Unit 15

Automation, Robotics
and Programmable
Logic Controllers (PLCs)

Lecture 6 – Mobile
Robots
Lecturer
Dr. (Mrs) R. M. M. Ruwanthika
[email protected]
 I. Introduction

❑ Mobile robots have the ability to move around.

❑ They may travel on the ground, on the surface of bodies of
water, under water, and in the air.

❑ Mobile robots are typically use more sensors.

❑ As a mobile robot performs its tasks, it is important for its

supervisor to maintain knowledge of its location and
orientation.
▪ Only then can the sensed information be accurately reported and fully
exploited.
 Robot Hardware - What makes a robot
Any robot is made from a collection of various hardware
components:-

❑ Locomotion – how the robot moves within the environment.

E.g. Wheels or Legs.
❑ Sensing – how the robot obtains information about itself and
the current state of the environment. E.g. Camera or Ultra-
Sonic Range Finder.
❑ Reasoning – how the robot utilises the information obtained
from its sensors to form decisions and actions. E.g. Reactive
Controller or Computer running AI program.
❑ Communication – how the robot communicates to a human or
machine operator and vice versa. E.g. Remote Control, Text
Interface or Video Link.
 Types of Control

❑Teleoperation – the robot is effectively remote

controlled with images from a camera mounted on the
robot being relayed back to the operator. e.g.
Underwater ROVs, Bomb disposal robots.

❑Semi-Autonomous – some decisions are made

automatically by the robot but the overall behaviour
is dictated remotely, such as interesting targets to
explore. e.g. Mars Rover.

❑Autonomous – all decisions are made by the robot

itself. e.g. Dwarf Robot.
 Mobile Robot Operating Modes-Types of Control
Teleoperation Semi-Autonomous Autonomous
❑ Teleoperation – the robot is effectively remote controlled with
images from a camera mounted on the robot being relayed
back to the operator.
e.g. Underwater ROVs, Bomb disposal robots.

https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/auv-rov.html 5
 Mobile Robot Operating Modes-Types of Control
Teleoperation Semi-Autonomous Autonomous
❑ Semi-Autonomous – some decisions are made automatically
by the robot but the overall behaviour is dictated remotely,
such as interesting targets to explore.
e.g. Mars Rover.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_UjOi5ErmkE

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 Mobile Robot Operating Modes-Types of Control
Teleoperation Semi-Autonomous Autonomous
❑ Autonomous – all decisions are made by the robot itself.
e.g. Lawn Movers, Vacuuming Robots, Swimming pool cleaner.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eR8TQ2rXTbE 7
 Different Categories of Robot
Terrestrial – robots that move on the ground.
❑ Mostly wheeled but also with tracks or legs.
❑ More exotic designs include climbing, rolling and slithering
robots e.g. Robot Snakes.
Aquatic – robots that operate in water.
❑ Most are neutrally buoyant and use water jets or propellers
to move.
Airborne – robots that fly.
❑ Typically helicopters or fixed wing aircraft.
❑ Unusual types include dirigibles (air balloons) and
controlled parachutes.
Space – robots that operate in microgravity.
❑ Independently propelled robots “free flyers” e.g. Satellites
 Applications of mobile robots

❑ The ability of mobile robots to move around autonomously in

their environment determines the best possible applications of
such robots.
▪ tasks that involve transportation, exploration, surveillance, guidance,
and inspection.
❑ Used for applications in environments that are inaccessible or
hostile to humans.
▪ Underwater robots, planetary rovers, or robots operating in
contaminated environments.
 Task Characteristics
What sort of Job does the robot do?
Inhospitable or Remote Environments:-
❑ Dangerous Environments (Chemical or Nuclear) e.g. Bomb
Disposal/Mine Clearance/Military.

❑ Environments too costly to send a human e.g. Undersea.

❑ Environments that would take too long to send a human e.g.

Space Exploration

❑ Environments that are physically impossible to place a human

e.g. Microscopic Environments
 E.g. Transportation

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M0fL5Q6rGws
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sOBoDDHGm3c
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VNlvzwvjp2A
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NKH9povlrsw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hmDQTYNlG4c
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4ZL3LgdKNbw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6IGCIjp2bn4
 2. Wheeled Mobile Robots

❑ There are two basic types of steering used by mobile robots

operating on the ground.
❑ For both of these types of steering, the mobile robot may have one
or two front wheels.

❑ Types of wheeled mobile robots

❑Vehicles with Front - Wheel Steering
❑Vehicles with Differential - Drive Steering
❑Vehicles with Front - Wheel Steering
❑Much like an automobile.
❑It has a nonzero turning radius limited by the length of the
robot and the maximum steering angle.

