin mol-
ecules are bound to the avidin molecules. The drain current change can be
regarded as the sensitivity of the SiNW FET biosensor.
The changes of the drain current according to the number of bound strep-
tavidin molecules in different NaCl concentrations are shown in Figure 2.7a.
As can be seen, a lower concentration of NaCl will lead to a large change
of silicon oxide surface potential and consequently a larger drain current
change. Thus, we can conclude that lower NaCl concentrations will result in
higher sensitivity of the SiNW FET biosensor.
Using a similar procedure, we investigate the influence of SiNW length
to the sensitivity of the SiNW FET biosensor while keeping the following
parameters constant: SiNW diameter d = 10 nm, doping density p = 1015 cm–3,
and the NaCl concentration in the electrolyte is 10 mM. Three different SiNW
lengths (L = 50 nm, 70 nm, and 90 nm) are investigated, and the results are
shown in Figure 2.7b. As can be seen, SiNW with a shorter length has higher
sensitivity. This is reasonable since for a shorter SiNW the traveling speed of
carriers is faster, and there will be less carrier recombination.
The influence of SiNW diameter on the sensitivity of the SiNW FET biosen-
sor is investigated while keeping the following parameters constant: SiNW
length L = 50 nm, doping density p = 1015 cm–3, and the NaCl concentration in
the electrolyte is 10 mM. Three different SiNW diameters (d = 10 nm, 12 nm,
and 14 nm) are investigated, and the results are shown in Figure 2.7c. As
can be seen, SiNW with a smaller diameter shows higher sensitivity. This is

2.5 2.5
NaCl = 10 mM L = 50 nm
Drain Current Change [%]

2 NaCl = 20 mM 2 L = 70 nm
NaCl = 30 mM L = 90 nm
1.5 1.5
1 1
0.5 0.5
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of Bound Streptavidin Molecules Number of Bound Streptavidin Molecules
(a) (b)
2.5 3
d = 10 nm
2.5 p = 10e15
2 d = 12 nm p = 10e16
d = 14 nm
2 p = 10e17
1.5
1.5
1
1
0.5 0.5
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of Bound Streptavidin Molecules Number of Bound Streptavidin Molecules
(c) (d)
FIGURE 2.7
Drain current change versus number of streptavidin molecules bound for different NaCl con-
centrations: (a), nanowire length, (b), nanowire diameter, (c), and doping level (d).
justifiable since for thinner SiNW, the gate voltage has better control over the
conducting channel inside the SiNW.
The influence of doping levels on the sensitivity of the SiNW FET biosen-
sor is investigated while keeping the following parameters constant: SiNW
diameter d = 10 nm, length L = 50 nm, and the NaCl concentration in the
electrolyte is 10 mM. Three different doping levels (p = 1015 cm–3, 1016 cm–3,
and 1017 cm–3) are investigated, and the results are shown in Figure 2.7d. As
can be seen, SiNW with higher doping levels shows higher sensitivity.
2.4.4 Discussion
From the above analysis, we can conclude that SiNW with a shorter length,
smaller diameter, higher doping level, and with lower NaCl concentration in
the electrolyte has higher sensitivity. When these parameters are properly
chosen, it is possible to achieve single streptavidin molecule detection. The
following parameters are chosen for a SiNW FET biosensor: SiNW diam-
eter d = 10 nm, length L = 50 nm, doping level p = 1015 cm–3, and the NaCl

×10–5
1.6
1.55
Drain Current [A]
1.5
1.45
1.4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of Bound Streptavidin Molecules
FIGURE 2.8
Drain current versus number of streptavidin molecules bound.
concentration in the electrolyte is 1 mM. With current technology, SiNW FET

biosensors with these parameters can be readily fabricated. The drain cur-
rent according to the number of bound streptavidin molecules is shown in
Figure 2.8. When the number of the bound streptavidin molecules changes
from 0 to 1, the drain current changes by 2.59% and since this change is in
measurable range, recognition of single streptavidin molecules is feasible.
Actually, the sensitivity can be even higher when a higher doping level
is chosen.
2.5 Conclusions and Perspectives

In this chapter, using the biotin/streptavidin system as a model system,
comprehensive modeling and simulation studies are presented to reveal the
underlying detection mechanism of biotin/streptavidin binding using the
SiNW FET biosensor. The detailed structures, modeling procedure, and sim-
ulation methods of the SiNW FET biosensor are presented. The simulation
results are analyzed and the influence of parameters such as the dimension
of the SiNW (diameter and length), the doping level of the SiNW, and sur-
rounding environment (the ion concentration in the solvent) are investigated
for the sensitivity of the SiNW FET biosensor. The detection limit of biotin/
streptavidin binding using the SiNW FET biosensor, that is, the detection of
single streptavidin molecule binding, is also investigated. The preliminary

simulation results indicate that optimal sensor performance can be ensured

by careful optimization of its parameters, and it is feasible to detect bind-
ing of single streptavidin molecules when optimal parameters are chosen.
However, there is room for the sensitivity to be further improved. The mod-
eling procedure and simulation methods shown in this work can be readily
modified and adopted for detection of other receptor–target biomolecules
pairs, such as ssDNA–dsDNA, antibody–protein, and antibody–virus, using
SiNW FET biosensors. The simulation results can serve as a guideline for the
design and optimization of SiNW FET biosensors in future studies.
Several problems need to be addressed in future studies. First, the Gouy–
Chapman theory is suitable for solving the NPBE for a one-dimension planar
ISFET biosensor. For this particular application, accuracy is good. However,
it is an approximation to solve the NPBE for a SiNW FET biosensor using
the Gouy–Chapman theory, but the accuracy cannot be guaranteed. Second,
biotin and streptavidin molecules are modeled as spheres in this study, dif-
fering from their original structures and affecting simulation accuracy. In
future studies, biotin and streptavidin should be modeled using their exact
structure. A 3D NPBE solver must be used to solve the surface potential for
the SiNW FET biosensor.
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3
Modeling and Simulation of
Organic Photovoltaic Cells
Guangyong Li, Liming Liu, and Fanan Wei
CONTENTS
3.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 31
3.2 Fundamentals of Organic Photovoltaic Cells........................................... 32
3.3 Optical Modeling.......................................................................................... 35
3.4 Electrical Modeling and Simulation by Drift-Diffusion Model............. 40
3.4 Electrical Modeling and Simulation by Monte Carlo Model.................. 45
3.5 Discussion and Conclusion......................................................................... 49
References................................................................................................................ 51
3.1 Introduction
Organic photovoltaic cells have great potential to enable mass production
with extremely low cost. The power conversion efficiency of organic photo-
voltaic cells has improved rapidly in the past few years, exceeding 5% in 2005
[1,2] and 9.8% in 2012 [3]. But it is still low compared to other traditional solar
cells. The relatively low efficiency is rooted in the low dielectric constants
of organic semiconductors, in which tightly bonded electron– hole pairs
(excitons) instead of free electron–hole pairs are formed after light absorp-
tion [4]. The exciton can be efficiently separated only into a free electron and
hole at the interface between the donor and acceptor materials by the built-in
potential, arising from the offset of Fermi levels between donor and accep-
tor materials. Because the exciton diffusion length of organic semiconduc-
tors is very short (about 10 nm [5]), only excitons created within 10 nm from
the donor–acceptor (D–A) interface can be dissociated; all others decay to
ground states.
The major milestone of organic photovoltaic cells was the introduction of
bulk heterojunction (BHJ) configuration (Figure 3.1) reported in 1995 [6]. In
BHJ configuration, the donor and acceptor materials are blended together
to form phase- separated nanostructures (nanoscale morphology). The
nanoscale morphology of the disordered bulk heterojunctions plays a critical

Electron Acceptor
+ –
Hole Donor
Cathode
Electron
Blocking Layer
Anode
Glass Substrate
FIGURE 3.1
Configuration of organic photovoltaic cells made from BHJs.
role in determining the overall device performance. The nanoscale morphol-

ogy of BHJs must be controlled in such a balanced way that the formation
of phase-separated domains can provide enough interconnections for trans-
porting free carriers but does not sacrifice too much interfacial contact areas
for efficient exciton dissociation; the thickness of BHJs must be chosen such
that it is thin enough for efficient collection of free carriers but it is thick
enough to absorb sufficient light. Even though the world-record efficiency of
organic photovoltaic cells has been close to 10% [3], only 3%–5% is routinely
achievable in general labs and less than 1% in mass production because of
the lack of a valid tool to optimize the device design and the fabrication
process. Compared to trial-and-error-based physical experiments, compu-
tational modeling and simulation provide more effective and economical
alternatives to optimize the device for best performance. This chapter will
provide the technical details on how to model and simulate the operation of
organic photovoltaic cells.
3.2 Fundamentals of Organic Photovoltaic Cells

In this section, we briefly introduce the fundamentals of organic photovol-
taic cells. More details on device physics can be found in the review article
by Deibel et al. [7].
After light absorption, tightly bound electron-hole pairs (excitons) are cre-
ated in organic semiconductors because of their low dielectric constants. In
order to convert the solar energy into electricity, excitons must be separated
into free carriers (electrons and holes) before they decay to ground states.
The most efficient way for exciton dissociation is through a BHJ configu-
ration (Figure 3.1) in which the electron donor and acceptor materials are

