Ultra cell structure

As Biology ( 9700)
June 2025
28/ 10/ 2024
Part 1
Ultra cell structure
LM and EM

Classwork
1. Label different parts of microscope
2. Define magnification
3. Define resolution
4. Explain why some organelles cant be seen by light microscope
5. Why the cell organelle can be seen by electron microscope
6. State the advantages of LM
7. State the disadvantages of EM
8. State the advanatges of EM over LM
9. Compare between image seen by TEM and SEM
10. How to measure the specimen
11. Compare between prokaryotes and eukaryotes
12. Label the ultra cell structure
 Light microscope

Eye piece
With Eye piece graticule

Stage micrometer

Objective lens

Stage

Large knob is the coarse focus

Small knob is the fine focus
 Magnification The number of times the image is larger than the actual size -

Image length '

Magnification
Actual length

Units
1 cm = 10 mm
1 mm = 1000 um
1 um = 1000 nm

• ability to distinguish between two points as separate Resolution of LM = 200nm

Resolution
• The higher the resolution the more details you can see Resolution of EM= 0.5 nm

• how to measure the resolution

Fe
• 1/2 shortest wave length of radiation / beam being used to view specimen
 Light microscope Electron microscope

1. Shortest wave length = 400 nm 1. Shortest wave length is almost 1 nm

2. 1/ 2 shortest wave length = 200 nm 2. 1/2 shortest wave length = 0.5 nm
3. Resolution = 200 nm 3. Resolution is 0.5 nm
4. If the distance between two points is 4. If the distance between the two points is
less than 200nm, so they cant be les than 0.5 nm , so they can’t be
distinguished as separate . distinguished as separate

Explain why some organelles cant be seen by light Why the cell organelle can be seen by electron
microscope microscope :

1. The organelle might be too small to interfere with 1. EM can provide a more detailed image with high
light resolution.
2. LM has lower resolution , uses light beam , where 2. Use electron beam
shortest wave length is 400 nm , so resolution is 3. Resolution is 0.5 nm vs LM which has
half the wave length = 200 nm resolution of 200nm
3. So if the distance between the two points is less 4. So better able to distinguish between 2 points
than 200nm, the ability to distinguish between the as separate .
two points as separate is not high enough . 5. So we can see more details
 Light microscope Electron microscope

Use light beams with shortest wave length 400 nm

Use electron beams which has extremely short wave length

Lower resolution of 200 nm Higher resolution of 0.5 nm

Magnification of 1500 times Higher magnification up to 500, 000x

Eye piece x objective lens

Advantages Disadvantages of EM :
1. not Portable
1. Portable
2. kill living cells as it uses vacuum ( to avoid scattering of electrons )
2. Can observe living cells
3. need technical training
3. We can add water to slide to allow cell to move 4. Provide a black and white image
4. Doesnt need technical training 5. Need heavy metals

5. Provide image with real color

Advantages …why use EM over LM ?
6. use stains
Gives more detailed image with higher resolution
Use electron beams
Resolution is 0.5 nm vs LM has 200 nm resolution
So better able to distinguish between two points as separate
So we can see more details
 Electron microscope

Scanning electron micrograph Transmission electron micrograph

Provide a 3D image 2D image similar to those from LM

But magnified 500,000 times more
showing more details
Measurements

20 units x 2.5 = 50 um

40 units …..0.1 mm………100 um

1 unit ………..0.0025 mm…….2.5 um
,:
⑮
sto
 Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Size 0.5 to 5 um 40 um ( 10 -100 um )

Circular / loop of DNA not enclosed inside a nucleus Linear DNA is found as chromosome and enclosed inside a
nucleus

Naked DNA with no histone proteins DNA associated with histone proteins
E
Histone

Animals…no cell wall

Cell wall made from peptidoglycan ( murein )
Plants ….cellulose cell wall
Fungi ….cell wall made from chitin

70 s ribosomes ( smaller ribosomes ) 80S ribosomes ( larger ribosomes )

