CHAPTER ONE

Understanding Disability and Vulnerability

1.1 Definitions of Basic Terms (Impairment, Disability and Vulnerability)
Disability is not uncommon and it is part of human diversity. It is estimated that 15 % of the
world’s population has a disability, a percentage that is expected to grow because of natural
disasters, car and workplace accidents, poor health care and nutrition early in life, growing
elderly populations, violent civil conflicts and wars.

Among the population of people with disabilities, approximately 80 % live in developing

countries and are disproportionately represented among the poor.
For instance, of the total population of Ethiopia, 17.6% are estimated to live with some sort of
impairment (WHO and World Bank, 2011, p. 272).

Understanding the concept of disability varies between cultures and evolves with in a culture
over time. People are using the two key terms, impairments and disability interchangeably but
there is a visible conceptual distinction between these terms as described below:
1.1.1. Impairment
Impairment is the “purely factual absence of or loss of functioning in a body part.”. It refers to
any loss or abnormality of physiological, psychological or anatomical structure or function. It is
the absence of particular body part or organ. It could also a condition in which the body exists
but doesn‘t function. For instance, some people have impairments such as eyes that do not see
well, arms and legs that are deformed, or a brain not developing in a typical way etc.

Impairment may result in specific activity limitation (disability) based on the degree/ severity,
type and onset of the impairment. This means only a severe impairment may lead to a disability.

1.1.2 Disability
Disability is not uncommon and it is part of human diversity. However, the term disability is
ambiguous as there is no single agreement on the concept (Mitra, 2006) . It is not synonymous
with AKAL-GUDATENGA.

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Q- What is disability?
Disability is complex, dynamic, multidimensional, and contested. The people with disabilities’’
movement together with World report on disability and numerous researchers from the social
and health sciences have identified the role of social and physical barriers in disability.

There are two models of disability used to understand disability. These are: (1) The Medical
Model and (2) The Social model. The medical model and the social model are often presented as
dichotomous, but disability should be viewed neither as purely medical nor as purely social:
persons with disabilities can often experience problems arising from their health condition.
Hence, a balanced approach is needed, giving appropriate weight to the different aspects of
disability

1. Medical Approach in Defining Disability

According to medical model, disability is pathology or illness that required to be treated by
medical professionals. The major goal is to restore function, to cure or treat
impairment/disability. The medical model views disability as individual (medical) problem. The
following definitions of disability provided by World Health Organization (WHO) in different
times are presented below:

1. WHO (1980, p.143) defined disability as “any restriction or lack of ability to perform an
activity in the manner or within the range considered to be normal for a human being……
Disabilities may arise as a direct consequence of impairment or as a response to the
impairment”
This definition focused on the deviation from the “normal”, emphasizing on the inability. It also
suggests that the restriction or the inability result from an impairment (abnormality or loss of
function of physiological, biological, anatomical structure)

2. WHO (1996) disability means “functional limitations due to physical, intellectual or psychic
impairment, health or psychic disorders on a person (WHO, 1996).
The medical definition has given rise to the idea that people are individual objects to be
―treated, ―changed" or ―improved" and made more ―normal. The medical definition views
the disabled person as needing to ―fit in rather than thinking about how society itself should

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change. This medical definition does not adequately explain the interaction between societal
conditions or expectations and unique circumstances of an individual. Thus, this definition is
against the currently prevalent social model of disability.

3. A more recent definition of WHO reflects a better way of defining disability. WHO (2006)
definition on disability is: disability a “generic term that includes in body functions and
structures, activity limitation and participation restriction, it indicates the negative aspects of
the interaction between an individual (with a “health condition”) and his context
(environmental and personal factors)”

The definitions provided by WHO in 1980 and 1996, only say about health conditions but the
definition of WHO (2006) also include environmental conditions and the individual interaction
with society in to account. The World Health Organization currently defines “Disability” as the
umbrella term for impairments, activity limitations and participation restrictions. This definition
stresses that disability results from the interaction between persons with impairments and
attitudinal and environmental barriers that hinder their full and effective participation in society
on an equal basis with others. Defining disability as an interaction means that “disability” is not
an attribute of the person. Progress on improving social participation can be made by
addressing the barriers which hinder persons with disabilities in their day to day lives.

The transition from an individual, medical perspective to a structural, social perspective has been
described as the shift from a “medical model” to a “social model” in which people are viewed as
being disabled by society rather than by their bodies.

2. Social Model of Disability

The social model sees disability as a social construct. Persons with disabilities themselves
suggested that disability is caused by the barriers that created by the society and the way the
society treat them and exclude them from participation. The social model suggests that disability
abundantly caused by barriers in the society; it is the product of the physical, organizational and
attitudinal barriers present within society which lead to discrimination and exclusion. Disability
largely depends on the context and is a consequence of discrimination, prejudice and exclusion.

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It emphasizes the shortcomings in the environment and in many organized activities in society,
for example on information, communication and education, which prevent persons with
disabilities from participating on equal terms.

According to United nation Convention for the Right of Persons with Disabilities
(UNCRPD), disability defined as “ the interaction between persons with impairments and
attitudinal and environmental barriers that hinders their full and effective participation in a
society on an equal basis with others” (UNCRPD, 2006).

This definition views disability as a negative reaction of people towards persons with
impairments that results in “participation restriction.”. Disability, as a concept is referred: as an
umbrella term that include impairment, activity limitation and participation restriction. The
social model of disability promotes integration and inclusion (Oliver, 1996).

Article 1 of the CRPD describes persons with disabilities as “those who have long-term
physical, mental, intellectual, or sensory impairments which in interaction with various
barriers may hinder their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with
others.”

1.1.3 Vulnerability

The term vulnerability refers to state of being exposed to the possibility of being attacked or
harmed, either physically or emotionally. Accordingly, vulnerable groups belong to the people
who are physically and emotionally hurt and attacked as a result of various forms of social
injustice and malpractices.
Vulnerable means being at risk of being harmed. Everyone can be harmed, so being vulnerable
is part of being human. In principle, everyone is vulnerable to some adverse event or
circumstance, but some people are more vulnerable than others. For instance, people with
disabilities are more likely as a group to experience greater vulnerability. They are also often
more severely affected by the vulnerability they experience.
Based on the existing literature, vulnerability can be generally defined as a complex
phenomenon that refers to the following dimensions:

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 1. Economic difficulties/lack of financial resources: poverty, low living standards,
housing problems (e.g. too damp, too expensive, too cold or difficult to heat) etc.;
2. Social exclusion: limited access to facilities such as transportation, schools, libraries or
medical services;
3. Lack of social support from social networks: no assistance from family members,
friends, neighbors or colleagues (referring to practical help as well as emotional support)
like highly gifted individuals;
4. Stigmatization: being a victim of stereotypes, being devalued, and confronted with
disgraceful behavior because of belonging to a particular social or ethnic group;
5. Health difficulties: disadvantages resulting from poor mental health, physical health or
disabilities;
6. Being a victim of crime: in family context especially of violence.

Vulnerability is classified into four categories as described below:

1.Physical Vulnerability:
• The physical vulnerability of an area also depends on its geographic proximity to the
source and origin of the disasters e.g. if an area lies near the coast lines, fault lines,
unstable hills, war zones etc.
2. Economic Vulnerability:
• Economic vulnerability of a community can be assessed by determining
I. How sufficient and varied its sources of income are?,
II. The ease of access and control over means of production (e.g. farmland, livestock,
irrigation, capital etc.),
III. Adequacy of economic fall back mechanisms and the availability of natural
resources in the area.
3. Social Vulnerability:
• A socially vulnerable community has
I. Weak family structures (broken family due to death of parents, single parents,
teenage parents, no family and relatives)
II. Lack of leadership for decision making and conflict resolution, unequal
participation in decision making, weak or no community organizations, and

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 III. Discrimination based on racial, ethnic, linguistic or religious basis.
4. Attitudinal Vulnerability:
• A community which has negative attitude towards change and lacks initiative in life
resultantly become more and more dependent on external support.
• This brings about disunity and individualism in the society. Thus, they become victims of
conflicts, hopelessness and pessimism which reduce their capacity of coping with a
disaster.

1.2. Causes of Disability and Vulnerability

1.2.1 Causes of Disability
The issue of disability/impairment is not yet being scientifically understood and treated by the
society particularly in the low-income countries including Ethiopia. As a result, the cause of
impairment is not appropriately comprehended due to the reason that people still believe that
impairment is caused by curse, sin and wrath of God.

However, even though some causes of impairment are unknown, scientific research conducted
on the issue confirmed that the cause of impairment is classified into 2 major categories as
described hereunder:

1.2.1.1 Biological
• Under this category of the cause of impairment, genetically induced factors are
commonly known reasons Genetic Abnormalities
• These include:
- Abnormalities in genes and genetic inheritance that may cause intellectual
disability, down syndrome and other multiple impairments on children.
- Sometimes, diseases, illnesses, and over-exposure to x-rays can cause a genetic
disorder.
- Pre-term and underweight birth also may result in different forms of impairment.