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335; Rhys, C. H. 282; H. M. Chadwick, Cult of Othin
(1899).
[366] Mogk, iii. 366; Golther, 428.
[367] Mogk, iii. 374; Golther, 488; Tille, Y. and C. 144; Bede,
de temp. ratione, c. 15 (Opera, ed. Giles, vi. 179) ‘Eostur-
monath qui nunc paschalis mensis interpretatur, quondam
a dea illorum, quae Eostre vocabatur, et cui in illo festa
celebrabant, nomen habuit; a cuius nomine nunc paschale
tempus cognominant, consueto antiquae observationis
vocabulo gaudia novae solemnitatis vocantes.’ There seems
no reason for thinking with Golther and Tille, that Bede
made a mistake. Charlemagne took the name Ôstarmánoth
for April, perhaps only out of compliment to the English,
such as Alcuin, at his court.
[368] A Charm for unfruitful or bewitched land (O. Cockayne,
Leechdoms of Early England, R. S. i. 399); cf. Grimm, i.
253; Golther, 455; Kögel, i. 1. 39. The ceremony has taken
on a Christian colouring, but retains many primitive
features. Strips of turf are removed, and masses said over
them. They are replaced after oil, honey, barm, milk of
every kind of cattle, twigs of every tree, and holy water
have been put on the spot. Seed is bought at a double
price from almsmen and poured into a hole in the plough
with salt and herbs. Various invocations are used, including
one which calls on ‘Erce, Erce, Erce, Eorthan modor,’ and
implores the Almighty to grant her fertility. Then the plough
is driven, and a loaf, made of every kind of corn with milk
and holy water, laid under the first furrow. Kögel considers
Erce to be derived from ero, ‘earth.’ Brooke, i. 217, states
on the authority of Montanus that a version of the prayer
preserved in a convent at Corvei begins ‘Eostar, Eostar,
Eordhan modor.’ He adds: ‘nothing seems to follow from
this clerical error.’ But why an error? The equation Erce-
Eostre is consistent with the fundamental identity of the
light-goddess and the earth-goddess.
[369] Tacitus, Ann. i. 51; Mogk, iii. 373; Golther, 458; cf. ch.
xii.
[370] Gomme, Village Community, 157; B. C. A. Windle, Life in
Early Britain, 200; F. W. Maitland, Domesday Book and
Beyond, 142, 337, 346.
[371] I have followed in many points the views on Teutonic
chronology of Tille, Deutsches Weihnacht (1893) and Yule
and Christmas (1899), which are accepted in the main by
O. Schräder, Reallexicon der indogermanischen
Altertumskunde, s.vv. Jahr, Jahreszeiten, and partly correct
those of Weinhold, Ueber die deutsche Jahrtheilung
(1862), and Grotefend, Die Zeitrechnung des deutschen
Mittelalters (1891).
[372] In Scandinavia the winter naturally began earlier and
ended later. Throughout, Scandinavian seasons diverged
from those of Germany and the British Isles. In particular
the high summer feast and the consequent tripartition of
the year do not seem to have established themselves (C. P.
B. i. 430). Further south the period of stall-feeding was
extended when a better supply of fodder made it possible
(Tille, Y. and C. 56, 62; Burne-Jackson, 380).
[373] Cf. ch. xi, where the winter feasts are discussed in more
detail.
[374] Grimm, ii. 675, 693, 762, notes the heralds of summer.
[375] Jahn, 34; Mogk, iii. 387; Golther, 572; Schräder-Jevons,
303. The Germans still knew three seasons only when they
came into contact with the Romans; cf. Tacitus, Germ. 26
‘annum quoque ipsum non in totidem digerunt species:
hiems et ver et aestas intellectum ac vocabula habent,
autumni perinde nomen ac bona ignorantur.’ I do not agree
with Tille, Y. and C. 6, that the tripartition of the year, in
this pre-calendar form, was ‘of foreign extraction.’ Schräder
shows that it is common to the Aryan languages. The Keltic
seasons, in particular, seem to be closely parallel to the
Teutonic. Of the three great Keltic feasts described by
Rhys, C. H. 409, 513, 676; C. F. i. 308, the Lugnassad was
probably the harvest feast, the Samhain the old beginning
of winter feast, and the Beltain the high summer feast. The
meaning of ‘Beltain’ (cf. N. E. D. s.v. Beltane) seems quite
uncertain. A connexion is possible but certainly unproved
with the Abelio of the Pyrenean inscriptions, the Belenus-
Apollo of those of the eastern Alps, and, more rarely,
Provence (Röscher, Lexicon, s.v. Belenus; Holder, Alt-
celtischer Sprachschatz, s.vv. Belenus, Abelio; Ausonius,
Professores, iv. 7), or the Bel of Bohemia mentioned by
Allso (ch. xii). The Semitic Baal, although a cult of Belus,
found its way into the Roman world (cf. Appendix N, No.
xxxii, and Wissowa, 302), is naturally even a less plausible
relation. But it is dear to the folk-etymologist; cf. e.g. S. M.
Mayhew, Baalism in Trans. of St. Paul’s Ecclesiological
Society, i. 83.
[376] Tille, Y. and C. 7, 148, suggests an Egyptian or
Babylonian origin, but the equation of the Gothic Jiuleis
and the Cypriote ἰλαῖος, ἰουλαῖος, ἰουλίηος, ἰούλιος as
names for winter periods makes a Mediterranean
connexion seem possible.
[377] Cf. ch. xi.
[378] Grimm, ii. 615, notes that Easter fires are normal in the
north, Midsummer fires in the south of Germany. The
Beltane fires both of Scotland and Ireland are usually on
May 1, but some of the Irish examples collected by J.
Jamieson, Etym. Dict. of the Scottish Language, s. v., are
at midsummer.
[379] Tille, Y. and C. 71; Rhys, C. H. 419. The primitive year
was thermometric, not astronomic, its critical moments,
not the solstices, a knowledge of which means science, but
the sensible increase and diminution of heat in spring and
autumn. The solstices came through Rome. The Sermo
Eligii (Grimm, iv. 1737) has ‘nullus in festivitate S. Ioannis
vel quibuslibet sanctorum solemnitatibus
solstitia ... exerceat,’ but Eligius was a seventh-century
bishop, and this Sermo may have been interpolated in the
eighth century (O. Reich, Über Audoen’s
Lebensbeschreibung des heiligen Eligius (1872), cited in
Rev. celtique, ix. 433). It is not clear that the un-
Romanized Teuton or Kelt made a god of the sun, as
distinct from the heaven-god, who of course has solar
attributes and emblems. In the same Sermo Eligius says
‘nullus dominos solem aut lunam vocet, neque per eos
iuret.’ But the notion of ‘domini’ may be post-Roman, and
the oath is by the permanent, rather than the divine; cf. A.
de Jubainville, Intr. à l’Étude de la Litt. celt. 181. It is
noticeable that German names for the sun are originally
feminine and for the moon masculine.
[380] Mogk, iii. 393; Golther, 584; Jahn, 84; Caspari, 35;
Saupe, 7; Hauck, ii. 357; Michels, 93. The ploughing feast
is probably the spurcalia of the Indiculus and of Eadhelm,
de laudibus virginitatis, c. 25, and the dies spurci of the
Hom. de Sacrilegiis. This term appears in the later German
name for February, Sporkele. It seems to be founded on
Roman analogy from spurcus, ‘unclean.’ Pearson, ii. 159,
would, however, trace it to an Aryan root spherag, ‘swell,’
‘burst,’ ‘shoot.’ Bede, de temp. rat. c. 15, calls February Sol-
monath, which he explains as ‘mensis placentarum.’
September, the month of the harvest-festival, is Haleg-
monath, or ‘mensis sacrorum.’
[381] Pfannenschmidt, 244; Brand, ii. 1; Ditchfield, 130;
Burne-Jackson, 439; Burton, Rushbearing, 147; Schaff, vi.
544; Duchesne, 385. The dedication of churches was
solemnly carried out from the fourth century, and the
anniversary observed. Gregory the Great ordered
‘solemnitates ecclesiarum dedicationum per singulos annos
sunt celebrandae.’ The A.-S. Canons of Edgar (960), c. 28
(Wilkins, i. 227), require them to be kept with sobriety.
Originally the anniversary, as well as the actual dedication
day, was observed with an all night watch, whence the
name vigilia, wakes. Belethus, de rat. offic. (P. L. ccii. 141),
c. 137, says that the custom was abolished owing to the
immorality to which it led. But the ‘eve’ of these and other
feasts continued to share in the sanctity of the ‘day,’ a
practice in harmony with the European sense of the
precedence of night over day (cf. Schräder-Jevons, 311;
Bertrand, 267, 354, 413). An Act of Convocation in 1536
(Wilkins, iii. 823) required all wakes to be held on the first
Sunday in October, but it does not appear to have been
very effectual.
[382] S. O. Addy, in F. L. xii. 394, has a full account of ‘Garland
day’ at Castleton, Derbyshire, on May 29; cf. F. L. xii. 76