Plasmids , pili, mesosomes

No membrane bound organelles

Double ……….single ……..non membrane bound organelle
1. No nucleus
1. Golgi body
1. Nucleus 1. Ribosomes
2. No mitochondrion 2. Vesicles
2. Mitochondrion
2. Nucleolus
3. no vesicles 3. Chloroplast 3. SER
4. RER 3. Centrioles
4. No Golgi body
5. Vacuole
5. No endoplasmic reticulum
Double membrane bound orgaenlle Microvilli

my
Single membrane bound organelle
Vesicles
No membrane

Cytoplasm

or or = Cell surface
membrane

Smooth endoplasmic
Golgi body
reticulum duur
So /

So
E
S

:
I

S Golgi vesicles

Rough
- Y
↑ S

...
S

endoplasmic

or
&

reticulum
&
-
&

Ribosome
:
2

Nucleus with a nuclear Mitochondrion

envelop
Nucleolus Centrioles Nuclear pores
 ~ elem
&
Mesosome
Zu
For conjugation

· lasmid
Prokaryotes
1. Circular DNA
2.No histone
3.No nucleus
4. No mitochondria / no ER / no vesicle / No Golgi body
5.Cell wall made from. Murein ( peptidoglycan )
6.70 S ribosomes
7. Plasmids , pili , mesosome
30/10/2024
Part 2

Classwork :
1. Describe structure of golgi body and its function
2. Describe structure of ribosmes and its function
3. Describe structure of R endoplasmic reticulum / SER and its function
4. Describe structure of lysosomes and its function
5. Describe structure of mitochondrion and its function
 Ultra cell structure ( cell organelles )

1. Endoplasmic reticulum Single membrane bound organelle

Rough endoplasmic reticulum Smooth ER

Transport vesicles
Structure :

Dif
Tubular sacs called Cisternae , and not associated with
Ribosomes
ribosomes
Cisternal space Function:
Cisternae Synthesis of lipids and steroids such as reproductive hormones
( testosterone , oestrogen )

Structure
Flattened sacs called cisternae, attached to outer membrane of nuclear envelope
Covered with 80S ribosomes

Function :

1. Protein synthesis takes place in the ribosomes which are attached to ER

2. Where ribosomes are site of translation( mRNA attach to ribosome and code for specific sequence of amino
acids )
3. modificationof protein such as glycosylation ( adding of a carbohydrtae part to protein)
4. protein is packed into a transport vesicle to be transported to Golgi body .
2. Ribosomes

Structure
• non membrane bound organelle '
• Made from 2 subunits ( large and small subunits )
• Each subunit is made from rRNA and proteins
• and made in nucleolus
• 2 types
A) 70S in prokaryotes , mitochondrion and chloroplast
B) 80S in eukaryotes ( RER and cytoplasm )

Function :

Site of protein synthesis and translation

A) ribosomes found attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum ..for protein
synthesis and transported to Golgi body through transport vesicle .

B) found in cytoplasm …make proteins inside the cell

3. Golgi body Exocytosis

D
Secretory vesicles

h
Golgi vesicles

Lysosmes
Transport vesicles Golgi vesicles

Structure

1. Single membrane bound organelle

2. Flattened sacs with NO connection between membrane
3. Vesicles at the end of the sacs

Function

1. Modification of protein …such as glycosylation ( by addition of a carbohydrate part ) or folding into a 3D shape , or by
adding a non protein part such as haem group to form haemoglobin
2. Packaging and transporting the synthesised modified protein into Golgi vesicle either remain inside the cell ( lysosomes ) or
transport the protein outside the cells .
3. 3. Produce lysosomes
4. + with lipid + allow modification of lipids into glycolipids , then packaging , then transporting into Golgi vesicles
How proteins in the ribosome reach the cell surface membrane :

1. Protein synthesis takes place in the ribosome which are attached to RER
2. Protein enter the cisternal space of RER ..for modification
3. Packed inside a transport vesicle , which bud off the RER
4. Vesicle move and fuse with Cis face of Golgi body
5. Inside the Golgi body another modification such as glycosylation ( adding a carbohydrtae part to protein )
or folding into a 3D shape .
6. Packaging of madified protein into Golgi vesicle ..bud off the trans face
7. Move towards the cell surface membrane ( move by cytoskeleton) , fuse with cell surface membrane
And empty its content by exocytosis using energy from ATP
8. Or vesicle move to be used inside the cell such as lysosomes .
4. Lysosomes Single membrane bound organelle

Found nearly in all animal cells

0.1 -0.5 um
Spherical in shape
It contains hydrolytic enzymes

How lysosomes are formed ?