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 1.2.1.2. Environmental
• The adverse effect of poverty and starvation such malnutrition, lack of access to health
care and treatment etc. may cause impairment to the child during pre- and- postnatal
period.
• The use of drugs, alcohol, tobacco, the exposure to certain toxic chemicals and illnesses,
toxoplasmosis, cytomegalovirus, rubella and syphilis by a pregnant mother can cause
intellectual and other types of disability to the child.
• Childhood diseases such as a whooping cough, measles, and chicken pox may lead to
meningitis and encephalitis. This can cause damage to the brain of the child. Toxic
material such as lead and mercury can damage the brain too.
• Unfortunate life accident such as drowning, car accidents, falls, landmines, war, etc. can
result in people losing their sight, hearing, limbs and other vital parts of their body.

1.2.2 Cause of Vulnerability

Vulnerability may be causes by rapid population growth, poverty and hunger, poor health, low
levels of education, gender inequality, fragile and hazardous location, and lack of access to
resources and services, including knowledge and technological means, disintegration of social
patterns (social vulnerability). Other causes includes; lack of access to information and
knowledge, lack of public awareness, limited access to political power and representation
(political vulnerability), (Aysan,1993).

When people are socially disadvantaged or lack political voice, their vulnerability is exacerbated
further. The economic vulnerability is related to a number of interacting elements, including its
importance in the overall national economy, trade and foreign-exchange earnings, aid and
investments, international prices of commodities and inputs, and production and consumption
patterns. Environmental vulnerability concerns land degradation, earthquake, flood, hurricane,
drought, storms (Monsoon rain, El Niño), water scarcity, deforestation, and the other threats to
biodiversity.

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Common Characteristics of Vulnerable People
The following features depict the common characteristics of vulnerable people (with examples of
groups of potentially vulnerable people):
1. Less physically or mentally capable (infants, older adults, people with disabilities)
2. Fewer material and/or financial resources (low-income households, homeless)
3. Less knowledge or experience (children, illiterate, foreigners, tourists)
4. Restricted by society to grow and develop according to their needs and potentials

1.3 Types of Vulnerabilities and Disabilities

Q-Who are vulnerable groups
1.3.1 Types of Vulnerable Groups
A. Women: particularly women in developing nations and those who are living in rural areas are
vulnerable for many backward traditional practices. These women are oppressed by the culture and
do not get access to education and employment
B. Children: Significant number of children are vulnerable and at risk for development. Children are
vulnerable for psychological and physical abuse .This include illegally working children, children
who are pregnant or become mothers, children born out of marriage, children from a single-parent,
delinquent children, homeless children, HIV-infected children, uneducated children, institutionalized
children, married children, mentally ill children, migrant children, orphans, sexually exploited
children, street children, war-affected children…etc.
C. Minorities: some people are vulnerable due to their minority background. Particularly, ethnic
(cultural and linguistic minority), religious minority. These people are political and socially
discriminated.
D. Poor people (Poverty): People are vulnerable for many undesirable phenomena due to poverty.
This may be resulted in, poor households and large households, inequality, absences of access to
health services, important resources for life, lack of access to education, information, financial and
natural resources and lack of social networks (Morrow, 1999; McEntire et al., 2002;
E. People with Disabilities: People with disabilities very much vulnerable for many kind of risks.
This includes abuses, poverty, illiteracy, health problems, psychological and social problems
(Comfort et al., 1999; McEntire et al., 2002)
F. Old People (Age): Old people or very young children are vulnerable for all kinds’ evils (Comfort
et al., 1999; Morrow, 1999;

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G. Illiterate People (Illiteracy and less education: People with high rates of illiteracy and lack
quality educational opportunities are vulnerable for absence all kinds of developments
H. Sickness: Uncured health problems for example people living with HIV/AIDS are much
vulnerable for psychosocial problems, poverty and health
I. Gifted and Talented Children (Gifted and Talentedness): Gifted and talented children are
vulnerable for socio-emotional developments. Due to lack of psychological support they may feel
isolation as they are pulled from their regular classrooms and given instruction in separate settings
and due to myths and expectations of themselves and the public (Shechtman & Silektor, 2012, p. 63;
Schuler, 2000).

1.3.2 Types of Disabilities

Regardless of the existence of a number of types of impairments, the commonly known and
major kinds of impairments are listed below.
1. Visual impairment: including blindness means impairment in vision that, even with
correction, adversely affects a child’s educational performance. The term includes both
partial sight and blindness.
2. Hearing Impairment (Generic terminology for deafness and hard of hearing) means an
impairment in hearing, whether permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a child’s
educational performance
3. Deaf-blindness means concomitant hearing and visual impairments, the combination of which
causes such severe communication and other developmental and educational needs that they
cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for children with deafness or
children with blindness.
Deafness means a hearing impairment that is so severe that the child is impaired in
processing linguistic information through hearing, with or without amplification that
adversely affects a child’s educational performance.
4. Specific Learning Disability (Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, Dyscalculia) The term means a disorder
in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using
language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think,
speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations, including conditions such as
perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental
aphasia.
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5. Speech and Language Impairments including fluency disorder. means a communication
disorder, such as stuttering, impaired articulation, a language impairment, or a voice
impairment, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance.
6. Autism means a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal
communication and social interaction, generally evident before age 3, that adversely affects
a child’s educational performance. Other characteristics often associated with autism are
engagement in repetitive activities and stereotyped movements, resistance to environmental
change or change in daily routines, and unusual responses to sensory experiences. The term
does not apply if a child’s educational performance is adversely affected primarily because
the child has an emotional disturbance as defined below.
7. Emotional and Behavioral Disorders is defined as follows:
i. The term means a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a
long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a child’s educational
performance:
A. An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors.
B. An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and
teachers.
C. Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances.
D. A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.
E. A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school
problems.
ii. The term includes schizophrenia. The term does not apply to children who are socially
maladjusted, unless it is determined that they have an emotional disturbance.
8. Intellectual Disability means significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning,
existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior and manifested during the
developmental period that adversely affects a child’s educational performance.
9. Physical /Orthopedic Impairments means having limited strength, vitality or alertness,
including a heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness
with respect to the educational environment, that I. is due to chronic or acute health
problems such as asthma, attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia,

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 nephritis, rheumatic fever, sickle cell anemia, and Tourette syndrome; and II. adversely
affects a child’s educational performance.
10. Health related Impairments means having limited strength, vitality or alertness, including a
heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with
respect to the educational environment, that
i. is due to chronic or acute health problems such as asthma, attention deficit disorder or
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, hemophilia,
lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, sickle cell anemia, and Tourette
syndrome; and
ii. adversely affects a child’s educational performance.
11. Multiple Impairment: means concomitant impairments (such as mental retardation–
blindness, mental retardation–orthopedic impairment, etc.), the combination of which
causes such severe educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special
education programs solely for one of the impairments. The term does not include deaf-
blindness.
12. Traumatic brain injury means an acquired injury to the brain caused by an external
physical force, resulting in total or partial functional disability or psychosocial
impairment or both, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance. The term
applies to open or closed head injuries resulting in impairments in one or more areas,
such as cognition; language; memory; attention; reasoning; abstract thinking; judgment;
problem- solving; sensory, perceptual, and motor abilities; psychosocial behavior;
physical functions; information processing; and speech. The term does not apply to brain
injuries that are congenital or degenerative, or to brain injuries induced by birth trauma.

SOURCE: Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, 34 C.F.R. Part 300 § 300.8 (C).
August 14, 2006.

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 Group Assignment 1
Form a group which consists of five to six members in a group and study the following major
types of disabilities (visual impairments, hearing impairments, intellectual disabilities, physical
disabilities, health related impairments, autism )
Instruction
1. A group members should not exceed more than six
2. Each group should work on different types of disabilities
3. Each group should focus on the following: Definition; Classification; Major causes,
Characteristics, Intervention and support needed in education and work settings

1.4. Historical background of modalities moving towards inclusion

• In the postindustrial period legislations and litigations created opportunities for children
with disabilities to access education in public schools.
• The following modalities were applied to teach children with disabilities.
1.4.1. Specialized and or residential schools
• These schools were established with an intention to provide educational services in
specialized approach only for children with disabilities.
• Consequently, schools for the deaf, schools for the blind etc. came into being as separate
institutions throughout 19th and 20th century.
1.4.2.Mainstreaming
• In the 1960 and 70s special needs education classes were established in public schools
with an intention to create least restrictive environment for children with disabilities.
1.4.3.Integration
• The approach was introduced and applied in 1970s with an objective to integrating
students with disabilities in general class setting without the change of regular
school/education system.
• In this situation, students with disabilities are required to fit the system.
• This approach is characterized by the following realities:
1. System stays the same;
2. Round pegs for round holes;

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 3. Change the child to fit the system;
4. Make the square peg round;
5. Child must adapt or fail.
Integration

1.4.4.Inclusive Education
• This approach was applied as of the last quarter of 20 th century focusing on regular
education system change to fit the special educational needs of students with disabilities
as discussed in the next section in detail.
• This approach is characterized by the following factors.
- Flexible system;
- Children are different;
- All children can learn: (Different abilities, Ethnic Groups, Size, Age,
Background, Gender, Persons with disabilities);
- Change the system to fit the child.
Inclusive

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1.5. Evolution of the concept of disability
• In order to understand how disability is currently viewed, it is helpful to look at the way
the concept of disability has evolved over time as described below.
1.5.1.Traditional/Charity Model
• Historically, disability was largely understood in mythological or religious terms, e.g.
people with disabilities were considered to be possessed by devils or spirits; disability
was also often seen as a punishment for past wrongdoing.
• These views are still present today in many traditional societies.
PWDs outside of society and society giving to PWDs

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 1.5.2. Individual/Medical Model
• In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, developments in science and medicine helped
to create an understanding that disability has a biological or medical basis, with
impairments in body function and structure being associated with different health
conditions.
• This medical model views disability as a problem of the individual and is primarily
focused on cure and the provision of medical care by professionals.
PWDs outside of society and PWDs should adapt to fit society

1.5.3. Social Model/Human Rights-Based Model

• In the 1960s and 1970s, the individual and medical view of disability was challenged and
a range of social approaches were developed, e.g. the social model of disability.
• These approaches shifted attention away from the medical aspects of disability and
instead focused on the social barriers and discrimination that people with disabilities face.
• Disability was redefined as a societal problem rather than an individual problem and
solutions became focused on removing barriers and social change, not just medical cure.