(Wishford, Wilts); Burne-Jackson, 365.
[383] The classification of agricultural feasts in U. Jahn, Die
deutschen Opfergebräuche, seems throughout to be based
less on the facts of primitive communal agriculture, than on
those of the more elaborate methods of the later farms
with their variety of crops.
[384] Frazer, i. 193; ii. 96; Brand, i. 125; Dyer, 223; Ditchfield,
95; Philpot, 144; Grimm, ii. 762; &c., &c. A single example
of the custom is minutely studied by S. O. Addy, Garland
Day at Castleton, in F. L. xii. 394.
[385] A. B. Gomme, ii. 507; Hartland, Perseus, ii. 187; Grimm,
iv. 1738, 1747; Gaidoz, Un vieux rite médical (1893).
[386] Tacitus, Germania, 40.
[387] Vigfusson and Ungar, Flateyjarbok, i. 337; Grimm, i.
107; Gummere, G. O. 433; Mogk, iii. 321; Golther, 228.
[388] Sozomenes, Hist. Eccles. vi. 37. Cf. also Indiculus (ed.
Saupe, 32) ‘de simulacro, quod per campos portant,’ the
fifth-century Vita S. Martini, c. 12, by Sulpicius Severus
(Opera, ed. Halm, in Corp. Script. Eccl. Hist. i. 122) ‘quia
esset haec Gallorum rusticis consuetudo, simulacra
daemonum, candido tecta velamine, misera per agros suos
circumferre dementia,’ and Alsso’s account of the fifteenth-
century calendisationes in Bohemia (ch. xii).
[389] Cf. ch. x.
[390] Cf. Representations (Chester, London, York). There were
similar watches at Nottingham (Deering, Hist. of Nott.
123), Worcester (Smith, English Gilds, 408), Lydd and
Bristol (Green, Town Life in the Fifteenth Century, i. 148),
and on St. Thomas’s day (July 7) at Canterbury (Arch.
Cant. xii. 34; Hist. MSS. ix. 1. 148).
[391] Harris, 7; Hartland, Fairy Tales, 71.
[392] Dyer, 205.
[393] Cf. ch. viii.
[394] Dyer, 275; Ditchfield, III; cf. the phrase ‘in and out the
windows’ of the singing game Round and Round the Village
(A. B. Gomme, s. v.).
[395] M. Deloche, Le Tour de la Lunade, in Rev. celtique, ix.
425; Bérenger-Féraud, i. 423; iii. 167.
[396] Bower, 13.
[397] Duchesne, 276; Usener, i. 293; Tille, Y. and C. 51; W. W.
Fowler, 124; Boissier, La Religion romaine, i. 323. The
Rogations or litaniae minores represent in Italy the
Ambarvalia on May 29. But they are of Gallican origin, were
begun by Mamertus, bishop of Vienne (†470), adapted by
the Council of Orleans (511), c. 27 (Mansi, viii. 355), and
required by the English Council of Clovesho (747), c. 16
(Haddan-Stubbs, iii. 368), to be held ‘non admixtis
vanitatibus, uti mos est plurimis, vel negligentibus, vel
imperitis, id est in ludis et equorum cursibus, et epulis
maioribus.’ Jahn, 147, quotes the German abbess Marcsuith
(940), who describes them as ‘pro gentilicio Ambarvali,’ and
adds, ‘confido autem de Patroni huius misericordia, quod
sic ab eo gyrade terrae semina uberius provenient, et
variae aeris inclementiae cessent.’ Mediaeval Rogation
litanies are in Sarum Processional, 103, and York
Processional (York Manual, 182). The more strictly Roman
litania major on St. Mark’s day (March 25) takes the place
of the Robigalia, but is not of great importance in English
folk-custom.
[398] Injunctions, ch. xix, of 1559 (Gee-Hardy, Docts.
illustrative of English Church History, 426). Thanks are to
be given to God ‘for the increase and abundance of his
fruits upon the face of the earth.’ The Book of Homilies
contains an exhortation to be used on the occasion. The
episcopal injunctions and interrogatories in Ritual
Commission, 404, 409, 416, &c., endeavour to preserve the
Rogations, and to eliminate ‘superstition’ from them; for
the development of the notion of ‘beating of bounds,’ cf.
the eighteenth-century notices in Dyer, Old English Social
Life, 196.
[399] The image is represented by the doll of the May-
garland, which has sometimes, according to Ditchfield,
102, become the Virgin Mary, with a child doll in its arms,
and at other times (e. g. Castleton, F. L. xii. 469) has
disappeared, leaving the name of ‘queen’ to a particular
bunch of flowers; also by the ‘giant’ of the midsummer
watch. The Salisbury giant, St. Christopher, with his hobby-
horse, Hob-nob, is described in Rev. d. T. P. iv. 601.
[400] Grimm, i. 257; Golther, 463; Mogk, iii. 374; Hahn,
Demeter und Baubo, 38; Usener, Die Sintfluthsagen, 115.
There are parallels in south European custom, both
classical and modern, and Usener even derives the term
‘carnival,’ not from carnem levare, but from the currus
navalis used by Roman women. A modern survival at
Fréjus is described in F. L. xii. 307.
[401] Ditchfield, 103; Transactions of Devonshire Association,
xv. 104; cf. the Noah’s ship procession at Hull
(Representations, s. v.).
[402] Brand, ii. 223; Grimm, ii. 584; Elton, 284; Gomme,
Ethnology, 73; Hartland, Perseus, ii. 175; Haddon, 362;
Vaux, 269; Wood-Martin, ii. 46; Bérenger-Féraud, iii. 291;
R. C. Hope, Holy Wells; M.-L. Quiller-Couch, Ancient and
Holy Wells of Cornwall (1894); J. Rhys, C. F. i. 332, 354,
and in F. L. iii. 74, iv. 55; A. W. Moore, in F. L. v. 212; H. C.
March, in F. L. x. 479 (Dorset).
[403] A. B. Gomme, s. v.; Haddon, 362.
[404] Schaff, iii. 247; Duchesne, 281, 385; Rock, iii. 2. 101,
180; Maskell, i. cccxi; Feasey, 235; Wordsworth, 24;
Pfannenschmidt, Das Weihwasser im heidnischen und
christlichen Cultus (1869). The Benedictio Fontium took
place on Easter Saturday, in preparation for the baptism
which in the earliest times was a characteristic Easter rite.
The formulae are in York Missal, i. 121; Sarum Missal, 350;
Maskell, i. 13.
[405] Frazer, iii. 237; Gomme, in Brit. Ass. Rep. (1896), 626;
Simpson, 195; Grenier, 380; Gaidoz, 16; Bertrand, 98;
Gummere, G. O. 400; Grimm, ii. 601; Jahn, 25; Brand, i.
127, 166; Dyer, 269, 311, 332; Ditchfield, 141; Cortet, 211.
[406] To this custom may possibly be traced the black-a-vised
figures who are persistent in the folk ludi, and also the
curious tradition which makes May-day especially the
chimney-sweeps’ holiday.
[407] The reasons given are various, ‘to keep off hail’ (whence
the term Hagelfeuer mentioned by Pfannenschmidt, 67),
‘vermin,’ ‘caterpillars,’ ‘blight,’ ‘to make the fields fertile.’ In
Bavaria torches are carried round the fields ‘to drive away
the wicked sower’ (of tares?). In Northumberland raids are
made on the ashes of neighbouring villages (Dyer, 332).
[408] Cf. p. 113.
[409] I know of no English Easter folk-fires, but St. Patrick is
said to have lit one on the hill of Slane, opposite Tara, on
Easter Eve, 433 (Feasey, 180).
[410] Schaff, v. 403; Duchesne, 240; Rock, iii. 2. 71, 94, 98,
107, 244; Feasey, 184; Wordsworth, 204; Frazer, iii. 245;
Jahn, 129; Grimm, ii. 616; Simpson, 198. The formulae of
the benedictio ignis and benedictio cereorum at
Candlemas, and the benedictio ignis, benedictio incensi,
and benedictio cerei on Easter Eve, are in Sarum Missal,
334, 697; York Missal, i. 109; ii. 17. One York MS. has
‘Paschae ignis de berillo vel de silice
exceptus ... accenditur.’ The correspondence between Pope
Zacharias and St. Boniface shows that the lighting of the
ignis by a crystal instead of from a lamp kept secretly
burning distinguished Gallican from Roman ceremonial in
the eighth century (Jaffé, 2291). All the lights in the church
are previously put out, and this itself has become a
ceremony in the Tenebrae. Ecclesiastical symbolism
explained the extinction and rekindling of lights as typifying
the Resurrection. Sometimes the ignis provides a light for
the folk-fire outside.
[411] Belethus (†1162), de Div. Offic. c. 137 (P. L. ccii. 141),
gives three customs of St. John’s Eve. Bones are burnt,
because (1) there are dragons in air, earth, and water, and
when these ‘in aere ad libidinem concitantur, quod fere fit,
saepe ipsum sperma vel in puteos vel in aquas fluviales
eiiciunt, ex quo lethalis sequitur annus,’ but the smoke of
the bonfires drives them away; and (2) because St. John’s
bones were burnt in Sebasta. Torches are carried, because
St. John was a shining light. A wheel is rolled, because of
the solstice, which is made appropriate to St. John by St.
John iii. 30. The account of Belethus is amplified by
Durandus, Rationale Div. Offic. (ed. corr. Antwerp, 1614)
vii. 14, and taken in turn from Durandus by a fifteenth-
century monk of Winchelscombe in a sermon preserved in
Harl. MS. 2345, f. 49 (b).
[412] Gaidoz, 24, 109; Bertrand, 122; Dyer, 323; Stubbes, i.
339, from Naogeorgos; Usener, ii. 81; and the mediaeval