1. Enzymes are synthesised in ribosomes on RER

2. And then transported to Golgi body ( in a transport vesicle )
3. Protein modification in Golgi body
4. Golgi vesicle containing processed enzymes bud off and now stay inside the cell and called lysosomes

Function of lysosomes

Contain hydrolytic enzymes ( such as protease / lipase )

1. release the enzymes outside of the cell such as acrosome
2.Digestion to worn out cell organelles …autophagy
3.Break down material from outside the cell ..phagocytosis
4. complete break down to dead cells ( cells that have died ) …autolysis
Read
5. Mitochondria
Loop of DNA

u
• 1 um in diameter ...
Inner
• Double membrane bound organelle 70S ribosomes
&
-

membrane
-

• rod shaped / sausage shaped

&

Folded
↑

&
-

• Inner folded membrane ( CRISTAE)

&

forming
&

Y ↑

ATP synthase cristae

↑
&
T

Outer membrane
-

A) folded membrane to increase the surface area to carry

more of ATP synthase ..for aerobic respiration to produce ·
Matrix
ATP
Inter membrane space
B) more selective barrier …selective barrier ..control
precisely which ions and molecules enter the matrix .

• outer membrane ..more permeable

• Matrix ..interior solution with 70 S ribosomes and loop
of DNA …allow mitochondria to replicate on its own
( self replicate ) and synthesis of proteins like some
respiratory enzymes ( ATP synthase )
Function :
1. Aerobic respiration to produce ATP
2. Involved in lipid synthesis
 EM

Nuclear envelope
RER
-

Mitochondrion
--
u
~
Nucleus
- Vesicle Mitochondrion
Nucleolus -
-
-
ER
-

Golgi body
Nucleus
Vesicles
4/11/2024
Part 3
Cell structure

Classwork :
1. Describe structure of nucleus and its function
2. Describe structure of centrioles and its function
3. Describe structure of chloroplast and its function
4. Describe structure of plasmodesmata and its function
5. Describe structure of vacuole and its function
6 . Nucleus Nuclear pores
Chromatin

1. Largest cell organelle 12-16 um

2. Double membrane bound organelle
3. Outer membrane is attached to RER with 80 S ribosomes
4. Nuclear envelop has nuclear pores
D
·

Nucleolus
5. Contain nucleolus and chromatin

Function :

1. Contains chromatin ( DNA ) carry genes coding for polypeptide ( proteins ) ,

responsible for cell activities , cell division , and inheritance
2. Nuclear DNA contains specific genetic codes , code for protein synthesis and
production of mRNA
3. Contain nucleolus for the synthesis of rRNA and combine with protein to form
ribosomal subunits .
4. Protect DNA from enzymes .
Structure of microtubules

1. They are long , rigid hollow tube found in cytoplasm

2. Diameter 25 nm
3. They are made from proteins called tubulin
Which has two forms. aTubulin and. BTubulin

Combine together to form dimer

Dimers join end to end to form a protofilament

13 protofilament line up along side each other in a ring to

form a cylinder called microtubule.

7. Centrioles

1. Non membrane bound organelle

2. found in animal cells but not in plant cells
3. formed from nine groups of microtubules, each group is triplets
4. 2 centrioles lie close together at right angle to ane another
5. Region where they are found near the nucleus is called
CENTROSOME
Function of centriole :

1. Act as a MTOC ( microtubule organising center ) ..( organise microtubules )

2. Repliacte after each division , where they move towards the poles of the cell
3. Forming spindle fibres
4. Where the spindle fibres attach to the chromosomes during mitosis / meiosis / nuclear divison
( ignore cell division )
5. Modified centrioles are found in cilia and flagellum for beating movement .

8. Cilia and flagella Single ….cilium

Single …flagellum
1. They are whip like beating extensions of many eukaryotic cells
2. Each cilium and flagellum is surrounded by extension of the cell surface membrane.
3. Cilia and flagella have identical structure , but cilia are short and numerous
Where for the flagella are long and found one or two per cell
 Structure of cilium

Axoneme

5. The whole cylindrical structure inside the

1. Structure is surrounded by extension of cell membrane cell membrane is called axoneme .
2. Structure is reffered as 9+ 2 structure
A) 2 …has two central microtubules 6. The base of each cilia there is a structure
B) 9 …ring of nine microtubule doublets ( MTDs) called basal body which is identical to the
structure of centrioles ( which has the ability
3. Each MTD contain A and B microtubule to replicate on its own to produce more basal
A microtubule is complete ring of 13 protofilament
body then cilia and flagella grow from these
B microtubule is incomplete ring of only 10 protofilament
basal bodies _

4. Each A microtubule has inner and outer arms

Made from proteins called dynein ..to connect with B microtubule of the neighbouring MTD
during beating
 Recap

Microtubule

Alpha and beta tubulin ……….dimer

Dimer ………..protofilament Axoneme
13 protofilament ……..microtubule
+ cell membrane