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 PWD as part of society

Activities
1. Read the following short story and identify the phrase that clearly shows the meaning of
impairment and disability.
Ten-year-old Mesfin’s eyes are damaged = ________________ due to an
eye disease, and he develops difficulties in seeing =
_________________________. His school refuses to take him back as they
don’t have the resources to support a child with visual impairment
=_______________. There are no other schools in his community and
therefore Mesfin cannot go to school = ______________________.

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 CHAPTER TWO
Concept of Inclusion
2.1. Definition of Inclusion
Q: What is inclusion?
The principle of inclusion is simple. It is the opposite of exclusion and also alienation. It is the
principle that says that whatever benefits accrue to members of a society are the heritage of all
people, not just those who are able-bodied. Inclusion means that all people are entitled to full
membership of the human family.

Inclusion in education/service refers to ―an ongoing process aimed at offering quality

education/services for all while respecting diversity and the different needs and abilities,
characteristics and learning expectations of the students and communities and eliminating all
forms of discrimination‖ (UNESCO, 2008, P.3, as cited in EADSNE, 2010, p.11).

Inclusive services at any level are quality provisions without discrimination or partiality and
meeting the diverse needs of people. Inclusion is seen as a process of addressing and responding
to the diversity of needs of all persons through increasing participation in learning, employment,
services, cultures and communities, and reducing exclusion at all social contexts. It involves
changes and modifications in content, approaches, structures and strategies, with a common
vision which covers all people, a conviction that it is the responsibility of the social system to
educate all children (UNESCO 2005), employ and provide social services.

Inclusion is defined as having a wide range of strategies, activities and processes that seek to
make a reality of the universal right to quality, relevant and appropriate education and services.
It acknowledges that learning begins at birth and continues throughout life, and includes
learning in the home, the community, and in formal, informal and non-formal situations. It
seeks to enable communities, systems and structures in all cultures and contexts to combat
discrimination, celebrate diversity, promote participation and overcome barriers to learning and
participation for all people. It is part of a wider strategy promoting inclusive development, with
the goal of creating a world where there is peace, tolerance, and sustainable use of resources,
social justice, and where the basic needs and rights of all are met.

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 Fundamentally, inclusion is the principle that:
- We are all entitled to participate fully in all aspects of society;
- We all have the same rights and responsibilities;
- We all have something to contribute.
It is the principle which demands valued recognition of all people and the entitlement of all
meaningful interaction, involvement and engagement in every part of the complex and
multifaceted societies in which we live.
• Inclusion is the right of the individual and the responsibility of society as a whole.
• Inclusion requires the removal of barriers and social structures which impede
participation. It requires proactive policy making, lateral thinking and on-going
commitment.
Steps/ Processes required in implementing Inclusion
The principle of inclusion accepts disability as human diversity. Inclusion is not a one-time
project, rather it is a process which is ultimately intended to pass through or achieve the
following organically linked steps or processes:
1. Developing Inclusive plan or policy/legal frameworks;
2. Developing Inclusive culture with in communities and institutions; and
3. Evolving inclusive practice.
Strategies for Effective Implementation of Inclusion
There are three dimensions need to be considered for the effective implementation of inclusive
services that accommodate the special needs of persons with disabilities and other vulnerable
groups:
1. Create non-discriminatory attitude within communities towards PWDs and other
vulnerable groups;
2. Develop accessible and or barrier free physical as well as service environments for
equal participation of PWDs and other vulnerable groups in socio-economic
activities;
3. Empower physical and psychosocial capacity of PWDs and other vulnerable groups.
• In accordance with the analysis of WHO regarding environment in reference to disability, it
includes both the physical and service environments as listed briefly below:
- Technology and product

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 - Natural environment and human made change to it
- Social support and relationships
- Attitude
- Policy, system and services
2.2. Principles of Inclusion
The fundamental principle of inclusion is that all persons should learn, work and live together
wherever possible, regardless of any difficulties or differences they may have. Inclusive
education extends beyond special needs arising from disabilities, and includes consideration of
other sources of disadvantage and marginalization, such as gender, poverty, language, ethnicity,
and geographic isolation. Inclusion begins with the premise that all persons have unique
characteristics, interests, abilities and particular learning needs and, further, that all persons
have equal access education, employment and services. Inclusion implies transition from
separate, segregated learning and working environments for persons with disabilities to
community based systems. Moreover, effective transitions from segregated services to inclusive
system requires careful planning and structural changes to ensure that persons with disabilities
are provided with appropriate accommodation and supports that ensure an inclusive learning
and working environment.
In accordance with UNESCO (2005) the following are four major principles of inclusion:
1. Inclusion is a process. It has to be seen as a never-ending search to find better ways of
responding to diversity. It is about learning how to live with difference and learning how to
learn from differences. Differences come to be seen more positively as a stimulus for
fostering learning amongst children and adults.
2. Inclusion is concerned with the identification and removal of barriers that hinders the
development of persons with disabilities. It involves collecting, collating and evaluating
information from a wide variety of sources in order to plan for improvements in policy and
practice. It is about using evidence of various kinds to stimulate creativity and problem
solving.
3. Inclusion is about the presence, participation and achievement of all persons.
‘Presence’ is concerned with where persons are provided and how reliably and punctually
they attend; ‘participation’ relates to the quality of their experiences and must incorporate

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 the views of learners/and or workers and ‘achievement’ is about the outcomes of learning
across the curriculum, not just test and exam results.
4. Inclusion invokes a particular emphasis on those who may be at risk of marginalization,
exclusion or underachievement. This indicates the moral responsibility to ensure that those
‘at risk’ are carefully monitored, and that steps are taken to ensure their presence,
participation and achievement.
5. Inclusion promotes equality and equity. The two dimensions of inclusion are equality and
equity. Equality is equality of equals. Aristotle defined equality as “treating equal people
equally.” Whereas, equality refers to the provision of special support for the ones who were
(are) neglected in the participation of socio-economic activities of the society they live in.

2.3. Rationale for Inclusion

• The following rationales justify why inclusion is needed to be applied as a strategy to
make the participation of PWDs and other vulnerable groups visible in all aspects of life
of the society.
2.3.1. Educational Foundations
- Children do better academically, psychologically and socially in inclusive settings.
- A more efficient use of education resources.
- Decreases dropouts and repetitions.
- Teachers competency (knowledge, skills, collaboration, satisfaction).

2.3.2. Social Foundation

- Segregation teaches individuals to be fearful, ignorant and breeds prejudice.
- All individuals need an education that will help them develop relationships and
prepare them for life in the wider community.
- Only inclusion has the potential to reduce fear and to build friendship, respect and
understanding.
2.3.3. Legal Foundations
- All individuals have the right to learn and live together.
- Human being shouldn’t be devalued or discriminated against by being excluded
or sent away because of their disability.

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 - There are no legitimate reasons to separate children for their education.
2.3.4. Economic Foundation
- Inclusive education has economic benefit, both for individual and for society.
- Inclusive education is more cost-effective than the creation of special schools
across the country.
- Children with disabilities go to local schools.
- Reduce wastage of repetition and dropout.
- Children with disabilities live with their family and use community infrastructure.
- It facilitates better employment and job creation opportunities for people with
disabilities.
2.3.5. Foundations for Building Inclusive Society
- Formation of mutual understanding and appreciation of diversity.
- Building up empathy, tolerance and cooperation.
- Promotion of sustainable development.