calendar in Brand, i. 179.
[413] Gomme, in Brit. Ass. Rep. (1896), 636 (Moray, Mull); F.
L. ix. 280 (Caithness, with illustration of wood used);
Kemble, i. 360 (Perthshire in 1826, Devonshire).
[414] Grimm, ii. 603; Kemble, i. 359; Elton, 293; Frazer, iii.
301; Gaidoz, 22; Jahn, 26; Simpson, 196; Bertrand, 107;
Golther, 570. The English term is need-fire, Scotch
neidfyre, German Nothfeuer. It is variously derived from
nôt ‘need,’ niuwan ‘rub,’ or hniotan ‘press.’ If the last is
right, the English form should perhaps be knead-fire
(Grimm, ii. 607, 609; Golther, 570). Another German term
is Wildfeuer. The Gaelic tin-egin is from tin ‘fire,’ and egin
‘violence’ (Grimm, ii. 609). For ecclesiastical prohibitions cf.
Indiculus (Saupe, 20) ‘de igne fricato de ligno, i. e. nodfyr’;
Capit. Karlmanni (742), c. 5 (Grimm, ii. 604) ‘illos
sacrilegos ignes quos niedfyr vocant.’
[415] Gaidoz, 1; Bertrand, 109, 140; Simpson, 109, 240; Rhys,
C. H. 54. The commonest form of the symbol is the
swastika, but others appear to be found in the ‘hammer’ of
Thor, and on the altars and statues of a Gaulish deity
equated in the interpretatio Romana with Jupiter. There is
a wheel decoration on the barelle or cars of the Gubbio ceri
(Bower, 4).
[416] Brand, i. 97; Dyer, 159; Ditchfield, 78. Eggs are used
ceremonially at the Scotch Beltane fires (Frazer, iii. 261;
Simpson, 285). Strings of birds’ eggs are hung on the Lynn
May garland (F. L. x. 443). In Dauphiné an omelette is
made when the sun rises on St. John’s day (Cortet, 217).
In Germany children are sent to look for the Easter eggs in
the nest of a hare, a very divine animal. Among the
miscellaneous Benedictions in the Sarum Manual, with the
Ben. Seminis and the Ben. Pomorum in die Sti Iacobi are a
Ben. Carnis Casei Butyri Ovorum sive Pastillarum in Pascha
and a Ben. Agni Paschalis, Ovorum et Herbarum in die
Paschae. These Benedictions are little more than graces.
The Durham Accounts, i. 71-174, contain entries of
fifteenth-and sixteenth-century payments ‘fratribus et
sororibus de Wytton pro eorum Egsilver erga festum
pasche.’
[417] Tw. N. i. 3. 42 ‘He’s a coward and a coystrill, that will
not drink to my niece till his brains turn o’ the toe like a
parish-top.’ Steevens says ‘a large top was formerly kept in
every village, to be whipt in frosty weather, that the
peasants might be kept warm by exercise and out of
mischief while they could not work.’ This is evidently a
‘fake’ of the ‘Puck of commentators.’ Hone, E. D. B. i. 199,
says ‘According to a story (whether true or false), in one of
the churches of Paris, a choir boy used to whip a top
marked with Alleluia, written in gold letters, from one end
of the choir to the other.’ The ‘burial of Alleluia’ is shown
later on to be a mediaeval perversion of an agricultural rite.
On the whole question of tops, see Haddon, 255; A. B.
Gomme, s. v.
[418] Leber, ix. 391; Barthélemy, iv. 447; Du Tilliot, 30;
Grenier, 385; Bérenger-Féraud, iii. 427; Belethus, c. 120
‘Sunt nonnullae ecclesiae in quibus usitatum est, ut vel
etiam episcopi et archiepiscopi in coenobiis cum suis ludant
subditis, ita ut etiam se ad lusum pilae demittant. atque
haec quidem libertas ideo dicta est
decembrica ... quamquam vero magnae ecclesiae, ut est
Remensis, hanc ludendi consuetudinem observent, videtur
tamen laudabilius esse non ludere’; Durandus, vi. 86 ‘In
quibusdam locis hac die, in aliis in Natali, praelati cum suis
clericis ludunt, vel in claustris, vel in domibus
episcopalibus; ita ut etiam descendant ad ludum pilae, vel
etiam ad choreas et cantus, &c.’ Often the ball play was
outside the church, but the canons of Evreux on their
return from the procession noire of May 1, played ‘ad
quillas super voltas ecclesiae’; and the Easter pilota of
Auxerre which lasted to 1538, took place in the nave
before vespers. Full accounts of this ceremony have been
preserved. The dean and canons danced and tossed the
ball, singing the Victimae paschali. For examples of Easter
hand-ball or marbles in English folk-custom, cf. Brand, i.
103; Vaux, 240; F. L. xii. 75; Mrs. Gomme, s. v. Handball.
[419] Brand, i. 93; Burne-Jackson, 335. A Norfolk version (F. L.
vii. 90) has ‘dances as if in agony.’ On the Mendips (F. L. v.
339) what is expected is ‘a lamb in the sun.’ The moon,
and perhaps the sun also, is sometimes ‘wobbly,’ ‘jumping’
or ‘skipping,’ owing to the presence of strata of air differing
in humidity or temperature, and so changing the index of
refraction (Nicholson, Golspie, 186). At Pontesford Hill in
Shropshire (Burne-Jackson, 330) the pilgrimage was on
Palm Sunday, actually to pluck a sprig from a haunted yew,
traditionally ‘to look for the golden arrow,’ which must be
solar. In the Isle of Man hills, on which are sacred wells,
are visited on the Lugnassad, to gather ling-berries. Others
say that it is because of Jephthah’s daughter, who went up
and down on the mountains and bewailed her virginity. And
the old folk now stop at home and read Judges xi (Rhys, C.
F. i. 312). On the place of hill-tops in agricultural religion cf.
p. 106, and for the use of elevated spots for sun-worship at
Rome, ch. xi.
[420] Simpson, passim; cf. F. L. vi. 168; xi. 220. Deasil is from
Gaelic deas, ‘right,’ ‘south.’ Mediaeval ecclesiastical
processions went ‘contra solis cursum et morem
ecclesiasticum’ only in seasons of woe or sadness (Rock, iii.
2. 182).
[421] Dr. Murray kindly informs me that the etymology of
withershins (A.-S. wiþersynes) is uncertain. It is from
wiþer, ‘against,’ and either some lost noun, or one derived
from séon, ‘to see,’ or sinþ, ‘course.’ The original sense is
simply ‘backwards,’ and the equivalence with deasil not
earlier than the seventeenth century. A folk-etymology
from shine may account for the aspirate.
[422] Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites, 196; Jevons,
130; Frazer, ii. 352; Grant Allen, 318; Hartland, ii. 236;
Turnbull, The Blood Covenant. Perhaps, as a third type of
sacrifice, should be distinguished the ‘alimentary’ sacrifice
of food and other things made to the dead. This rests on
the belief in the continuance of the mortal life with its
needs and desires after death.
[423] Grimm, i. 47; Golther, 565; Gummere, G. O. 40, 457.
Gregory III wrote ( † 731) to Boniface (P. L. lxxxix. 577)
‘inter cetera agrestem caballum aliquantos comedere
adiunxisti plerosque et domesticum. hoc nequaquam fieri
deinceps sinas,’ cf. Councils of Cealcythe and Pincanhale
(787), c. 19 (Haddan-Stubbs, iii. 458) ‘equos etiam plerique
in vobis comedunt, quod nullus Christianorum in
Orientalibus facit.’ The decking of horses is a familiar
feature of May-day in London and elsewhere.
[424] C. J. Billson, The Easter Hare, in F. L. iii. 441.
[425] N. W. Thomas in F. L. xi. 227.
[426] Grimm, i. 55; Golther, 559, 575; Gummere, G. O. 456.
The universal Teutonic term for sacrificing is blôtan.
[427] Frazer, Pausanias, iii. 20; Jevons, 130, 191. Does the
modern huntsman know why he ‘bloods’ a novice?
[428] Grimm, i. 47, 57, 77; Jahn, 24; Gummere, G. O. 459.
Hence the theriomorphic ‘image.’
[429] Robertson Smith, 414, 448; Jevons, 102, 285; Frazer, ii.
448; Lang, M. R. R.1 ii. 73, 80, 106, 214, 226; Grant Allen,
335; Du Méril, Com. i. 75. Hence the theriomorphic larva or
mask (Frazer, Pausanias, iv. 239).
[430] Grimm, i. 46, 57; Golther, 576; Frazer, ii. 318, 353;
Jevons, 144; Grant Allen, 325. Savages believe that by
eating an animal they will acquire its bodily and mental
qualities.
[431] Jahn, 14, and for classical parallels Frazer, ii. 315;
Pausanias, iii. 288; Jevons, Plutarch, lxix. 143. Grant Allen,
292, was told as a boy in Normandy that at certain
lustrations ‘a portion of the Host (stolen or concealed, I
imagine) was sometimes buried in each field.’
[432] Frazer, ii. 318; Grant Allen, 337; Jevons, 206.
[433] F. L. vi. 1.
[434] Frazer, ii. 319; Jevons, 214; cf. the πάνσπερμα at the
Athenian Pyanepsia.
[435] In the Beltane rite (F. L. vi. 2) a bit of the bannock is
reserved for the ‘cuack’ or cuckoo, here doubtless the
inheritor of the gods.
[436] Grimm, iii. 1240.
[437] Elton, 428.
[438] Grimm, i. 59; Gummere, G. O. 455.
[439] V. Hehn, Culturpflanzen, 438.
[440] Grimm, i. 44, 48, 53; Golther, 561; Gummere, G. O. 459;
Schräder, 422; Mogk, iii. 388; Meyer, 199, and for Keltic