Centrioles Cilia / flagellum

Nine microtubule triplets
Nine microtubule doublets + 2 central microtubule
MTOC
Replicate and move towards poles of cell A microtubule B microtubule
Spindle fibres 13 protofilament 10 protofilament

Attach chromosomes

2 centrioles found at right angle to one another , next to nucleus

Centrosome
Outer Inner arms

Dyenin
To connect to B microtubule of the neighboring MTDs
during beating action
Beating mechanism

The beating motion of cilia and flagellum is caused by dynein ( protein) arms
Which allows contact with neighbouring microtubule doublets ( MTDs) .
This produce a force needed for the cilia to beat

Function:

1. Single celled organisms use the beating action of cilia and flagella for locomotion
2. In vertebrates , beating cilia are found on some epithelial cells , such as those lining the
airways to maintain the flow of mucus which moves debris such as dust and bacteria from
respiratory tract .

9. Microvilli

M
Microvilli (singular: microvillus) are finger-like extensions of the cell surface membrane. They are typical of
certain animal cells, such as epithelial cells. Epithelial cells cover the surfaces of structures. The microvilli
greatly increase the surface area of the cell surface membrane. This is useful, for example, for reabsorption in
the proximal convoluted tubules of the kidney and for absorption of digested food into cells lining the gut.
Plant cell
 Chloroplast

Function : S

Site of photosynthesis
&

&

• double membrane bound organelle Thylakoid

-

• 4-10 um
•
•
thylakoids : disc shaped cavity contains chlorophyll and enzymes
granum : stacks of thylakoids
⑤ -
Inter granal
lamella

• Stroma : interior fluid containing loop of DNA and 70S

-

Stroma
ribosomes and starch grains and enzymes Granum
Loop of DNA
70S ribosomes

Plasmodesmata

Cytoplasmic bridge between cells

Allow movement of substances by symplast pathway
 Vacuole

Single membrane bound organelle '

Membrane called tonoplast
Contain sap solution
Function : …turgidity, support, store waste products to be sent
later out of cell, allow osmosis

70 s ,….prokaryotes / mitochondria, chloroplast ( smaller in size )

Size of organelles 80S ..RER , cytoplasm ( larger in size )

Nucleus ………chloroplast …….mitochondrion……nucleolus …………..lysosomes …….centrioles ………ribosomes

Double membrane bound organelle

Single Nucleus
Non membrane Chloroplast
Mitochondrion
Can be seen by LM without details
6/ 11/ 2024
Part 4

Endosymbiont theory
Function of cytoskeleton
Practice

Class work :
1. State the endosymbiont theory
2. explain the function of cytoskeleton
3. Compoare between the primary and secondary And cell wall.
4. Explain different functions of vacuole
5. Compare between pits and plasmodesmata
6. Explain the function of cell wall
 Endosymbiont theory

Prokaryotes
Mitochondria 70 s ribosomes + loop of DNA
Chloroplast
Mitochondria and chloroplast were thought to be originally a prokaryotic cell …….engulfed by
eukaryotic cell …..thats why they have the 70S ribosomes and circular DNA molecule
A) mitochondria result from endocytosis of aerobic bacteria
B) chloroplast result from engulf of photosynthestic bacteria
 Cytoskeleton

• it’s a network of protein filaments and microtubules

• In Cytoplasm
• That controls the cell shape and maintain the intracellular( inside
the cell) oragnsization
• Involved in cell movement
• involved in cell support
• Involved in movement of cilia and flagellum
• Involved in changing the shape of the cell needed in cytokinesis
and phagocytosis
• Allow cell organelles like ER to be held in place
• Allows the movement of chromosomes during mitosis
• Allow the movement of mRNA
• Allow the movement of vesicles
 Middle lamella with pectin
Primary cell wall
Cell wall structure stick cell wall of adjacent cells
together
Secondary cell wall

Cell membrane

Primary cell wall

1. Cellulose molecules lie // to each other joined by

intermolecular hydrogen bonds
Forming cross linkage
Forming sheets of microfibrils
Criss cross together to give high tensile strength

2. Microfibrils embedded in matrix which has pectin , that act as

glue like material , hold the microfibrils and prevent them from
sliding against each other
2. secondary cell wall Found in sclerenchyma and xylem vessels

More rigid , thicker , provide higher tensile strength and

support
Lignin add compressional strength to tensile strength .
Thats how it support shrubs and trees .

Formed of cellulose microfibrils + embedded inside a matrix of pectin

and hemicellulose + lignin
Cellulose microfibrils arranged // to each other but form layers forming
a cross ply structure which is stronger .