2.4. Features and Barriers of inclusive environment

Q- What does inclusive environment mean?
An inclusive environment is an environment in which members feel respected by and connected
to one another. An inclusive environment welcomes all people, regardless of their disability and
other vulnerabilities. It recognizes and uses their skills and strengthens their abilities. An
inclusive service environment is respectful, supportive, and equalizing. An inclusive
environment reaches out to and includes individuals with disabilities and vulnerabilities at all
levels — from first time participants to board members.
2.4.1 Characteristics of Inclusive Environment
Inclusive environment has the following major characteristics:
 it ensures the respect and dignity of individuals with disabilities
 it meets current accessibility standards to the greatest extent possible to all people with
special needs
 provides accommodations willingly and proactively
 persons with disabilities are welcomed and are valued for their contributions as
individuals

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An inclusive environment is a place that is adjusted to individuals‘needs and not vice versa – that
individuals are adjusted to the environmental needs. It acknowledges that individual differences
among individuals are a source of richness and diversity, and not a problem, and that various needs
and the individual pace of learning and development can be met successfully with a wide range of
flexible approaches. Besides, the environment should involve continuous process of changes directed
towards strengthening and encouraging different ways of participation of all members of the
community.
An inclusive environment is also directed towards developing culture, policy and practice which
meet pupils‘diversities, towards identifying and removing obstacles in learning and participating,
towards developing a suitable provisions and supporting individuals. Therefore, successful
environment has the following characteristics:
 It develops whole-school/environment processes that promote inclusiveness and quality
provisions and practice that are responsive to the individual needs and diversities
 It recognizes and responds to the diverse needs of their individuals and ensuring quality
provisions for all through appropriate accommodations, organizational arrangements,
resource use and partnerships with their community.
 It is committed to serve all individuals together regardless of differences. It is also deeply
committed to the belief that all persons can learn, work and be productive.
 It involves restructuring environment, culture, policy, and practice.
 It promoting pro-social activities
 It makes provides services and facilities
 It makes provides services and facilities equally accessible to all people
 It involves mobilizing resources within the community
 It is alert to and uses a range of multi-skilled personnel to assist people in their learning and
working environment.
 It strives to create strong links with, clinicians, caregivers, and staff in local schools, work
place, disability services providers and relevant support agencies within the wider
community.
 It develops social relationships as an equal member of the class. It is also the classroom
responsive to the diversity of individuals‘ academic, social and personal learning needs.

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 2.4.2 Barriers to Inclusion
Regardless of these positive features and qualities of inclusion in terms of the promotion of the
issue of disability and vulnerability in public services, there are three types of barriers
preventing persons with disabilities from participating in society on equal terms with non-
disabled people:
- Social and attitudinal barriers;
- Environmental and technical barriers; and
- Institutional barriers.
1. Social and attitudinal barriers
• Attitudinal barriers, including prejudice and discrimination cause the biggest problems to
persons with disabilities.
• Disability is associated with shame, fear and/or pity, easily leading to isolation or
overprotection.
• Disability is often also seen as a curse and punishment of wrong doing and wrath of God.
• PWDs are assumed as incapable/inadequate and dependent upon others who deserve
passion and charity.
• In order to avoid discrimination, the family may keep the person with a disability hidden
at home.
• Negative language reflects and can reinforce prejudices.

2. Environmental and technical barriers

• Environmental barriers include natural or technical barriers that prevent persons with
disabilities from participation.
• PWDs encounter these barriers in areas such as: public transport, hospitals and clinics,
schools and housing, shops and marketplaces, places of worship, media and communications
etc. due to the physical inaccessibility of such service areas.
• Technical barriers include high steps and concrete platforms, narrow entrances, lack of or too
heavy doors, narrow cubicles, lack of light and handrails.
• Natural barriers include uneven, rough or steep paths on muddy and/or slippery ground.

23
 3. Institutional barriers
• Institutional barriers are related to legislation, policies and action plans.
• Even if policies and legislation take persons with disabilities into account, the challenge
is that they often lack directives, strategies and guidelines for implementation.
• In addition, the relevant ministries/ bureaus responsible may not be aware of these
policies.
• Consequently, persons with disabilities are frequently left out of planning,
implementation and management of different public services.

Activities
1. Read the following story carefully and identify barriers that may hinder the full and
effective participation of PWDs in a society they live in.
Daniel was born with Down’s syndrome ______________, which affected his ability to
understand, learn and remember _______________. He also had difficulties in
walking ________________, as his balance is affected. His parents never enrolled
him in school _____________________, as they didn’t think there was any point in
educating him, and they also feared he would be bullied ____________________.
2. Ponder on the following quotations and give your analysis on the messages conveyed by
the quotations.
2.1. “A negative attitude is like a flat tire. You cannot go anywhere until you change
it.”
2.2. “Know me for my abilities, not for my disability.”

24
 CHAPTER THREE
Identification of the Impact of Disability and Differentiated
Services
3.1. The Impact of Disability and Vulnerability on Daily Life
• People respond to disabilities in different ways. Some react negatively. Thus, in this
situation the quality of life of PWDs will be negatively affected. Others prefer to focus on
their abilities as opposed to their disabilities and continue to live a productive life.
• There are several factors that affect and impact of the life an individual with disability.
Q- What are the most known factors that determine the impact of disability on individual?
• The following are considered as the most known factors in determining the impact of
disability on an individual.
3.1.1.The Nature of impairment
• Impairment can be acquired as a result of an accident, or disease that may be congenital
or acquired (pre-natal, or post-natal).
• If the impairment is acquired, it is more likely to cause a negative reaction than a
congenital impairment.
• The acquired impairment requires more rehabilitation service than the congenital ones.
3.1.2. The Individual’s Personality
• The individual personality can be typically positive or negative, dependent or
independent, goal-oriented or laissez-faire.
• Someone with a positive outlook is more likely to embrace impairment then someone
with a negative outlook.
• Someone who is independent will continue to be independent and someone who is goal-
oriented will continue to set and pursue goals.
3.1.3. The Meaning of the impairment to the Individual
• Does the individual define himself/herself by his/her looks or physical
characteristics?
• If so, he/she is more likely to feel defined by his/her impairment and thus it will
have a negative impact.

25
3.1.4. The Individual’s Current Life Circumstances
• The influence of this situation manifests through the following factors:
 The condition that the individual is independent or dependent on others (parents) in
his/her living;
 The economic and academic status of the individual with disability or his/her
caregivers;
 If the individuals with impairments are happy with their current life circumstance,
they are more likely to embrace their impairment, whereas, if they are not happy with
their circumstances, they often blame their impairment.
3.1.5. The Individual's Support System
 The individual’s support from family, a significant other, friends, or social groups
contribute to minimize the impact of impairment on their overall personality

Common effects of impairment/disability may include:

 Limited to health conditions of the person;
 Mental health issues including anxiety and depression;
 Loss of freedom and independence;
 Frustration and anger at having to rely on other people;
 practical problems including transport;
 Choice of activities;
 Difficulty in accessing buildings;
 Unemployment;
 Problems with learning and academic study;
 Loss of self-esteem and confidence especially in social situations.
• But most of these negative effects do exist due to restricted environments, not as a result
of direct impact of the impairment. Persons with disabilities are diverse and
heterogeneous, while stereotypical views of disability emphasize wheelchair users and a
few other “classic” groups such as blind people and deaf people.
• Disability encompasses the child born with a congenital condition such as cerebral palsy
or the young soldier who loses his leg to a land-mine, or the middle-aged woman with
severe arthritis, or the older person with dementia, among many others.

26
 • Health conditions can be visible or invisible; temporary or long term; static, episodic, or
degenerating; painful or inconsequential.
• Note that many people with disabilities do not consider themselves to be unhealthy.
• Persons with disabilities have diverse personal factors with differences in gender, age,
language, socioeconomic status, sexuality, ethnicity, or cultural heritage.
• Women with disabilities experience the combined disadvantages associated with gender
as well as disability, and may be less likely to marry than non-disabled women.
• People who experience mental health conditions or intellectual impairments and
severe/multiple impairment appear to be more disadvantaged in many settings than those
who experience physical or sensory impairments.
3.1.6. Economic Factors and Disability
• There is clear evidence that people living with poverty are exposed to health problems
that may cause impairment and disabling environment.
• This is true even in advanced economies.
• The impact of absolute or relative economic deprivation on the onset of pathology
crosscuts conditions with radically different etiologies, encompassing infectious diseases
and most common chronic conditions.
• The lack of resources can adversely affect the ability of an individual to function with a
disabling condition.
• For example, someone with an amputated leg who has little money or poor health
insurance may not be able to obtain a proper prosthesis, in which case the absence of the
limb may then force the individual to withdraw from jobs that require these capacities.
• Similarly, economic resources can limit the options and abilities of someone who
requires personal assistance services or certain physical accommodations.
• The individual also may not be able to access the appropriate rehabilitation services to
reduce the degree of potential disability either because they cannot afford the services
themselves or cannot afford the cost of specialized transportation services.
• The advanced economy of the communities and the country at large significantly make
available enabling environment in infrastructure, public services and job opportunities for
the participation of PWDs.

27
 • In the countries having advanced economy, governments may apply disability
compensation policy.
3.1.7. Political Factors and Disability
• The political system, through its role in designing public policy, can and does have a
profound impact on the extent to which impairments and other potentially disabling
conditions will result in disability.
• If the political system is well enforced it will profoundly improve the prospects of people
with disabling conditions for achieving a much fuller participation in society, in effect
reducing the font of disability in work and every other domain of human activity.
• Thus, the political good will of the government that manifests at policy and
implementation level creates enabling environment for full and effective participation of
PWDs in all aspects of life of the society by reducing the impact of the impairment and
forms of impediments.
3.1.8. Psychological Factors of Disability
• There are five constructs that may result in psychological influence on the psychological
makeup of PWDs in reference to disabling conditions.
I . Social Cognitive Processes
• Cognition consists of thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and ways of viewing the world,
others, and ourselves.
• Three interrelated cognitive processes have been selected to illustrate the direct
and interactive effects of cognition on disability.
• These are self-efficacy beliefs, psychological control, and coping patterns which
all these are socially constructed.
II. Self-Efficacy Beliefs
• Self-efficacy beliefs are concerned with whether or not a person believes that he
or she can accomplish a desired outcome (Bandura, 1977, 1986).
III. Psychological Control
• Psychological control, or control beliefs, is akin to self-efficacy beliefs in that
they beliefs regarding one's ability to exert control or change a situation.