evidence Elton, 270. Many of these examples belong rather
to the war than to the agricultural cult. The latest in the
west are Capit. de partib. Saxon. 9 ‘Si quis hominem
diabolo sacrificaverit et in hostiam, more paganorum,
daemonibus obtulerit’; Lex Frisionum, additio sup. tit. 42
‘qui fanum effregerit ... immolatur diis, quorum templa
violavit’; Epist. Greg. III, 1 (P. L. lxxxix, 578) ‘hoc quoque
inter alia crimina agi in partibus illis dixisti, quod quidam ex
fidelibus ad immolandum paganis sua venundent mancipia.’
[441] Frazer, ii. 1; Jevons, 279.
[442] Frazer, ii. 5, 59.
[443] Strabo, iv. 5. 4; Bastian, Oestl. Asien, v. 272. The
Mexican evidence given by Frazer, iii. 134, does not
necessarily represent a primitive notion of the nature of the
rite.
[444] Jevons, 291; Plutarch, lxx. For traces of the blood-
guiltiness incurred by sacrifice, cf. the βουφόνια at Athens
and the regifugium at Rome (Frazer, ii. 294; Robertson
Smith, i. 286).
[445] Frazer, ii. 15, 55, 232; Jevons, 280; Grant Allen, 242,
296, 329.
[446] In three successive years of famine the Swedes
sacrificed first oxen, then men, finally their king Dômaldi
himself (Ynglingasaga, c. 18).
[447] Frazer, ii. 24; Jevons, 280; Grant Allen, 296.
[448] The British rule in India forbids human sacrifice, and the
Khonds, a Dravidian race of Bengal, have substituted
animal for human victims within the memory of man
(Frazer, ii. 245).
[449] Hartland, iii. 1; Frazer, Pausanias, iv. 197; v. 44, 143;
Bérenger-Féraud, i. 207. Mr. Frazer enumerates forty-one
versions of the legend.
[450] Hartland, iii. 81; Grimm, ii. 494; Gummere, G. O. 396.
The slaves of Nerthus were drowned in the same lake in
which the goddess was dipped.
[451] F. L. vi. i.
[452] Frazer, iii. 319; Gaidoz, 27; Cortet, 213; Simpson, 221;
Bertrand, 68; F. L. xii. 315. The work of Posidonius does
not exist, but was possibly used by Caesar, B. G. vi. 15;
Strabo, iv. 4. 5; Diodorus, v. 32. Wicker ‘giants’ are still
burnt in some French festival-fires. But elsewhere, as in the
midsummer shows, such ‘giants’ seem to be images of the
agricultural divinities, and it is not clear by what process
they came to be burnt and so destroyed. Perhaps they
were originally only smoked, just as they were dipped.
[453] Gomme, Ethnology, 137; F. L. ii. 300; x. 101; xii. 217;
Vaux, 287; Rhys, C. F. i. 306.
[454] F. L. ii. 302; Rhys, C. F. i. 307. In 1656, bulls were
sacrificed near Dingwall (F. L. x. 353). A few additional
examples, beyond those here given, are mentioned by N.
W. Thomas, in F. L. xi. 247.
[455] 1 N. Q. vii. 353; Gomme, Ethnology, 32; Village
Community, 113; Grant Allen, 290. The custom was extinct
when it was first described in 1853, and some doubt has
recently been thrown upon the ‘altar,’ the ‘struggle’ and
other details; cf. Trans. of Devonshire Assn. xxviii. 99; F. L.
viii. 287.
[456] 1 N. Q. vii. 353; Gomme, Ethnology, 30; Vaux, 285.
[457] Blount, Jocular Tenures (ed. Beckwith), 281; Dyer, 297.
[458] Dunkin, Hist. of Bicester (1816), 268; P. Manning, in F.
L. viii. 313.
[459] P. Manning, in F. L. viii. 310; Dyer, 282.
[460] N. W. Thomas, in F. L. xi. 227; Dyer, 285, 438, 470;
Ditchfield, 85, 131.
[461] Certain lands were held of the chapter for which a fat
buck was paid on the Conversion of St. Paul (January 25),
and a fat doe on the Commemoration of St. Paul (June 30).
They were offered, according to one writer, alive, at the
high altar; the flesh was baked, the head and horns carried
in festal procession. The custom dated from at least 1274
(Dyer, 49; W. Sparrow Simpson, St. Paul’s Cath. and Old
City Life, 234).
[462] F. L. iv. 9; x. 355. White bulls are said to have been led
to the shrine by women desirous of children. F. C.
Conybeare, in R. de l’Hist. des Religions, xliv. 108,
describes some survivals of sacrificial rites in the Armenian
church which existed primitively in other Greek churches
also.
[463] F. L. vii. 346. Bull-baiting often took place on festivals,
and in several cases, as at Tutbury, the bull was driven into
or over a river. Bear-baiting is possibly a later variant of the
sport.
[464] Burton, 165; Suffolk F. L. 71; Ditchfield, 227; Dyer, 387;
Pfannenschmidt, 279; cf. the Abbots Bromley Horn-dance
(ch. viii).
[465] F. L. iv. 5. The custom of sacrifice at the foundation of a
new building has also left traces: cf. Grant Allen, 248; F. L.
xi. 322, 437; Speth, Builders’ Rites and Ceremonies.
[466] Douce, 598, gives a cut of a hobby-horse, i. e. a man
riding a pasteboard or wicker horse with his legs concealed
beneath a foot-cloth. According to Du Méril, Com. i. 79,
421, the device is known throughout Europe. In France it is
the chevalet, cheval-mallet, cheval-fol, &c.; in Germany the
Schimmel.
[467] Dyer, 182, 266, 271; Ditchfield, 97; Burton, 40; F. L. viii.
309, 313, 317; cf. ch. ix on the ‘fool’ or ‘squire’ in the
sword and morris dances, and ch. xvi on his court and
literary congener. The folk-fool wears a cow’s tail or fox’s
brush, or carries a stick with a tail at one end and a
bladder and peas at the other. He often wears a mask or
has his face blacked. In Lancashire he is sometimes
merged with the ‘woman’ grotesque of the folk-festivals,
and called ‘owd Bet.’
[468] W. Gregor, F. L. of N. E. Scotland, 181, says that bread
and cheese were actually laid in the field, and in the
plough when it was ‘strykit.’
[469] Dyer, 20, 207, 447; Ditchfield, 46; F. L. vi. 93. Pirminius
v. Reichenau, Dicta (†753), c. 22, forbids ‘effundere super
truncum frugem et vinum.’
[470] F. L. Congress, 449, gives a list of about fifty ‘feasten’
cakes. Some are quite local; others, from the Shrove
Tuesday pancake to the Good Friday hot cross bun,
widespread.
[471] Grimm, i. 57; Frazer, ii. 344; Grant Allen, 339; Jevons,
215; Dyer, 165; Ditchfield, 81.
[472] F. L. vi. 57; viii. 354; ix. 362; x. 111.
[473] F. L. vi. 1.
[474] Ditchfield, 116, 227; Suffolk F. L. 108; Dyer, Old English
Social Life, 197. The boys are now said to be whipped in
order that they may remember the boundaries; but the
custom, which sometimes includes burying them, closely
resembles the symbolical sacrifices of the harvest field (p.
158). Grant Allen, 270, suggests that the tears shed are a
rain-charm. I hope he is joking.
[475] Brand, ii. 13; Suffolk F. L. 69, 71; Leicester F. L. 121. A
‘harvest-lord’ is probably meant by the ‘Rex Autumnalis’
mentioned in the Accounts of St. Michael’s, Bath (ed.
Somerset Arch. Soc. 88), in 1487, 1490, and 1492. A
corona was hired by him from the parish. Often the reaper
who cuts the last sheaf (i.e. slays the divinity) becomes
harvest-lord.
[476] Gomme, Village Community, 107; Dyer, 339; Northall,
202; Gloucester F. L. 33.
[477] Frazer, i. 216; E. Pabst, Die Volksfeste des Maigrafen
(1865).
[478] Frazer, i. 219; Cortet, 160; Brand, i. 126; Dyer, 266;
Ditchfield, 98.
[479] Tacitus, Germ. c. 43 ‘apud Nahanarvalos antiquae
religionis lucus ostenditur. praesidet sacerdos muliebri
ornatu.’
[480] Conc. of Trullo (692), c. 62 (Mansi, xi. 671) ‘Nullus vir
deinceps muliebri veste induatur, vel mulier veste viro
conveniente’; Conc. of Braga (of doubtful date), c. 80
(Mansi, ix. 844) ‘Si quis ballationes ante ecclesias
sanctorum fecerit, seu quis faciem suam transformaverit in
habitu muliebri et mulier in habitu viri emendatione pollicita
tres annos poeniteat.’ The exchange of head-gear between
men and women remains a familiar feature of the modern
bank-holiday. Some Greek parallels are collected by Frazer,
Pausanias, iii. 197. E. Crawley, The Mystic Rose (1902), viii.
371, suggests another explanation, which would connect
the custom with the amorous side of the primitive festivals.
[481] Frazer, ii. 93, 109.
[482] Ibid. i. 220; Brand, i. 157; Dyer, 217; Ditchfield, 97;
Kelly, 62: cf. ch. viii.
[483] Pearson, ii. 24, 407. Cf. the evidence for a primitive
human pairing-season in Westermarck, 25.
[484] Purity of life is sometimes required of those who are to
kindle the new fire (Frazer, iii. 260, 302).
[485] H. Spencer, Principles of Psychology, ii. 629; K. Groos,
Play of Man, 361; Hirn, 25.
[486] Gummere, G. O. 331.
[487] Frazer, i. 217; iii. 258.
[488] Chaucer says of the Miller (C. T. prol. 548):
‘At wrastlynge he wolde have alwey the ram’;
and of Sir Thopas (C. T. 13670):
‘Of wrastlynge was ther noon his peer,