Primary cell wall Secondary cell wall

• thicker
• Thinner
• In only mature and non dividing cells (Xylem vessels and
• present in all plant cells
sclerenchyma )
• Cellulose microfibrils arranged in
• Cellulose microfibrils arranged // to each other but form
criss cross dispersed pattern
layers forming a cross ply structure which is stronger .
• more hemicellulose present to provide flexibility
• Less hemicellulose present
• Has no pits
• Has pits
• Less rigid
• More rigid
• Inner to middle lamella • Inner to primary cell wall
Function of the cell wall

1. Mechanical strength and support for individual cells and the plant as a whole.
Lignification is one means of support.
Turgid tissues are another means of support that is dependent on strong cell walls.

2. Cell walls prevent cells from bursting by osmosis if cells are surrounded by a solution with a higher water potential
(Chapter 2).
3. Different orientations of the layers of cellulose fibres help determine the shapes of cells as they grow.

4. Cell wall provides an apoplastic pathway for water and minerals .

5• Living connections through neighbouring cell walls, the plasmodesmata, ( cytoplamic extensions formed as bridge in
cell wall ) help form another transport pathway through the plant known as the symplast (Chapter 7).

6• The cell walls of the root endodermis are impregnated with suberin, a waterproof substance that forms a barrier to
the movement of water, thus helping in the control of water and mineral ion uptake by the plant (Chapter 7).

8•Epidermal cells often have a waterproof layer of waxy cutin, the cuticle, on their outer walls. This helps reduce water
loss by evaporation.
Vacuole Single membrane bound organelle
Membrane called tonoplast
Contain sap solution
Function : …turgidity, support, store waste products to be sent
later out of cell, allow osmosis

1. Support
Concentrated vacuole ..lower water potential …water enter by osmosis …turgor pressure .

2. Lysosomal activity
Plant vacuoles Contain hydrolyases ..actining as lysosomes

3. Contain secondary metabolites …not directly needed for growth

Play a role in the survival of plant
A) tannins / alkaloids ….prevent herbivores from eating plant .
B) latex ( milky fluid ) ..accumulate in vacuole , in opium poppy ( heroin ) contains alkaloids such as morphine from
which heroin is obtained
C) anthocyanin are pigments responsible for the color of flowers and fruits ..to attract pollinators .

4. Food reserves / storage such as sucrose in sugar beet

Protein stored in vacuoles of seeds .
Waste products
Waste products, such as crystals of calcium oxalate, may be stored in vacuoles.
Growth in size
Osmotic uptake of water into the vacuole is responsible for most of the increase in volume of plant cells during
growth. The vacuole occupies up to a third of the total cell volume.

Pits Plasmodesmata

1. Cytoplasmic extension / bridge in cell wall between

cells
2. Pores in cell wall between adjacent cells with
Allow water to move
cytoplasm running through plasmodesmata
between xylem vessels
3. Lined with cell membrane
No secondary cell but has
4. Allow movement of water and molecules by symplast
primary cell wall
pathway ( living pathway offering resistance )
 Summary of key points in topic 1

1. Definitions of magnifification and resolution

2. How to calculate the specimen
3. Size of organelles in paper 1
4. Describe the structure of the following organelles ..RER / SER / Golgi body

RER..flattened sacs called cisternae , with connection between membrane ,

attached to RER are ribosomes
Attached to the outer membrane of the nuclear envelop / nucleus
Single membrane
Site of production of proteins

SER ..tubular sacs called cisternae , with no ribosomes attached

Single membrane
Site of production of lipids / steroids / cholesterol

Golgi body …flattened sacs called cisternae , without connect between the
membrane , vesicle at end of sacs
Single membrane
Without ribosomes attached to the sacs

5. Endocytosis vs exocytosis

Exocytosis

Vesicle move towards the cell surface membrane

By the help of cytoskeleton
Fuse with cell surface membrane
Release its content out of the cell
Using energy from ATP
Endocytosis
-phagocytosis
1. Bacteria bind to the cell surface membrae ( receptors )
2.Membrane engulf the bacteria
3. Cell surface membrane enfold around the bacteria
• form a vesicle ( phagosome )
• Lysosomes fuse with phagosome
• Digest the bacteria by hydrolytic enzymes
6. Proteins made in ribosome reach cell surface membrane :

1. Protein synthesis takes place in the ribosomes which is attached to

RER
2. Protein enter cisternal space of RER …for modification
3. Transport vesicles bud off the RER
4. Vesicles move and fuse ( with Cis face ) with golgi body
5. Followed by another modification such as glycosylation ( adding of
carbohydrate part to protein ) or folding into a specific 3D shape .
6. Packaging of modified protein into a Golgi vesicle ..then bud off the
trans face
7. Move towards the cell surface membrane ( move by cytoskeleton ) and
fuse with cell surafce membrane
8. And empty its content by exocytosis using energy from ATP