IV. Coping Patterns

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 • Coping patterns refer to behavioral and cognitive efforts to manage specific
internal or external demands that tax or exceed a person's resources to adjust.
V. Personality Disposition
• Optimism in contrast to pessimism is the general tendency to view the world,
others, and oneself favorably.
• People with an optimistic orientation rather than a pessimistic orientation are far
better across several dimensions.
• Optimists tend to have better self-esteem and less hostility towards others and
tend to use more adaptive coping strategies than pessimists.
3.1.9. The Family and Disability
• The family can be either an enabling or a disabling factor for a person with a disabling
condition.
• Although most people have a wide network of friends, the networks of people with
disabilities are more likely to be dominated by family members.
• Even among people with disabilities who maintain a large network of friends, family
relationships often are most central and families often provide the main sources of
support. This support may be informational (providing advice or referrals), or emotional
(giving love and support).
• Families can also fulfill their responsibilities in meeting the special needs of their
children with disabilities by making available specialized services and assistive devices
and technologies
• It is important to note, however, that families may also be disabling. Some families
promote dependency.
• Others fatalistically accept functional limitations and conditions that are amenable to
change with a supportive environment.
• In both of these situations, the person with the potentially disabling condition is not
allowed to develop to his or her fullest potential.
• Families may also not provide needed environmental services and resources. For
example, families of deaf children frequently do not learn to sign, in the process
impeding their children's ability to communicate as effectively as possible.

29
3.2. Special Needs of Persons with Disabilities and other Vulnerable Groups
• The special needs of PWDs are emanated from different factors.
• These are:
- Personal experience of individuals with impairments;
- Type of the impairment;
- Severity /degree of the impairment; and
- Onset of the impairment.
• Hence, professionals as per their discipline should give response differently to the needs
of PWDs considering these realities.
• Analyzing the human beings, Maslow has identified five categories of needs, with
different priority levels, in the following order:
- Survival (physiological);
- Safety;
- Social needs;
- Esteem; and
- Self-actualization (fulfillment).
• Maslow’s model is also valid for persons with disabilities and other vulnerable groups,
whose needs are regular and or similar to those of ordinary persons.
• It is obvious that survival is a priority need for PWDs due to the existing disabling
condition such as lack of opportunity for personal hygiene, feeding and Adaptive Daily
Living skills ( ADL).
Abraham’s Maslow Hierarchy
• Persons with disabilities and other vulnerable groups have socio-emotional,
psychological, physical and social environmental and economic needs in general.
• However, the following are the basic and special needs of PWDs and other vulnerable
groups needed to be available to ensure their equal participation in all activities of the
society:
- Full access to the environment (towns, countryside & buildings);
- Accessible transport system;
- Technical aids and equipment;
- Accessible/adapted housing;

30
 - Personal assistance and support;
- Inclusive education and training;
- Adequate income;
- Equal opportunity for employment;
- Appropriate and accessible information;
- Advocacy (towards their human right);
- Counseling;
- Appropriate and accessible health care;
- Assistive appliances.
3.2.1. Belongingness and disability
• Family relationships as a means of connecting to community and being known by others,
and knowing others outside the family are important.
• Different kinds of relationship contributed to this sense of belonging, ranging from the
more superficial nodding acquaintances to specific informal support from known others,
to the intimacy of close friends and kin.
• Historically for people with disabilities, rurality was once the site of exclusion, rather
than belonging, where identity and gender were disregarded in favor of ensuring
protection of people with disabilities and of the society in which they lived.
• People with disabilities and marginalized groups feel isolated.
• Some persons with disabilities have actively sought to migrate to urban environments, to
escape from the confines and constraints of small rural environments and to build broader
social networks away from the farm.
3.3. Disability Inclusive Intervention and Rehabilitation Services
• A ‘One-size-fits-all’ approach to provide services for persons with disabilities and
vulnerable groups is no longer enough.
• Including people with disabilities in everyday activities and encouraging them to have
roles similar to peoples who do not have a disability is disability inclusion.
• This involves more than simply encouraging people; it requires making sure that
adequate policies and practices are in effect in a community or organization.

31
• Inclusion should lead to increased participation of PWDs in socially expected life roles
and activities such as: being a student, worker, friend, community member, patient,
spouse, partner, or parent.
Q: What does disability inclusive intervention means?
• Disability inclusion means provision of differentiated services for persons with
disabilities and other vulnerable groups.
• Differentiated service means a multiple service delivery model that can satisfy the most
needs of persons with disabilities and other vulnerable groups.
• This includes the availability of accommodative public services in infrastructure, health
care, education, social protection etc.
• Persons with disabilities and other vulnerable groups are often excluded (either directly
or indirectly) from development processes and humanitarian action because of physical,
attitudinal and institutional barriers.
• The effects of this exclusion are increased inequality, discrimination and marginalization.
3.3.1. Definition and components of Rehabilitation Intervention
• Rehabilitation is a process designed to optimize function and improve the quality of life
of those with disabilities.
• There are general underlying concepts and theories of rehabilitation interventions.
• Examples of these theories and concepts include movement and motor control, human
occupation models, education and learning, health promotion and prevention of
additional and secondary health conditions, neural control and central nervous system
plasticity, pain modulation, development and maturation, coping and adjustment,
biomechanics, linguistics and pragmatics, resiliency and self-reliance, auditory
processing, and behavior modification.
• The conduct of rehabilitation intervention is not a simple process. It involves multiple
participants, and it can take on many forms.
• The following is a description of the individual components that, when combined,
comprise the process and activity of rehabilitation:
 Multiple Disciplines;
 Physicians;
 Occupational Therapists;

32
  Physical Therapists;
 Speech and Language Therapist;
 Audiologists;
 Rehabilitation Nurses;
 Social Workers;
 Case Managers;
 Rehabilitation Psychologists;
 Neuropsychologists;
 Therapeutic Recreation Specialists;
 Rehabilitation Counselors;
 Orthotists and Prosthetists;
 Additional Rehabilitation Professionals;
 Persons with the Disability and His or Her Family;
 Community Based Rehabilitation Workers.
3.3.2. Strategies to Disability Inclusive Intervention and Rehabilitation
A) Prevention
• This includes Primary Prevention (Action intended to avoid the causes of impairment),
Secondary prevention (Early Intervention) and Tertiary prevention (Rehabilitation).
B) Implementing the Twin-track Approach
• One of the strategies relevant for the implementation of inclusion in terms of disability is
Twin-track approach.
• The twin-track approach involves:
(1) Ensuring all mainstream programs and services are inclusive and accessible to
persons with disabilities and other vulnerable groups time; and
(2) Providing targeted disability-specific support to persons with disabilities.
C) Implement Disability Inclusive Project/ Program
• As public service provider all sectorial strategies, program, projects and services must be
disability-inclusive.
• The sectors operations should be largely framed within broad programs, making it very
important to ensure that disability inclusion is reflected in program strategies and design
documents.

33
• This in turn ensures the mainstreaming and implementation of disability issues at
program level.
• However, persons with disabilities are often not considered in crucial stages of most
sectorial and developmental program and projects because of lack of awareness about the
special needs of people with disabilities, and other vulnerable groups.
• The following tips will help to overcome the challenges as key considerations for
including persons with disabilities in all program and project cycle management stages of
Assessment, Planning, Implementation and Monitoring, and Reporting/Evaluation:
 Education and vocational training;
 Health;
 Relief and social services;
 Infrastructure and camp improvement, shelter, water and sanitation and
environmental health;
 Livelihoods, employment and microfinance;
 Protection;
 Humanitarian and emergency response.
D) Community Based Rehabilitation (CBR)
• Community Based Rehabilitation (CBR) is a strategy crafted for developing countries
with an intention to bringing children with disabilities who are kept at home to public
services such as: education, self-employment, health care etc. through providing them
multi-dimensional home-based rehabilitation services.
• For this purpose, there is a need to recruit and deploy CBR workers from and within the
local communities respectively.
E) Inclusiveness and Assistive Technology
• There are various organizational definitions for assistive technology: The international
standard ISO 9999 defines AT (referring to AT as “technical aid”) as “any product,
instrument, equipment or technical system used by a disabled person, especially produced
or generally available, preventing, compensating, monitoring, relieving or neutralizing
the impairment, disability or handicap”.
• For persons with disabilities and other vulnerable groups, technological developments
such as the proliferation of the internet and the provision of services for accessing digital