❑Vehicles with Differential - Drive Steering

❑Involves independent wheel control for each side.
❑By rotating the left and right wheels in opposite directions
at the same speed the robot can be made to turn while in
place, i.e., at a zero turning radius.
 Vehicles with Front - Wheel Steering

❑ Here the vehicle is usually powered via the rear wheels.

❑ The steering is achieved by way of an actuator for turning the
front wheels.

❑ A diagram for a four - wheel front - wheel – steered robot is

shown.
❑ The equations would also apply for the case of a single front
wheel.
 ❑ The angle the front wheels
make with respect to the
longitudinal axis of the robot,
𝑦𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑜𝑡 , is defined as 𝛼,
measured in the counter –
clockwise direction.

❑ The angle that the longitudinal

axis, 𝑦𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑜𝑡 , makes with
respect to the 𝑦𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 axis is
defined as 𝜓, also measured in
the counter –clockwise
direction.

❑ The instantaneous center

about which the robot is turning
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
is the point of intersection of
the two lines passing through
the wheel axes.

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Instantaneous Center

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❑ From geometry we have

❑ The instantaneous radius of curvature for the path of the

midpoint of the rear axle of the robot

❑ If one held the steering angle α constant, the trajectory would

result in a circle whose radius is dictated by the robot length
and the actual steering angle.
❑ From geometry we also have

or
❑ The instantaneous curvature is defined as the ratio of change in
angle divided by change in distance or change in angle per
distance traveled.

❑ which is the inverse of the instantaneous radius of curvature.

Thus the radius of curvature may be interpreted as

i.e., the change in distance traveled per radian change in heading

angle.
❑ The complete set of kinematic equations for the motion in
robot coordinates are

❑ Converted to earth coordinates these become

This form of the equations is

quite simple but are nonlinear.
❑ Now if we wish to take into account the fact that steering angle
and velocity cannot change instantaneously, we may define as
control signals the derivatives or rates of these variables, i.e.

❑ The system of equations for this model is now fifth order.

❑ The equations provide the correct kinematic relationships

among the variables for motion and rotation in the xy plane.
❑Discrete - Time Model
❑ One approach is to use the Euler integration method.
❑ This method is a first - order, Taylor – series approximation to
integration and says that the derivative may be approximated
by a finite difference

❑ This can be rearranged to yield

❑ Setting 𝑡 = 𝑘𝑇 and the sampling interval ∆𝑡 = 𝑇 and
applying this to the above equations we have
 Vehicles with Differential - Drive Steering
❑ Here the wheels on one side of
the robot are controlled
independently of the wheels on
the other side.

❑ By coordinating the two different

speeds, one can cause the robot
to spin in place, move in a
straight line, move in a circular
path, or follow any prescribed
trajectory.

𝑉𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

𝑉𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡

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❑ Let 𝑅 represent the instantaneous radius of curvature of the
robot trajectory.
❑ The width of the vehicle, i.e., spacing between the wheels, is
designated as 𝑊.
❑ From geometrical considerations we have:

❑ Now subtracting the two above equations yields

❑ The angular rate of the robot

❑ Solving for the instantaneous radius of curvature,

or

❑ This results in the expression for velocity along the robot’s

longitudinal axis:
❑ In summary, the equations of motion in robot coordinates are:
❑ If we convert to earth coordinates these become:

❑ to account for the fact that velocities cannot change instantaneously.

We introduce as the control variables the velocity rates:
❑ Use the Euler integration method for obtaining a discrete -
time model for this system of nonlinear equations
 In Class Exercise – Q1

1. A front - wheel steered robot is to turn to the left with a radius

of curvature equal to 20 meters. The robot is 1 meter wide
and 2 meters long. What should the steering angle be?

2. A differential wheel steered robot is to turn to the left with a

radius of curvature equal to 20 meters and is to travel at 1
meter per second. The width is 1 meter and the length is 2
meters. What should be the velocities of the right side and the
left side?

[5 minutes]
* Control Scheme for Mobile Robot Systems
 Perception - Sensors for Mobile Robots

❑ Sensors acquire knowledge about its environment.

❑ Various sensors take measurements and then extract meaningful
information from those measurements.

❑Sensor classification
❑ Proprioceptive sensors: measure values internal to the system (robot).
❑ Exteroceptive sensors: acquire information from the robot’s
environment
❑ Passive sensors: measure ambient environmental energy entering the
sensor.
❑ Active sensors: emit energy into the environment, then measure the
environmental reaction.
 Acknowledgement

❑ All the authors of the original Figures, photos, and

diagrams
THANK YOU