7. Function and importance of cell organelles :

• RER
• SER
• Golgi body
• Lysoosmes ( remember to give example to hydrolytic enzymes such as
protease / lipase)
• Nucleus
• Centrioles …MTOC ….spindle fibres ..attach to chromosomes..
• Microvilli
7. Lm vs EM

Greater magnification
Gives more detailed image with higher resolution
Use electron beams
Resolution is 0.5 nm vs LM has 200 nm resolution EM
So better able to distinguish between two points as separate
So we can see more details
Give example such as ribosomes

• Smaller magnification

I
• Lower resolution 200 nm vs EM 0.5 nm
• 1. The organelle might be too small to
interfere with light
. So if the distance between the two points is LM
less than 200nm, the ability to distinguish
between the two points as separate is not high
enough .

Attach a sheet of all cell organelle sizes

Break
 Biology 9700 AS Paper 2 Cell Structure

34

4 Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a unicellular fungus that is important in the brewing and baking
industries.

Fig. 4.1 is a diagram of a transmission electron micrograph of S. cerevisiae.

glycogen lysosome
granule
vacuole

cell wall
lipid

r
droplet

ab
nucleus
cell surface
membrane

30 mm

lG Fig. 4.1

(a) A student was asked to calculate the magnification of the image shown in Fig. 4.1.
1 μm
iha
The student began by measuring the length of the scale bar in millimetres using a
millimetre ruler.

State what the student should do next to obtain the correct answer.

Convert the measured length from mm into um

...................................................................................................................................................

By multiplying the measurement by 1000

.N

...................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. [1]

(b) One function of the lipid droplets shown in Fig. 4.1 is to store triglycerides.

The triglycerides in a lipid droplet are surrounded by a single layer (monolayer) of

Dr

phospholipids.
Linked to
cell
Suggest and explain why phospholipids, rather than triglycerides, are used for the outer
membrane monolayer of the lipid droplet.

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. [2]

Dr. Nihal Gabr 48

 Biology 9700 AS Paper 2 Cell Structure

35

6 (a) Fig. 6.1 shows Vorticella, which is a single-celled organism that lives in freshwater. Vorticella
has many cilia which it uses for feeding.

r
ab
Fig. 6.1

The distance shown by X–Y on Fig. 6.1 is 150 μm.

lG
Calculate the magnification of Fig. 6.1.

State the formula that you will use and show your working.

Write your answer to the nearest whole number.

iha
formula
Image length
Actual length
.N

.......................................................... [3]
Dr

Dr. Nihal Gabr 49

 Biology 9700 AS Paper 2 Cell Structure

(b) The food particles are taken into the gullet by a current of water created by movement of cilia.

Any particles suspended in the water, such as bacteria, are taken into the cell as shown in
Fig. 6.2.
Exocytosis …removal of bulk out of the cell
Endocytosis ..taking in of a bulk into cell Endocytosis

Exocytosis infolding of cell

-phagocytosis
1. Bacteria bind to the cell surface
surface membrane
Vesicle move towards the cell surface membrane membrae ( receptors )
Z 2. Membrane engulf the bacteria

r
By the help of cytoskeleton lysosome 3. Cell surface membrane enfold
around the bacteria
Fuse with cell surface membrane

ab
• form a vesicle ( phagosome )
Release its content out of the cell • Lysosomes fuse with
phagosome
Using energy from ATP • Digest the bacteria by hydrolytic
enzymes

(i)
lG Fig. 6.2
Phagocytosis
State the name of the process which takes the bacteria into the cell at Z and describe
the way in which it occurs.

Endocytosis / phagocytosis
iha
name .................................................................................................................................

description .........................................................................................................................

Bacteria bind to the receptors ion the cell surface membrane

...........................................................................................................................................

Membrane engulf the bacteria ‘

...........................................................................................................................................
.N

By enfolding around the bacteria and forming phagosome

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................
[3]
Dr

(ii) Describe the role of lysosomes in intracellular digestion in Vorticella.

...........................................................................................................................................

Lysosomes fuse with phagosome

...........................................................................................................................................

They contain hydrolytic enzymes

...........................................................................................................................................