34
 television such as audio description (video description), closed signing, and the
availability of subtitles (captions) in live broadcasts enabled by speech-to text
technologies can make an important contribution to facilitating independent living.
• Technologies promote independence for people with disabilities and other vulnerable
groups. The use of devices, computers, robots, and other established assistive technology
(AT) can potentially increase the autonomy of people with disabilities and other
vulnerable groups, by compensating for physical limitations and circumventing
difficulties with normal activities of daily living (ADL).
• In modern societies, persons with disabilities, and other marginalized and other
vulnerable groups can attain some components of wellbeing such as access to services
using assistive technology (AT).
• Other components, such as freedom of navigation and travel, are much more difficult
because of environmental obstacles encountered by the disabled.
• Surgery, generic therapy, rehabilitation, human assistance, and the use of assistive
technology (AT) help disabled people cope with their disabilities.
• Unfortunately, such assistance is not always available and not necessarily cost-effective.
• AT can increase the autonomy, independence, and quality of life for Persons with
disabilities and other vulnerable groups and can also enable the integration of social,
professional, and environmental aspects of life for Persons with disabilities and other
vulnerable groups.
• Assistive technology affords Persons with disabilities and other vulnerable groups’
greater equality of opportunity, by enhancing and expanding their communication,
learning, participation, and achievement with higher levels of independence, wellbeing,
and quality of life.
• Assistive Technology varies from low-tech devices such as a cane or adapted loop, to
high-tech systems such as assistive robotics or smart spaces.
• Assistive technology encompasses all systems that are designed for Persons with
disabilities and other vulnerable groups, and that attempt to compensate the handicapped.

35
3.4. Implement Inclusive Job Opportunities and Employment
• The right to work is fundamental to being a full and equal member of society, and it
applies to all persons, regardless of whether or not they have a disability.
• A decent job in the open labor market is a key bulwark against poverty.
• It also enables people to build self-esteem, form social relationships, and to gain skills
and knowledge.
• Despite the fact that the majority of jobs can be performed by individuals with
disabilities, the pathways to their employment are often strewn with barriers.
• Studies indicated that there is high rate of unemployment within working age PWDs
compared with non-disabled productive forces even in industrialized countries.
• Most of PWDs and other vulnerable groups are forced to work in informal works without
legal contract and job security.
• Even when persons with disabilities are formally employed, they are more likely to be in
low-paid, low-level positions with poor prospects for career development.
• The recently adopted 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development calls on governments
around the world to promote full employment and decent work for all, including persons
with disabilities and other vulnerable groups.
Q: Why do you think persons with disabilities are prevented from working?
• Persons with disabilities may be prevented from working due to the following barriers:
 Inaccessible transportation services;
 Lack of accessible information and communications services;
 Preference of employers for candidates without disabilities;
 Legal stipulations that prevent individuals with particular impairments
from working in certain fields;
 Discouragement of family and community members;
 Lack of opportunity to education and vocational training to meet the
requirements of labor market;
 Benefit trap.

36
 Q: What are the strategies needed to promote job opportunities and employment of
PWDs?
• The following are key strategies needed for the promotion of job opportunity for PWDs
and other vulnerable groups.
 Anti-Discrimination Legislation;
 Vocational Education and Training;
 Wage Subsidies;
 Workplace Accommodation Schemes;
 Workers’ Compensation;
 Quota Systems;
 Sheltered Workshops;
 Private Sector Initiatives;
 Employer Networks;
 Support Disability-Inclusive Business;
 Support Persons with Disabilities in the Workplace;
 Building a More Inclusive Society;
 Improve Data Collection on Disability and Employment.
Q: Why do you think PWDs need to work?
• Regardless of those challenges that may affect the stamina and motivation of PWDs,
studies confirmed that PWDs seriously want to work to:
 Livelihood; (financial security/earn a living)
 Ensure their social contacts; and
 Develop their self-esteem(psychological benefits)
Activities
1. Do you believe that PWDs have the same need? Why?
2. Why intervention is needed for PWDs and other vulnerable groups?
3. What is rehabilitation? And why and for whom it is needed?
4. Discuss types of rehabilitation?
5. Which intervention strategy do you think can be effectively implemented in our country?
6. What are the benefits of employment for PWDs?

Chapter 4
37
 Promoting Inclusive Culture
4.1. Definition of Inclusive Culture
Q- What does inclusive culture means?
• Inclusion promotes the creation of accommodative community that ensures the
belongingness and social networking among members of the community.

• Culture is “the ideas, customs, and social behavior of a particular people or society.”

• Culture plays a huge role in accommodating the diverse needs of individuals and groups.

• An inclusive culture involves the full and successful integration of diverse people in
different forms of areas where people will work and live together such as work place,
schools, villages etc.

• Inclusive culture encompasses both formal and informal policies and practices, and
involves several core values such as:

• Representation: (The presence of people with disabilities across a range of

membership and leadership within the community and given institution);

• Receptivity: (Respect for differences);

• Fairness: (Equitable access to all resources, opportunities, networks and

decision-making processes).

4.2. Dimensions of inclusive culture

Q- What are the dimensions/elements of an inclusive culture?
• There are three dimensions/elements of an inclusive culture:

1. Universal design refers to the construction of structures, spaces, services,

communications and resources that are organically accessible to a range of people with
and without disabilities, without further need for modification or accommodation.

2. Recruitment (Training and Advancement Opportunities)

• This dimension of inclusive culture refers to the promotion of recruitment and training of
PWDs for a certain position and advance their professional knowledge and competence.

3. Workplace Accommodations and Accessibility (Policy & Practice) plays a critical role
in generating meaningful inclusion of people with disabilities.
• In addition to recruitment, training and advancement, workplace policies need to be
carefully planned for the provision of reasonable accommodations.

38
4.3. Building inclusive community
Q- What are the attributes of inclusive community?
 An inclusive community:

• Establishes foundation that respects all citizens, gives them full access to resources,
and promotes equal treatment and opportunity;

• Works to eliminate all forms of discrimination;

• Engages all its citizens in decision-making processes that affect their lives;

• Values diversity; and

• Responds quickly to racist and other discriminating incidents.

Q- What are the aims of inclusive society?

 An inclusive society aims at empowering and promoting social, economic, and political
inclusion of all, irrespective of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin, religion, economic,
or other status.

• It is a society that leaves no one behind.

• We work to ensure that societies are open and inclusive to all.

Q- Why should we build inclusive community?

 The following factors justify why building an inclusive community is important:

 Acts of exclusion and injustice based on group identity and other factors should not
be allowed to occur and/or continue;

 All people have the right to be part of decisions that affect their lives and the groups
they belong to; and

 Diversity enriches our lives, so it is worthwhile to value our community's diversity.

Q- What are the characteristics of inclusive community?

 An inclusive community is characterized by the following features:

Integrative and cooperative; Interactive; Invested; Diverse; Equitable; Accessible and

Sensitive; Participatory; Safe.
• In an inclusive society or institution having inclusive culture, there is a need of leaders
having inclusive behavior such as:

 Empowerment;

39
  Accountability;

 Courage;

 Humility.

4.5. Inclusive values in terms of cultural norms

• Inclusion is most importantly seen as putting inclusive values into action.

Q- Identify the seven pillars of inclusion?

• The seven pillars of inclusion are:

1. Access;

2. Attitude;

3. Choice;

4. Partnership;

5. Communication;

6. Policy; and

7. Opportunity.

• Alongside these pillars of inclusion, the following are the frameworks of inclusive
values:

Equality; Rights; Participation; Community; Respect for Diversity; Sustainability;

Non-violence; Trust; Compassion; Honesty; Courage; Joy; Love;
Hope/Optimism; and Beauty.

4.6. Indigenous Inclusive Values and Practices

• Indigenous values are customs and norms of a society developed in the course of the past
cultural practices and enriched and transferred from generation to generation.

• Incorporating Indigenous ways of learning into educational practices has potential to

benefit both Indigenous and non-Indigenous learners.

• In modern curriculum the following skills are needed to be included:

 Collaboration;

 Creativity;

40
  Innovation;

 Problem-solving;

 Inquiry;

 Multicultural literacy, etc.

• Indigenous knowledge and practice should be carefully treated avoiding harmful cultural
beliefs.

Activities
1. What are the manifestations of inclusive culture?

2. What are the key values of inclusive culture?

3. What are the benefits of inclusive culture to PWDs?

4. What are the aims of inclusive society?

5. Why should we build inclusive community?

6. What are the characteristics of inclusive community?

7. Identify the seven pillars of inclusion?

Chapter 5
Inclusion for Peace, Democracy and Development

41
5.1. Definition of peace, democracy and development from the perspective of
Inclusiveness
Q- What is the definition of peace?
• Peace is defined as creating mutual understanding, positive relationship between
individuals and groups.

• These groups may include culturally, linguistically, economically and biologically

heterogeneous clusters. These groups are living side by side in a harmony with
reciprocated respect or create societal friendship with all the diversities without conflict.

• This means developed interpersonal peace through deep respect for other persons, justice,
tolerance and cooperation.

• Human being is interconnected and should be free from negative force, fear, hatred,
anger, tension, violence, stress, anxiety and any kind of destructions.

• Peace makes the mind quiet and calm prevents anxieties, worries, stress and fears, and
awakens inner strength and confidence, develop freedom, happiness, love, joy, justice
and gratitude.