Ther any ram shal stonde.’
Strutt, 82, figures a wrestling from Royal MS. 2, B. viii, with a
cock set on a pole as the prize.
[489] Cf. Appendix I., and Frazer, ii. 316; Jevons, Plutarch,
lxix. 143, on the struggle between two wards—the Sacred
Way and the Subura—for the head of the October Horse at
Rome.
[490] Haddon, 270. The tug-of-war reappears in Korea and
Japan as a ceremony intended to secure a good harvest.
[491] Mrs. Gomme, s. vv. Bandyball, Camp, Football, Hockey,
Hood, Hurling, Shinty. These games, in which the ball is
fought for, are distinct from those already mentioned as
having a ceremonial use, in which it is amicably tossed
from player to player (cf. p. 128). If Golf belongs to the
present category, it is a case in which the endeavour
seems to be actually to bury the ball. It is tempting to
compare the name Hockey with the Hock-cart of the
harvest festival, and with Hock-tide; but it does not really
seem to be anything but Hookey. The original of both the
hockey-stick and the golf-club was probably the shepherd’s
crook. Mr. Pepys tried to cast stones with a shepherd’s
crook on those very Epsom downs where the stockbroker
now foozles his tee shot.
[492] F. L. vii. 345; M. Shearman, Athletics and Football, 246;
Haddon, 271; Gomme, Vill. Comm. 240; Ditchfield, 57, 64;
W. Fitzstephen, Vita S. Thomae (†1170-82) in Mat. for Hist.
of Becket (R. S.), iii. 9, speaks of the ‘lusum pilae celebrem’
in London ‘die quae dicitur Carnilevaria.’ Riley, 571, has a
London proclamation of 1409 forbidding the levy of money
for ‘foteballe’ and cok-thresshyng.’ At Chester the annual
Shrove Tuesday football on the Roodee was commuted for
races in 1540 (Hist. MSS. viii. 1. 362). At Dublin there was,
in 1569, a Shrove Tuesday ‘riding’ of the ‘occupacions’ each
‘bearing balles’ (Gilbert, ii. 54).
[493] Haddon, loc. cit.; Gomme, loc. cit.; Gloucester F. L. 38.
Cf. the conflictus described in ch. ix, and the classical
parallels in Frazer, Pausanias, iii. 267.
[494] F. L. iii. 441; Ditchfield, 85.
[495] F. L. vii. 330 (a very full account); viii. 72, 173;
Ditchfield, 50. There is a local aetiological myth about a
lady who lost her hood on a windy day, and instituted the
contest in memory of the event.
[496] Mrs. Gomme, s. v. Oranges and Lemons.
[497] Mrs. Gomme, s. vv.
[498] Dyer, 6, 481. ‘Stang’ is a word, of Scandinavian origin,
for ‘pole’ or ‘stake.’ The Scandinavian nið-stöng (scorn-
stake) was a horse’s head on a pole, with a written curse
and a likeness of the man to be ill-wished (Vigfusson, Icel.
Dict. s. v. níð).
[499] Cf. with Mr. Barrett’s account, Northall, 253; Ditchfield,
178; Northern F. L. 29; Julleville, Les Com. 205; also
Thomas Hardy’s Mayor of Casterbridge, and his The Fire at
Tranter Sweatley’s (Wessex Poems, 201). The penalty is
used by schoolboys (Northern F. L. 29) as well as villagers.
[500] Grenier, 375; Ducange, s. v. Charivarium, which he
defines as ‘ludus turpis tinnitibus et clamoribus variis,
quibus illudunt iis, qui ad secundas convolant nuptias.’ He
refers to the statutes of Melun cathedral (1365) in
Instrumenta Hist. Eccl. Melud. ii. 503. Cf. Conc. of Langres
(1404) ‘ludo quod dicitur Chareuari, in quo utuntur larvis in
figura daemonum, et horrenda ibidem committuntur’;
Conc. of Angers (1448), c. 12 (Labbé, xiii. 1358)
‘pulsatione patellarum, pelvium et campanarum, eorum oris
et manibus sibilatione, instrumento aeruginariorum, sive
fabricantium, et aliarum rerum sonorosarum,
vociferationibus tumultuosis et aliis ludibriis et irrisionibus,
in illo damnabili actu (qui cariuarium, vulgariter charivari,
nuncupatur) circa domos nubentium, et in ipsorum
detestationem et opprobrium post eorum secundas nuptias
fieri consuetum, &c.’
[501] Cf. ch. xvi, and Leber, ix. 148, 169; Julleville, Les Com.
205, 243. In 1579 a regular jeu was made by the Dijon
Mère-Folle of the chevauchée of one M. Du Tillet. The text
is preserved in Bibl. Nat. MS. 24039 and analysed by M.
Petit de Julleville.
[502] In Berks a draped horse’s head is carried, and the
proceeding known as a Hooset Hunt (Ditchfield, 178).
[503] Ducange, s. v. Asini caudam in manu tenens.
[504] Julleville, Les Com. 207.
[505] So on Ilchester Meads, where the proceeding is known
as Mommets or Mommicks (Barrett, 65).
[506] On Hock-tide and the Hock-play generally see Brand-
Ellis, i. 107; Strutt, 349; Sharpe, 125; Dyer, 188; S. Denne,
Memoir on Hokeday in Archaeologia, vii. 244.
[507] Cf. Appendix H. An allusion to the play by Sir R.
Morrison (†1542) is quoted in chap. xxv.
[508] Laneham, or his informant, actually said, in error, 1012.
On the historical event see Ramsay, i. 353.
[509] There were performers both on horse and on foot.
Probably hobby-horses were used, for Jonson brings in
Captain Cox ‘in his Hobby-horse,’ which was ‘foaled in
Queen Elizabeth’s time’ in the Masque of Owls (ed.
Cunningham, iii. 188).
[510] Cf. Representations, s. v. Coventry.
[511] Rossius, Hist. Regum Angliae (ed. Hearne, 1716), 105 ‘in
cuius signum usque hodie illa die vulgariter dicta Hox
Tuisday ludunt in villis trahendo cordas partialiter cum aliis
iocis.’ Rous, who died 1491, is speaking of the death of
Hardicanute. On the event see Ramsay, i. 434. Possibly
both events were celebrated in the sixteenth century at
Coventry. Two of the three plays proposed for municipal
performance in 1591 were the ‘Conquest of the Danes’ and
the ‘History of Edward the Confessor.’ These were to be
upon the ‘pagens,’ and probably they were more regular
dramas than the performance witnessed by Elizabeth in
1575 (Representations, s. v. Coventry).
[512] Leland, Collectanea (ed. Hearne), v. 298 ‘uno certo die
heu usitato (forsan Hoc vocitato) hoc solempni festo
paschatis transacto, mulieres homines, alioque die homines
mulieres ligare, ac cetera media utinam non inhonesta vel
deteriora facere moliantur et exercere, lucrum ecclesiae
fingentes, set dampnum animae sub fucato colore
lucrantes, &c.’ Riley, 561, 571, gives London proclamations
against ‘hokkyng’ of 1405 and 1409.
[513] Brand-Ellis, i. 113; Lysons, Environs of London, i. 229; C.
Kerry, Accts. of St. Lawrence, Reading; Hobhouse, 232; N.
E. D. s. vv. Hock, &c.
[514] Owen and Blakeway, Hist. of Shrewsbury, i. 559.
[515] Dyer, 191; Ditchfield, 90.
[516] N. E. D. s. v. Hock-day.
[517] Brand-Ellis, i. 106.
[518] Ibid. i. 109.
[519] Ducange, s. v. Prisio; Barthélemy, iv. 463. On Innocents’
Day, the customs of taking in bed and whipping were
united (cf. ch. xii).
[520] Northern F. L. 84; Brand-Ellis, i. 94, 96; Vaux, 242;
Ditchfield, 80; Dyer, 133.
[521] Brand-Ellis, i. 106; Owen and Blakeway, i. 559; Dyer,
173; Ditchfield, 90; Burne-Jackson, 336; Northern F. L. 84;
Vaux, 242. A dignified H. M. I. is said to have made his first
official visit to Warrington on Easter Monday, and to have
suffered accordingly. Miss Burne describes sprinkling as an
element in Shropshire heaving.
[522] Belethus, c. 120 ‘notandum quoque est in plerisque
regionibus secundo die post Pascha mulieres maritos suos
verberare ac vicissim viros eas tertio die.’ The spiritually
minded Belethus explains the custom as a warning to keep
from carnal intercourse.
[523] Dyer, 79; Ditchfield, 83.
[524] Brand-Ellis, i. 114; Ditchfield, 252. Mr. W. Crooke has
just studied this and analogous customs in The Lifting of
the Bride (F. L. xiii. 226).
[525] Suffolk F. L. 69; F. L. v. 167. The use of largess, a
Norman-French word (largitio), is curious. It is also used
for the subscriptions to Lancashire gyst-ales (Dyer, 182).
[526] Ditchfield, 155.
[527] Frazer, ii. 233; Pfannenschmidt, 93.
[528] Haddon, 335; Grosse, 167; Herbert Spencer in Contemp.
Review (1895), 114; Groos, Play of Man, 88, 354. Evidence
for the wide use of the dance at savage festivals is given
by Wallaschek, 163, 187.
[529] Grimm, i. 39; Pearson, ii. 133; Müllenhoff, Germania, ch.
24, and de antiq. Germ. poesi chorica, 4; Kögel, i. 1. 8. The
primitive word form should have been laikaz, whence
Gothic laiks, O. N. leikr, O. H. G. leih, A.-S. lâc. The word
has, says Müllenhoff, all the senses ‘Spiel, Tanz, Gesang,
Opfer, Aufzug.’ From the same root come probably ludus,
and possibly, through the Celtic, the O. F. lai. The A.-S. lâc
is glossed ludus, sacrificium, victima, munus. It occurs in
the compounds ecga-gelâc and sveorða-gelâc, both
meaning ‘sword-dance,’ sige-lâc, ‘victory-dance,’ as-lâc,
‘god-dance,’ wine-lâc, ‘love-dance’ (cf. p. 170), &c. An A.-S.
synonym for lâc is plega, ‘play,’ which gives sweord-plega
and ecg-plega. Spil is not A.-S. and spilian is a loan-word
from O. H. G.
[530] Gummere, B. P. 328; Kögel, i. 1. 6.
[531] S. Ambrose, de Elia et Ieiunio, c. 18 (P. L. xiv. 720), de
Poenitentia, ii. 6 (P. L. xvi. 508); S. Augustine, contra
Parmenianum, iii. 6 (P. L. xliii. 107); S. Chrysostom, Hom.
47 in Iulian. mart. p. 613; Hom. 23 de Novilun. p. 264; C.
of Laodicea (†366), c. 53 (Mansi, ii. 571). Cf. D. C. A. s. v.
Dancing, and ch. i. Barthélemy, ii. 438, and other writers
have some rather doubtful theories as to liturgical dancing
in early Christian worship; cf. Julian. Dict. of Hymn. 206.
[532] Du Méril, Com. 67; Pearson, ii. 17, 281; Gröber, ii. 1.
444; Kögel, i. 1. 25; Indiculus Superstitionum (ed. Saupe),
10 ‘de sacrilegiis per ecclesias.’ Amongst the prohibitions
are Caesarius of Arles (†542), Sermo xiii. (P. L. xxxix. 2325)
‘quam multi rustici et quam multae mulieres rusticanae
cantica diabolica, amatoria et turpia memoriter retinent et
ore decantant’; Const. Childeberti (c. 554) de abol. relig.
idololatriae (Mansi, ix. 738) ‘noctes pervigiles cum
ebrietate, scurrilitate, vel canticis, etiam in ipsis sacris
diebus, pascha, natale Domini, et reliquis festivitatibus, vel
adveniente die Dominico dansatrices per villas
ambulare ... nullatenus fieri permittimus’; C. of Auxerre
(573-603), c. 9 (Maassen, i. 180) ‘non licet in ecclesia
choros secularium vel puellarum cantica exercere nec
convivia in ecclesia praeparare’; C. of Chalons (639-54), c.
19 (Maassen, i. 212) ‘Valde omnibus noscetur esse
decretum, ne per dedicationes basilicarum aut festivitates
martyrum ad ipsa solemnia confluentes obscoena et turpia
cantica, dum orare debent aut clericos psallentes audire,
cum choris foemineis, turpia quidem decantare videantur.
unde convenit, ut sacerdotes loci illos a septa basilicarum
vel porticus ipsarum basilicarum etiam et ab ipsis atriis
vetare debeant et arcere.’ Sermo Eligii (Grimm, iv. 1737)
‘nullus in festivitate S. Ioannis vel quibuslibet sanctorum
solemnitatibus solstitia aut vallationes vel saltationes aut
caraulas aut cantica diabolica exerceat’; Iudicium Clementis
( † 693), c. 20 (Haddan-Stubbs, iii. 226) ‘si quis in
quacunque festivitate ad ecclesiam veniens pallat foris, aut
saltat, aut cantat orationes amatorias ... excommunicetur’
(apparently a fragment of a penitential composed by
Clement or Willibrord, an A.-S. missionary to Frisia, on
whom see Bede, H. E. v. 9, and the only dance prohibition
of possible A.-S. provenance of which I know); Statuta
Salisburensia (Salzburg: † 800; Boretius, i. 229) ‘Ut omnis
populus ... absque inlecebroso canticu et lusu saeculari
cum laetaniis procedant’; C. of Mainz (813), c. 48 (Mansi,
xiv. 74) ‘canticum turpe atque luxuriosum circa ecclesias
agere omnino contradicimus’; C. of Rome (826), c. 35
(Mansi, xiv. 1008) ‘sunt quidam, et maxime mulieres, qui
festis ac sacris diebus atque sanctorum natalitiis non pro
eorum quibus debent delectantur desideriis advenire, sed
ballando, verba turpia decantando, choros tenendo ac
ducendo, similitudinem paganorum peragendo, advenire
procurant’; cf. Dicta abbatis Pirminii (Caspari,
Kirchenhistorische Anecdota, 188); Penitentiale pseudo-
Theodorianum (Wasserschleben, 607); Leonis IV Homilia
(847, Mansi, xiv. 895); Benedictus Levita, Capitularia
(†850), vi. 96 (M. G. H. Script. iv. 2); and for Spain, C. of
Toledo (589), c. 23 (Mansi, ix. 999), and the undated C. of
Braga, c. 80 (quoted on p. 144). Cf. also the denunciations
of the Kalends (ch. xi and Appendix N). Nearly four
centuries after the C. of Rome we find the C. of Avignon
(1209), c. 17 (Mansi, xxii. 791) ‘statuimus, ut in sanctorum
vigiliis in ecclesiis historicae saltationes, obscoeni motus,
seu choreae non fiant, nec dicantur amatoria carmina, vel
cantilenae ibidem....’ Still later the C. of Bayeux (1300), c.
31 (Mansi, xxv. 66) ‘ut dicit Augustinus, melius est festivis
diebus fodere vel arare, quam choreas ducere’; and so on
ad infinitum. The pseudo-Augustine Sermo, 265, de
Christiano nomine cum operibus non Christianis (P. L.
xxxix. 2237), which is possibly by Caesarius of Arles,
asserts explicitly the pagan character of the custom: ‘isti
enim infelices et miseri homines, qui balationes et
saltationes ante ipsas basilicas sanctorum exercere non
metuunt nec erubescunt, etsi Christiani ad ecclesiam
venerint, pagani de ecclesia revertuntur; quia ista
consuetudo balandi de paganorum observatione remansit.’
A mediaeval preacher (quoted by A. Lecoy de la Marche,
Chaire française au Moyen Âge, 447, from B. N. Lat. MS.
17509, f. 146) declares, ‘chorea enim circulus est cuius
centrum est diabolus, et omnes vergunt ad sinistrum.’
[533] Tille, D. W. 301; G. Raynaud, in Études dédiées à Gaston
Paris, 53; E. Schröder, Die Tänzer von Kölbigk, in Z. f.
Kirchengeschichte, xvii. 94; G. Paris, in Journal des Savants
(1899), 733.
[534] H. E. Reynolds, Wells Cathedral, 85 ‘cum ex choreis ludis
et spectaculis et lapidum proiectionibus in praefata ecclesia
et eius cemeteriis ac claustro dissentiones sanguinis
effusiones et violentiae saepius oriantur et in hiis dicta
Wellensis ecclesia multa dispendia patiatur.’
[535] Menestrier, Des Ballets anciens et modernes (1863), 4;
on other French church dances, cf. Du Tilliot, 21;
Barthélemy, iv. 447; Leber, ix. 420. The most famous are
the pilota of Auxerre, which was accompanied with ball-
play (cf. ch. vi) and the bergeretta of Besançon. Julian,
Dict. of Hymn. 206, gives some English examples.
[536] Grove, 106. A full account of the ceremony at the feast
of the Conception in 1901 is given in the Church Times for
Jan. 17, 1902.
[537] Grove, 103; Bérenger-Féraud, iii. 430; Mélusine (1879),
39; N. and Q. for May 17, 1890. The dance is headed by
the clergy, and proceeds to a traditional tune from the
banks of the Sûre to the church, up sixty-two steps, along
the north aisle, round the altar deasil, and down the south
aisle. It is curious that until the seventeenth century only
men took part in it. St. Willibrord is famous for curing
nervous diseases, and the pilgrimage is done by way of
vow for such cures. The local legend asserts that the
ceremony had its origin in an eighth-century cattle-plague,
which ceased through an invocation of St. Willibrord: it is a
little hard on the saint, whose prohibition of dances at the
church-door has just been quoted.
[538] Bérenger-Féraud, iii. 409. A similarly named saint, St.
Martial, was formerly honoured in the same way. Every
psalm on his day ended, not with the Gloria Patri, but with
a dance, and the chant, ‘Saint-Marceau, pregas per nous,
et nous epingaren per vous’ (Du Méril, La Com. 68).
[539] Cf. p. 26. There were ‘madinnis that dansit’ before
James IV of Scotland at Forres, Elgin and Dernway in 1504,
but nothing is said of songs (L. H. T. Accounts, ii. 463).
[540] Carm. Bur. 191:
‘ludunt super gramina virgines decorae