Such as protease and lipase to break down bacteria

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [3]

[Total: 9]

Dr. Nihal Gabr 50

 Biology 9700 AS Paper 2 Cell Structure

36

1 Fig. 1.1 is a transmission electron micrograph of cells from duckweed, Spirodela oligorrhiza.
B Nucleolus

Nuclear
envelop /
A Chloroplast
nucleus X
C

r
ab
E D
Cell wall Cytoplasm

lG Fig. 1.1
magnification ×4275
iha
(a) Calculate the actual width of the cell labelled X.

Write down the formula you will use to make your calculation.

Show your working and give your answer in micrometres to one decimal place.

formula
.N

.................................................... μm [3]
Dr

Dr. Nihal Gabr 51

Biology 9700 AS Paper 2 Cell Structure

(b) (i) Table 1.1 lists some biological molecules found in plant cells.

Complete Table 1.1 by choosing one letter from Fig. 1.1 that indicates a cell structure
where each biological molecule is found.

Table 1.1

biological molecule letter from Fig. 1.1

DNA A/ C
cellulose E
phospholipid A/ C

r
histone proteins A/ B

ab
[4]

(ii) State the name of a cell structure, visible in Fig. 1.1, where ATP is synthesised.

Mitochondrion / chloroplast
..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(iii)
lG
Name a cell structure that produces mRNA.

Nucleus
.....................................................................................................................................

(c) Describe the evidence from Fig. 1.1 that shows that the image is a transmission electron
micrograph.
[1]
iha
Greater magnification
...................................................................................................................................................
Gives more detailed image with higher resolution
...................................................................................................................................................
Use electron beams
...................................................................................................................................................
Resolution is 0.5 nm vs LM has 200 nm resolution
So better able to distinguish between two points as separate
...................................................................................................................................................
.N

So we can see more details

...................................................................................................................................................

Give example internal structure of chloroplast including grana / thylakoids

...................................................................................................................................................
Provides a 2D image
............................................................................................................................................. [2]
Dr

[Total: 11]
Grana ..plural

Dr. Nihal Gabr 52

 Biology 9700 AS Paper 2 Cell Structure

37

6 Lysosomes are cell structures that contain enzymes known as acid hydrolases.
Fig. 6.1 shows some processes that occur in animal cells.

Lysosomes
bacterium C Hydrolytic enzymes
Autophagy
Worn out organelle
Phagocytosis
Autolysis

r
D

ab
B

lG E

F
lysosome

Transport vesicle
iha
A
not to scale

Fig. 6.1
.N

(a) Name the cell structures labelled A and E.

A ...............................................................................................................................................

E ...............................................................................................................................................
[2]
Dr

(b) State the function of the structures labelled F.

Transport proteins from RER to Golgi body

...................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. [1]

(c) Name the process by which bacteria are taken into the cell at C.

Phagocytosis / endocytosis
............................................................................................................................................. [1]

Dr. Nihal Gabr 53

Biology 9700 AS Paper 2 Cell Structure

Explain
(d) With reference to the processes occurring at B and at D in Fig. 6.1, outline the role of acid
hydrolases in lysosomes.

Acid hydrolase is an hydrolytic enzyme

...................................................................................................................................................

Break down to bacteria

...................................................................................................................................................

Break down of worn out cell organelle by autophagy

...................................................................................................................................................

Where the bacteria , cell organelle contains the substrate for this enzyme
...................................................................................................................................................

such as polysaccharides , proteins , lipids

...................................................................................................................................................

r
...................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. [3]

ab
(e) Carrier proteins in the membranes of lysosomes maintain a lower pH than the surrounding
cytoplasm by moving hydrogen ions.
Cell membrane
Suggest how the carrier proteins maintain the lower pH within the lysosomes.

lG
...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................
iha
...................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. [2]

[Total: 9]
.N
Dr

Dr. Nihal Gabr 54

 Biology 9700 AS Paper 2 Cell Structure

38

1 The Golgi body, rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
form part of the internal membrane system of a cell. The membranes have a fluid mosaic structure.

Fig. 1.1 is a transmission electron micrograph of one area of a liver cell showing a region with
RER and a region with SER. Mitochondria are also visible in the image.

r
ab
mitochondria

lG Fig. 1.1

(a) Describe the differences in structure and function between RER and SER.

Structure :
...................................................................................................................................................

RER has flattened sacs vs the SER has tubular sacs

iha
...................................................................................................................................................

RER has ribosomes attached to it , SER has no ribosomes attached

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

Function :
...................................................................................................................................................
.N

RER is site of protein synthesis , to produce proteins

...................................................................................................................................................
SER is site of lipid synthesis such as steroids / cholesterol
...................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. [3]
Dr

(b) Phospholipids are one of the main components of membranes.