Inclusive education and Peace

• Peace can be achieved through formal and informal inclusive education.

• Inclusive education is a foundation for inclusiveness in all aspects of life.

• It is important to realize the role of inclusive education in creating a society which is

peaceful, democratic and prosperous

• Hence inclusive education is crucial for:

 Fostering education that promotes the values, attitudes and behavior inherent in a
culture of peace, including conflict prevention and resolution, dialogue,
consensus-building and active non-violence;

 Promoting sustainable economic and social development by targeting the

eradication of poverty and social inequalities;

 Promoting respect for the Universal Declaration of Human Rights at all levels;

 Promoting gender equality in economic, social and political decision-making;

 Fostering democratic participation and citizenship and supporting processes that

promote and sustain democracy;

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  Advancing understanding, and respect for cultural diversity, and human solidarity
by promoting a dialogue among societies;

 Supporting participatory communication and the free flow and sharing of

information and knowledge in the promotion of a culture of peace;

 Promoting international peace and security through action such as the promotion
of general and complete disarmament.

• Contrary to the importance of inclusive education, exclusion in education creates

undesirable result for a nation against those positive advantages of inclusive education by
affecting social justice and equality.

5.2. Sources of Conflict

• There are a number of sources of conflict attributed to economic, social and political
reasons.

• However, it is believed that conflict begins within the Individual.

Q- What are the sources of conflict?

• As a result, the following characteristics, behaviors and attitude of individuals may cause
conflict at all levels of social strata in the absence of inclusiveness:

 Selfishness (living only for oneself);

 Lust;
 Envy;
 Exploitation (taking advantage over others);
 Prejudice (partiality);
 Self-indulgence;
 Vengeance (retaliation);
 Arrogance (self-importance).
• It is obvious that these mal practices/behaviors are the main causes of exclusionary
practices in communities that affect the right of others.

• The exclusionary practices may be manifested through discrimination, marginalization

and social stigma.

• There is no doubt that peace is the remedy for social injustices and other mal practices
that result in conflict between individuals or groups.

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• Hence, sustainable peace is vitally important to establish prosperous and stable society.

• The mechanism for the foundation of sustainable peace is attributed to the expansion of
formal and informal inclusive education with the aim of creating inclusive society with
the following competencies in young and adult populations:

 Skills of sifting the truth from propaganda or bias that surrounds them in
every culture;

 Respect for the wise use of resources and appreciation for more than just
the materialistic aspects of quality of life;

 Respect for different points of view and the ability to see the world
through the eyes of others;

 Skills to resolve conflict in non-violent ways;

 The desire and ability to participate in shaping society, in their own

community, their nation and the world.

Q- What are the prerequisites or criteria to build up peace?

• Building of peace requires the following prerequisites and considerations:

 Fostering inclusion, ensuring access to justice, strengthening the social fabric and
delivering good governance;

 Reaffirm a commitment to human rights, the foundation for human dignity and just
societies;

 Foster social resilience by strengthening inclusion and addressing inequality;

 Think locally and act globally;

 Protect and support civil society in fostering sustainable peace.

Q- What are the methods to resolve conflicts?

• The following mechanism use to resolve conflicts

 Agree on a mutually acceptable time and place to discuss the conflict;

 State the problem as you see it and list your concerns

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  Let the other person have his/her say;

 Listen and ask questions;

 Stick to one conflict at a time (to the issue at hand);

 Seek common ground;

 Seek for win-win approaches.

5.3. The Democratic Principles for inclusive practices

• Democracy is the philosophy that promotes inclusion and good governance to the best
interest of people.

• It means the rule of the people, by the people, for the people; and where “people” is to
mean all human being, regardless of the diversities.

• It brings democratic values to education and can include self-determination within a

community of equals, as well as such values as justice, respect and trust of diversities

• Schools are the ideal place to promote democracy.

• One of the most important tasks of schools should be helping students to realize the
values of democracy.

Q- What are the significances of democratic values?

• The democratic values promote:

• Enhance protected rights;

• Independent quality life for all;
• Freedom;
• Pursuit of happiness;
• Justice;
• Truthfulness,
• Respect;
• Tolerance for diversity and partisanship.
• The most important function of democratic education is to make the democracy natural
attitude and way of thinking of man by developing the thought of democracy in human
mind.

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 • Inclusive education instills the values of cooperation, fairness and justice into the hearts
of our students.

Q- What are the significances of inclusive education?

 Inclusive education when practiced well is very important because:

• All children are able to be part of their community and develop a sense of belonging and
become better prepared for life in the community today as children and tomorrow as
adults;

• It provides better opportunities for learning. In the absence of democracy, exclusion is

prone to be exercised, today in the school and tomorrow in the society;

• Democracy is one of the principles of inclusiveness in the process of building inclusive

society that begun in schools.

5.4. Respecting diverse needs, culture, values, demands

Inclusive education is practiced based on the following principles of democracy:
 Diversity enriches and strengthens all communities;

 All persons with disabilities different in their needs, potentials, learning and working
styles;

 Their achievements according to their potentials are equally valued, respected and
celebrated by society;

 All learners are capable to fulfill their potential by taking into account individual
requirements and needs.

• Likewise, inclusive development is necessary for sustainable economic, social and political
progress of a country.

• Development should be all inclusive and participatory that promotes equal benefit for all
citizens from the heritage of prosperity earned by the society.

Q- What are the major types of diversity?

• These diversities include:

 Race;
 Ethnicity;
 Age;

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  Ability;
 Language;
 Nationality;
 Socioeconomic status;
 Gender;
 Culture;
 Religion;
 Disability;
 Political thought; and
 Sexual orientation.
• All these diversities in all areas of life including work place and education should be
respected and accepted by all members of the society with an intention to sustaining
peace, development and democracy.

• Valuing diversities recognizes differences between people and acknowledges that these
differences are a valued asset.

• Multicultural education is an important component of valuing diversity.

• It respects diversity while teaching all children and youth to become effective and
participating members of a democratic society.

• It is important to value diversity because; people build a stronger sense of identity and
wellbeing, and have better education and career outcomes when their diverse strengths,
abilities, interests and perspectives are understood and supported.

• It helps dispel negative stereotypes and personal biases about different groups.

• Culture is our way of living, it refers to the shared language, beliefs, values, norms,
behaviors, and material objects that are passed down from one generation to the next.

• Cultural diversity in the world is diverse and a blessing gift for development; but become
sources of conflict.

Q: What are the most important issues that are important to promote diversity and achieve
unity in diverse culture?

• In order to achieve unity in diversity in diverse culture valuing the following issues is
highly important:

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  Recognition of the abundant diversity of cultures;

 Respect for the differences;

 Acknowledging the validity of different cultural expressions and

contributions;

 Accepting what other cultures offer;

 Encouraging the contribution of diverse groups;

 Empowering people to strengthen themselves and others to achieve their

maximum potential by being critical of their own biases; and

 Celebrating rather than just tolerating the differences in order to bring

about unity through diversity.

Q: Which types or elements of diversity are more influential to human attitude,

behavior and human relationship?

• Among several elements of diversities, race and ethnicity are the most known ones by
influencing the attitude and human relationship.

• Race (black and white) refers to biological features, whereas ethnicity (Germans and
Spaniards) is social construct.

• Ethiopia is consisting of people of different ethnic origin.

• Despite the popular belief that Ethiopia is just one big country of a single ethnic group,
there are over 83 different ethnic groups speaking more than 83 different languages and
200 dialects.

Activities
1. What is the correlation between peace and democracy?

2. What are the prerequisites need to be available for the building of democratic culture?

3. What are the benefits of democratic and peaceful system to PWDs?

4. What are the sources of conflicts?

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 Chapter 6

Relevant Policy and Legal Frameworks

6.1. Components of Policy and legal frameworks
• Discrimination against persons with disabilities has a long history and persons with
disabilities are regularly excluded from participation in society and denied their human
rights.

• Discrimination against the disabled can take many forms, ranging from limited
educational opportunities to more subtle forms, such as segregation and isolation due to
attitudinal, environmental and institutional barriers.

• The effects of discrimination are most clearly appeared in the sphere of economic, social
and cultural rights which is manifested in the areas of housing, employment, transport,
cultural life and access to public services.

• According to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, of 1948 Article (1), “All
human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.”

• However, this is far from being a reality for persons with disability throughout the world
that resulted in disability movement and struggle by DPOs for the promotion of the
human rights of their members with disabilities.

• The disability movement undertaken as of the second half of 20 century forced member
countries of the UN to enact disability-mainstreamed policy and legal frameworks at the
international and domestic levels.

• These policy and legal instruments recognized the economic, social, political and human
rights of PWDs in terms of their specific/special needs.

• The formulation of legal frameworks regarding persons with disabilities suggests some
measures that governments should take in order to ensure that persons with disabilities
become equal citizens.

• The rules also act as an international instrument and as a mechanism of control to

guarantee the effective application of the stated rights.

• However, strong commitment and proactive action is required from the governments for
the effective implementation and practicality of those disability mainstreamed and
disability specific policy and legal frameworks enshrined at the international and
domestic levels.

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6.2. International legal frameworks in relation to inclusiveness
• In addition to the general policy and legal frameworks developed at international and
domestic levels for the promotion of basic rights of citizens, the following international
instruments included provisions regarding PWDs.