quarum nova carmina dulci sonant ore.’
Ibid. 195:
‘ecce florescunt lilia,

et virginum dant agmina
summo deorum carmina.’
[541] W. Fitzstephen, Descriptio Londin. (Mat. for Hist. of

Becket, R. S. iii. 11) ‘puellarum Cytherea ducit choros
usque imminente luna, et pede libero pulsatur tellus.’
[542] Jeanroy, 102, 387; Guy, 504; Paris, Journal des Savants
(1892), 407. M. Paris points out that dances, other than
professional, first appear in the West after the fall of the
Empire. The French terms for dancing—baller, danser,
treschier, caroler—are not Latin. Caroler, however, he
thinks to be the Greek χοραυλεῖν, ‘to accompany a dance
with a flute.’ But the French carole was always
accompanied, not with a flute, but with a sung chanson.
[543] Paris, loc. cit. 410; Jeanroy, 391. In Wace’s description
of Arthur’s wedding, the women carolent and the men
behourdent. Cf. Bartsch, Romanzen und Pastourellen, i. 13:
‘Cez damoiseles i vont por caroler,

cil escuier i vont por behorder,
cil chevalier i vont por esgarder.’
[544] On the return of Edward II and Isabella of France in

1308, the mayor and other dignitaries of London went
‘coram rege et regina karolantes’ (Chronicles of Edward I
and Edward II, R. S. i. 152). On the birth of Prince Edward
in 1312, they ‘menerent la karole’ in church and street
(Riley, 107).
[545] Kögel, i. 1. 6.
[546] Mrs. Gomme, ii. 228; Haddon, 345.
[547] Cf. ch. vi on the motion deasil round the sacred object.
It is curious that the modern round dances go withershins
round a room. Grimm, i. 52, quotes Gregory the Great,
Dial. iii. 28 on a Lombard sacrifice, ‘caput caprae, hoc ei,
per circuitum currentes, carmine nefando dedicantes.’
[548] At Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts (which preserves its Anglo-
Saxon church), and at South Petherton, Somerset, in both
cases on Shrove Tuesday (Mrs. Gomme, ii. 230); cf. Vaux,
18. The church at Painswick, Gloucester, is danced round
on wake-day (F. L. viii. 392). There is a group of games, in
which the players wind and unwind in spirals round a
centre. Such are Eller Tree, Wind up the Bush Faggot, and
Bulliheisle. These Mrs. Gomme regards as survivals of the
ritual dance round a sacred tree. Some obscure references
in the rhymes used to ‘dumplings’ and ‘a bundle of rags’
perhaps connect themselves with the cereal cake and the
rags hung on the tree for luck. In Cornwall such a game is
played under the name of ‘Snail’s Creep’ at certain village
feasts in June, and directed by young men with leafy
branches.
[549] Du Méril, La Com. 72; Haddon, 346; Grove, 50, 81;
Haigh, 14; N. W. Thomas, La Danse totémique en Europe,
in Actes d. Cong. intern. d. Trad. pop. (1900).
[550] Plot, Hist. of Staffs. (1686); F. L. iv. 172; vii. 382 (with
cuts of properties); Ditchfield, 139.
[551] The O. H. G. hîleih, originally meaning ‘sex-dance,’
comes to be ‘wedding.’ The root hi, like wini (cf. p. 170),
has a sexual connotation (Pearson, ii. 132; Kögel, i. 1. 10).
[552] Coussemaker, Chants populaires des Flamands de
France, 100:
‘In den hemel is eenen dans:

Alleluia.
Daer dansen all’ de maegdekens:
Benedicamus Domino,
Alleluia, Alleluia.
‘t is voor Amelia:
Alleluia.
Wy dansen naer de maegdekens:
Benedicamus, etc.’
[553] Frazer, i. 35; Dyer, 7; Northall, 233. A Lancashire song is
sung ‘to draw you these cold winters away,’ and wishes
‘peace and plenty’ to the household. A favourite French
May chanson is
‘Étrennez notre épousée,

Voici le mois,
Le joli mois de Mai,
Étrennez notre épousée
En bonne étrenne.
Voici le mois,
Le joli mois de Mai,
Qu’on vous amène.’
If the quêteurs come on a churl, they have an ill-wishing

variant. The following is characteristic of the French
peasantry:
‘J’vous souhaitons autant d’enfants,

Qu’y a des pierrettes dans les champs.’
Often more practical tokens of revenge are shown. The Plough

Monday ‘bullocks’ in some places consider themselves
licensed to plough up the ground before a house where
they have been rebuffed.’
[554] Mrs. Gomme, ii. 1, 399; Haddon, 343; Du Méril, La Com.
81. Amongst the jeux of the young Gargantua (Rabelais, i.
22) was one ‘à semer l’avoyne et au laboureur.’ This
probably resembled the games of Oats and Beans and
Barley, and Would you know how doth the Peasant? which
exist in English, French, Catalonian, and Italian versions.
On the mimetic character of these games, cf. ch. viii.
[555] Text from Harl. MS. 978 in H. E. Wooldridge, Oxford
Hist. of Music, i. 326, with full account. The music, to
which religious as well as the secular words are attached,
is technically known as a rota or rondel. It is of the nature
of polyphonic part-song, and of course more advanced
than the typical mediaeval rondet can have been.
[556] On these songs in general, see Northall, 233;
Martinengo-Cesaresco, 249; Cortet, 153; Tiersot, 191;
Jeanroy, 88; Paris, J. des Savants (1891), 685, (1892), 155,
407.
[557] H. A. Wilson, Hist. of Magd. Coll. (1899), 50. Mr. Wilson
discredits the tradition that the performance began as a
mass for the obit of Henry VII. The hymn is printed in
Dyer, 259; Ditchfield, 96. It has no relation to the summer
festival, having been written in the seventeenth century by
Thomas Smith and set by Benjamin Rogers as a grace. In
other cases hymns have been attached to the village
festivals. At Tissington the well-dressing,’ on Ascension Day
includes a clerical procession in which ‘Rock of Ages’ and ‘A
Living Stream’ are sung (Ditchfield, 187). A special
‘Rushbearers’ Hymn’ was written for the Grasmere
Rushbearing in 1835, and a hymn for St. Oswald has been
recently added (E. G. Fletcher, The Rushbearing, 13, 74).
[558] Dyer, 240, from Hertfordshire. There are many other
versions; cf. Northall, 240.
[559] Kögel, i. 1. 32.
[560] Pertz, Leges, i. 68 ‘nullatenus ibi uuinileodos scribere vel
mittere praesumat.’ Kögel, i. 1. 61: Goedeke, i. 11, quote
other uses of the term from eighth-century glosses, e.g.
‘uuiniliod, cantilenas saeculares, psalmos vulgares,
seculares, plebeios psalmos, cantica rustica et inepta.’
Winiliod is literally ‘love-song,’ from root wini (conn. with
Venus). Kögel traces an earlier term O. H. G. winileih, A.-S.
winelâc = hîleih. On the erotic motive in savage dances, cf.
Grosse, 165, 172; Hirn, 229.
[561] Romania, vii. 61; Trad. Pop. i. 98. Mr. Swinburne has
adapted the idea of this poem in A Match (Poems and
Ballads, 1st Series, 116).
[562] Romania, ix. 568.
[563] K. Bartsch, Chrest. Prov. 111. A similar chanson is in G.
Raynaud, Motets, i. 151, and another is described in the
roman of Flamenca (ed. P. Meyer), 3244. It ends
‘E, si parla, qu’il li responda:

Nom sones mot, faitz vos en lai,
Qu’entre mos bracs mos amics j’ai.
Kalenda maia. E vai s’ en.’
[564] Trimousette, from trî mâ câ, an unexplained burden in
some of the French maierolles.
[565] Guy, 503.
[566] Tiersot, Robin et Marion; Guy, 506. See the refrain in
Bartsch, 197, 295; Raynaud, Rec. de Motets, i. 227.
[567] Langlois, Robin et Marion: Romania, xxiv. 437; H. Guy,
Adan de la Hale, 177; J. Tiersot, Sur le Jeu de Robin et
Marion (1897); Petit de Julleville, La Comédie, 27; Rep.
Com. 21, 324. A jeu of Robin et Marion is recorded also as
played at Angers in 1392, but there is no proof that this
was Adan de la Hale’s play, or a drama at all. There were
folk going ‘desguiziez, à un jeu que l’en dit Robin et
Marion, ainsi qu’il est accoutumé de fere, chacun an, en les
foiries de Penthecouste’ (Guy, 197). The best editions of
Robin et Marion are those by E. Langlois (1896), and by
Bartsch in La Langue et la Littérature françaises (1887),
col. 523. E. de Coussemaker, Œuvres de Adam de la Halle
(1872), 347, gives the music, and A. Rambeau, Die dem
Trouvère Adam de la Halle zugeschriebenen Dramen
(1886), facsimiles the text. On Adan de la Hale’s earlier
sottie of La Feuillée, see ch. xvi.
[568] Thomas Wright, Lyrical Poems of the Reign of Edward I
(Percy Soc.).
[569] Cf. ch. xvii.
[570] The May-game is probably intended by the ‘Whitsun
pastorals’ of Winter’s Tale, iv. 4. 134, and the ‘pageants of
delight’ at Pentecost, where a boy ‘trimmed in Madam
Julias gown’ played ‘the woman’s part’ (i. e. Maid Marian)
of Two Gentlemen of Verona, iv. 4. 163. Cf. also W. Warner,
Albion’s England, v. 25:
‘At Paske began our Morrise, and ere Penticost our May.’
[571] Flores Historiarum (R. S.), iii. 130 ‘aestimo quod rex
aestivalis sis; forsitan hyemalis non eris.’
[572] Cf. Appendix E.
[573] ‘King-play’ at Reading (Reading St. Giles Accounts in
Brand-Hazlitt, i. 157; Kerry, Hist. of St. Lawrence, Reading,
226).
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1. On the Principles of Quantum Control Theory........................................ 1

2. Modeling and Simulation of Silicon Nanowire–­Based Biosensors.... 15

3. Modeling and Simulation of Organic Photovoltaic Cells..................... 31

4. Optimization of Organic Photovoltaic Cells........................................... 55

5. Developing a Dynamics Model for Epidermal Growth Factor

6. Modeling and Experimental Verifications of Cell Tensegrity............. 87

7. Modeling Swimming Micro/­Nano-­Systems in Low Reynolds

8. Modeling and Analysis of the Cellular Mechanics Involved in

9. Hybrid Control for Micro/­Nano Devices and Systems........................ 139

© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC v

It remains an especially daunting challenge for micro/­nanoscale engineering

© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC vii

We see the emergence of many theories and techniques in this rapidly

The MathWorks, Inc.

© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Ning Xi, DSc, is a University Distinguished Professor and John D. Ryder

Guangyong Li, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of Electrical

Mingjun Zhang, DSc, is an associate professor at the University of Tennessee,

© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ix

Hongzhi Chen Xiaobo Li

© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC xi

Animesh A. Sinha Rebing Wu

© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Re-­Bing Wu, Jing Zhang, and Tzyh-­Jong Tarn

© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1

controllability [24], invertibility [31], and quantum nondemolition filter prob-

1.2 Mechanism of Quantum Control

© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(a) (b) (c)

which reveals that two arbitrary noncommutative observables cannot be

© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Control actions in quantum systems are based on the physical interaction

H int = E(r0 , t)·D , (1.1)

© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1. The control precision is comparable with the Heisenberg uncertainty.

1.3 Modeling and Analysis of Quantum Control Systems

where the control uˆ k (t) is a time-­dependent operator defined on the control-

© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

In quantum information sciences, the implementation of a quantum algo-

© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

addressed by the control source. A typical example is the IVR (intramolecular

1.4 Control Design Methodologies

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2. Modeling and Simulation of Silicon Nanowire–Based Biosensors.... 15

7. Modeling Swimming Micro/Nano-Systems in Low Reynolds

9. Hybrid Control for Micro/Nano Devices and Systems........................ 139

It remains an especially daunting challenge for micro/nanoscale engineering

Re-Bing Wu, Jing Zhang, and Tzyh-Jong Tarn

1.2 Mechanism of Quantum Control

1.3 Modeling and Analysis of Quantum Control Systems

where the control uˆ k (t) is a time-dependent operator defined on the control-

1.4 Control Design Methodologies

1. Open-loop control (Figure 1.3a): The controller is treated as a classical

1.4.1 Open-Loop Control of Quantum Systems

equation in each iteration. To avoid this difficulty, evolutionary-type algo-

1.4.2 Closed-Loop Control of Quantum Systems

2.2 The Basics of SiNW-Based FET Biosensors

is the Debye–Hückel screening parameter. κ–1 is called the Debye screen-

2.4 Simulation Results and Discussions

2.4.2 I-V Characteristics of SiNW FET Biosensors

2.5 Conclusions and Perspectives

7. Z. Li, Y. Chen, X. Li, T. I. Kamins, K. Nauka, and R. S. Williams, “Sequence-

3.2 Fundamentals of Organic Photovoltaic Cells