Describe the structure of a phospholipid molecule.

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. [2]

Dr. Nihal Gabr 55

 Biology 9700 AS Paper 2 Cell Structure

(c) One function of a Golgi body is to package molecules into Golgi vesicles.

(i) A Golgi body and Golgi vesicles are not visible in Fig. 1.1.
Describe structure of Golgi body
Describe the features, other than the presence of Golgi vesicles, that would help you
identify a Golgi body in a transmission electron micrograph of another area of the same
liver cell.

Flattened sacs
...........................................................................................................................................

With no connection between membrane of cisternae

...........................................................................................................................................

No ribosomes
...........................................................................................................................................

r
Single membrane
...........................................................................................................................................

cytoskeleten

ab
..................................................................................................................................... [2]

(ii) Some Golgi vesicles contain secretory proteins for release from the cell.
·

Describe the sequence of events that occurs following the packaging of a secretory

· um

Vesicle
Then
By the
lG
protein into a Golgi vesicle to its release from the cell.

bud off the grans face of Golgi body

...........................................................................................................................................

move across the cytoplasm towards the cell surface membrane

...........................................................................................................................................

help of the cytoskeleton

...........................................................................................................................................
iha
Vesicle fuse with cell surface membrane
...........................................................................................................................................

Release its content out of the cell by exocytosis

..................................................................................................................................... [3]

(iii) Some Golgi vesicles contain glycoproteins or glycolipids to be added to the cell surface
membrane.
.N

Outline the role of glycolipids in the cell surface membrane.

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................
Dr

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

[Total: 11]

Dr. Nihal Gabr 56

 Biology 9700 AS Paper 2 Cell Structure

39

1 (a) Fig. 1.1 is a transmission electron micrograph of cells from the leaf of a plant.

r
ab
Z

lG Fig. 1.1

(i) Name the cell structures X, Y, and Z.

iha
Nucleus
X ......................................................................................................................................

Chloroplast
Y ......................................................................................................................................

Vacuole
Z ......................................................................................................................................
[3]
.N

(ii) State two ways in which the structure of an animal cell differs from plant cells such as
those shown in Fig. 1.1.

1 ........................................................................................................................................
Animal cell has no large permanent vacuole
Dr

...........................................................................................................................................
Animal cell has no chloroplast
2 ........................................................................................................................................
Animal cell has no cell wall
...........................................................................................................................................
Animal cell has centrioles [2]

Animal cells have no starch grains

Animal cell has no plasmodesmata

Dr. Nihal Gabr 57

 Biology 9700 AS Paper 2 Cell Structure

41 May / June 2022 Syllabus - 9700 Paper 23

Peptidoglycan / muerin

r
Ribosomes

ab
Vacuole

42

lG
October / November 2022 Syllabus - 9700 Paper 21

i
iha
.N
Dr

Mitochondrion ‘
Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Dr. Nihal Gabr 59

Biology 9700 AS Paper 2 Cell Structure

• Synthesis of lipids / steroid hormones

• enzymes are close together , where the product of one enzyme act as
substrate of the second enzyme

r
• Membrane of SER provides more stability to the enzymes

ab
• Enzymes are supported in membrane a position allowing the active site
to be facing the lumen so more efficient fitting of substrate to active site

lG
Gives more detailed image with higher resolution
Use electron beams
Resolution is 0.5 nm vs LM has 200 nm resolution
So better able to distinguish between two points as separate
So we can see more details
iha
Can see small organelles such as ribosomes
.N

Amylase Maltase
Starch…………..maltose ……….glucose
Dr

Dr. Nihal Gabr 60

 Biology 9700 AS Paper 2 Cell Structure

44 October / November 2022 Syllabus - 9700 Paper 23

r
ab
lG
By phagocytosis
iha
Bacteria bind to the cell surface membrane / receptors

Infolding of the membrane around the bacteria

.N

forming a phagosome
Dr

Dr. Nihal Gabr 64

 Biology 9700 AS Paper 2 Cell Structure

Vesicle containing hydrolytic enzymes

1. release the enzymes outside of the cell such as acrosome
2. Digestion to worn out cell organelles …autophagy
3. Break down bacteria from outside the cell ..phagocytosis
4. complete break down to dead cells ( cells that have died ) …

r
autolysis

ab
45 March 2023

lG Syllabus - 9700 Paper 22

iha
Circular DNA
70 s ribosomes
.N

Prokaryotes
Chloroplast
- x Mitochondrion
Dr

Dr. Nihal Gabr 65