 The Convention on the Rights of the Child of 1989;

 1990 The World Declaration on Education for All, Jomtien;

 The UN Sustainable Development Goal of 2016.

• Alongside with these general legal frameworks, the following policy and programmatic
documents are also disability-specific instruments developed by the UN giving
recognition for the rights and special needs of PWDs:

 Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with

Disability of 1993;

 UNESCO Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action of 1994;

 The UN Convention on the Right of Persons with Disabilities of 2006.

6.3. Domestic policy and legal frameworks in relation to inclusiveness

• If we talk about Ethiopia’s legal and policy documents, we find no disability related
instrument until 1971 of the imperial order to provide for the establishment of the
rehabilitation agency.

• Hence, it is possible to speak confidently that ‘disability was not a matter of law and
policy before 1991.

• Ethiopia has signed most of the international conventions and declarations to protect and
respect the rights of persons with disabilities.

• Ethiopia developed disability specific and disability-mainstreamed policy and legal

frameworks based on those international instruments stated above.

• These are:

 The 1994 Education and Training Policy;

 Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia-1995;

 Education Sector Development Program (ESDP) II, III, IV and V;

 The 2008 National TVET Policy;

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  A proclamation No 568/2008 to provide for the right to employment of
persons with Disabilities;

- The Ethiopian Building Proclamation No. 624/2009;

 The Revised Special Needs/Inclusive Education Program Strategy of 2012;

 National Plan of Action of Persons with Disabilities (2012-2021);

 The Construction Policy of 2014;

 The Social Protection Policy of 2014;

 The Civil Servant Proclamation No.1064/2017;

 The Revised Higher Institutions Proclamation No. 1152/2019;

 Labor Proclamation- No. 1156/2019.

Activities
1. Which international human right instrument brought a turning point in the history of
disability movement? Why?

2. Do you believe that the FRDE Constitution of 1995 promotes the issue of disability from
human right perspective? Why? (Please refer Article 41 (5) of the Constitution).

3. Identify international instruments in relation to inclusiveness?

4. Identify national laws and policies in relations to persons with disabilities?

5. What are the major shortcomings of the government in treating the issue of disability at
policy and implementation levels?

Dire Dawa University

College of Behavioral Studies and Humanities
I. Course information
1.1. Course Title: Inclusiveness
1.2. Credit hours: 2 (4 ECTS)
1.3. Target group: Compulsory for all undergraduate students
1.4. Course code: SNIE 1012
1.5. Contact hours: 48 Hours

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 II. Course Description
Inclusiveness promotes effective developments through full participation of all members of a
population, including people with disabilities and other marginalized and vulnerable groups. It is
worth mentioning that the inclusion of people with disabilities and other vulnerable groups in
public agendas realizes the socio-economic development of the society.
Hence, in this course, higher education students will be able to learn the following basic concepts
related to the principles and practices of inclusiveness in terms of the special and or specific
needs of people with disabilities and other vulnerable groups.
- Strategies how to identify and assess the special needs of various types of and groups of
people with disabilities and vulnerable groups.
- Mechanisms how to adapt regular services to be accessible and accommodative for
persons with disabilities and other vulnerable groups through developing barrier free
service environment.
- Appropriate approaches how to remove all forms of barriers and design relevant
interventions that would enable PWDs and other vulnerable groups to be mainstreamed in
public services or socio-economic activities of the society profoundly and significantly.
- The fact that all service providers including professionals and practioners have
responsibility to respect the rights of PWDs and other vulnerable groups and make the
inclusion of these groups of people as a part of their duty in their professional
engagement.
III. Course objective and Expected Learning outcomes
The overall objective of the course is to enable learners to be equipped with adequate
knowledge, positive attitude and skills regarding the issues related to people with
disabilities and other vulnerable groups and build their capacity to address the special
needs of these underserved segments of the society in their future professional
engagement.
This also course is intended to promote collaborative engagement of learners for the
promotion of the issue of people with disabilities and other vulnerable groups at all levels
of public services and community life using inclusiveness as a strategy to meet the basic
and special needs of these neglected groups of the society.
As a result, up on the completion of the course, students will be able to:

52
 - Comprehend the principles and practices of inclusiveness;
- Understand the special/specific needs and potentials of persons with disabilities and
other vulnerable groups;
- Identify environmental, attitudinal/social and institutional barriers that hinder the
effective participation of persons with disabilities and other vulnerable groups in a
society on an equal basis with others;
- Demonstrate desirable inclusive attitude towards all persons with disabilities and other
vulnerable groups;
- Apply appropriate assessment strategies for service provisions intended to meet the needs
of PWDs and other vulnerable groups;
- Adapt environments and services to be accessible and inclusive for the needs of persons
with disabilities and other vulnerable groups;
- Utilize appropriate assistive technologies and other specialized support mechanisms that
address the needs of persons with disabilities and other vulnerable groups;
- Respect and advocate the rights of persons with disabilities and other vulnerable groups;
- Work collaboratively with special needs education and other relevant professionals and
significant others for the overall success and life career persons with disabilities and other
vulnerable groups;
- Contribute for the development of inclusive general public, (the society for all).

Course Contents:
Chapter 1: Understanding Disability and Vulnerability
1.1 Definitions of disability and vulnerability
1.2 Causes of impairments and vulnerability
1.3 Types of impairments and vulnerable groups
1.4 Historical background of modalities moving towards inclusion
1.5 Evolution of the concept of disability
Chapter 2: Concept of Inclusion
2.1 Definition of inclusion
2.2 Principles of inclusion

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 2.3 Rationale for inclusion
2.4 Features and barriers of inclusive environment
Chapter 3: Identification of the Impact of Disability and Differentiated Services
3.1. The Impact of Disability and Vulnerability on Daily Life
3.1.1 The Nature of impairment:
3.1.2 The Individual’s Personality
3.1.3 The Meaning of the impairment to the Individual
3.1.4 The Individual’s Current Life Circumstances
3.1.5 The Individual's Support System
3.1.6 Economic Factors and Disability
3.1.7 Political Factors and Disability
3.1.8 Psychological Factors of Disability
3.1.9 The Family and Disability
3.1. Special Needs of Persons with Disabilities and other Vulnerable groups
3.1.2 Belongingness and disability
3.2. Disability Inclusive Intervention and Rehabilitation Services
3.2.1 Definition and components of Rehabilitation Intervention
3.2.2 Strategies to Disability Inclusive Intervention and Rehabilitation
3.3. Implement Inclusive Job Opportunities and Employment
Chapter 4: Promoting Inclusive Culture
4.1 Definition of inclusive culture
4.2 Dimensions of inclusive culture
4.3 Building inclusive community
4.4 Strategies for the development of inclusive culture
4.5 Inclusive values in terms of cultural norms
4.6 Indigenous inclusive values and practices
Chapter 5: Inclusion for Peace, Democracy and Development
5.1. Definition of peace, democracy and development from the perspective of Inclusiveness
5.2. Sources of Conflict
5.3. The democratic principles for inclusive practices
5.4. Respecting diverse needs, culture, values, demands and ideas

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Chapter 6: Relevant Policy and Legal frameworks
6.1. Components of policy and legal frameworks
6.2. International legal frameworks in relation to inclusiveness
6.3. Domestic policy and legal frameworks in relation to inclusiveness
Chapter 7: Resource Management for Inclusion
7.1. Resources for inclusion
7.2. Planning for inclusive services
 Special needs/inclusive education expert consultancy.
Assessment and Evaluation Methods
The following schemes of evaluation would be used:
 Tests 10%;
 Assignment/group/assignment 10%;
 Mid exam 30%;
 Final exam 50% .

References

Alemayehu Teklemariam and Temsegen Fereja (2011). Special Need Education in Ethiopia:
Practice of Special Needs Education around the World. Washington: Gallaudet
University Press.

Alemayehu Teklemariam (2019). Inclusive Education in Ethiopia: WILEY and Blackwell:

Singapore.

A Teachers Guide (2001). UNESCO. Inclusive Education and Classroom Practice in Secondary
Education (2004).

Berit H. Johanson and Alemayehu Teklemariam (2006). Towards Special Needs Education as a
University Discipline: An Important step on the way to Education for All. In When All
Means All. Hakapaino Oy: Helsinki.

Tirussew Teferra and Alemayehu Teklemariam (2007). Including the Excluded: Integrating
disability into EFA Fast Track Initiative Process and National Education Plans in
Ethiopia. World Vision.

MOE (2007). School Improvement Program.

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MOE (2010). Special Needs Program strategies implementation guide.

MOE (Ministry of Education). (2006). Special Needs Education Program Strategy. Addis Ababa

Understanding and responding to children’s need in inclusive classroom (2010).www.european-

agency.org

ዓለማየሁ ተክለማርያም (2009). በመተባበር መማር፡- አንድ ለሁሉም፣ ሁሉም ለአንድ፣ አዲስ አበባ፡- ፋርኢስት አታሚ

ዓለማየሁ ተክለማርያም (2011). አካቶ ትምህርት ለምን፣ምን፣ለነማን እንዴት፤ አዲስ አበባ፡- ፋርኢስት አታሚ

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