Lecture seven:

(( Manufacturing ))
Material removal Process ( Cutting Process ):
 The shapes & components produced by various casting and forming process often
require further finishing operations before the product is ready for use.
 These subsequent operations usually consist of material removal by cutting and other
various machining processes such as (Turning, milling, drilling, grinding, boring …...
etc.).
 All the above processes are considered as material removal from a surface by
producing chips. The purpose of metal cutting for all products is to finish the surfaces
more closely to specified dimension
How metals are cut:
When metal is cut, the workpiece surface is driven with respect to the tool, or the tool with
respect to the workpiece at relatively high rate of speed called the Cutting speed.
If the workpiece is rotating and the tool is traversed in relative path to the axis of rotation a
surface of revolution is generated:
 If the tool path is parallel to axis or revolution the surface generated is a cylinder as
shown in [fig. ( 1a ) below, it is called straight turning.
 If the tool path is straight but not parallel to the axis of rotation a conical surface is
generated and called taper turning [fig. ( 1b )].
 If the tool directed in a curved path then the surface generated of a varying diameter
and called a contour turning [ fig. ( 1c )].
 The same way by boring, an inside cylindrical surface is generated [fig. ( 1d )], it is
called straight boring.
 A surface of revolution may also machined by plunging the tool into the revolving
workpiece [fig. ( 1e )] and called contour forming.

Fig. (1): Surface of revolution generation types.

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Lecture seven:

 A plane surface on the end of a workpiece may be generated by revolving the

workpiece and feeding the tool at a right angle to axis of rotation as shown in [fig. (2a)]
below which is called Facing.
 Planes may also be generated by a series of straight cut without revolving the
workpiece as illustrated in [fig. ( 2b )], and called shaping & planning.
 or as shown in [fig. ( 2c )] , and called forming a straight contour.

Fig. ( 2 ): How plane surfaces are generated & formed.

Types of Cutting:
1. Orthogonal Cutting ( 2 – dimensional model, single edge is cutting ), it shown in
figure ( 3 ) below.
In this type of cutting, the chip is formed with the single cutting edge of the tool at a right
angle to the direction of movement. This is called Orthogonal Cutting.

Fig. ( 3 ): Forces exerted by the cutting tool in orthogonal cutting.

It is idealized and easy to understand, the principles are true for all forms of metal cutting.
 The force [ R ] applied to the tool by the machine is resolved into two components [ Fc ]
which is the cutting force in the direction of movement of the tool & a thrust force [ Ft ]
the normal component which is the feeding force to the machined surface.
 The tool exerts a force [ R ] on the chip with a normal component [ Fn ] and a friction
component [ Ff ] that opposes the flow of the chip up to the tool face.

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Lecture seven:

 For equilibrium, the chip must subjected to a substantially equal and opposite reaction
[ R' ] from the workpiece at the shear plane with normal [ FN ] and a shearing force [ Ff
] along the shear plane.
2. Oblique Cutting ( 3 – dimensional model more than one edge are cutting ). It is
shown in figure ( 4 ) below.
Most cutting action takes place in three – dimensions and along more than one edge. This type
of cutting is called oblique cutting, with the cutting edge set at angle [ i ] from the Y – direction
as shown in figure ( 4 ).

Fig. ( 4 ): Forces exerted by the cutting tool in oblique cutting.

Types of Chips:
 Type I – Segmental chip:
These chips come off in small pieces or segments and are pushed away by the tool, it takes
place when:
1) Cutting brittle material like cast iron or bronze it is broken along the shear
plane. See figure ( 5 ).
2) Material is ductile and the friction between chip & tool is very high.

Fig. ( 5 ): Photomicrograph showing how a chip is formed and ruptured.

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Lecture seven:

 Type II – Continuous chip:

It is not broken & it comes off like a ribbon when a ductile material cut optimally as shown by
the highly magnified section in figure ( 6a ) below.

Fig. ( 6 ): (a) Photomicrograph of the formation of a continuous Chip (b) Photomicrograph of a highly
magnified chip & a build up edge.
 Type III – Continuous chip with built up edge:
When steel is cut a continuous chip is usually formed, but the force ( F ) against the tool is
high & the severe action of the chip quickly rubes the natural film from the tool face.
The freshly cut chip and the newly exposed material on the face of the tool have an affinity for
each other and a layer of highly compressed material adhere to the face of the tool as shown
in [fig. ( 6b ) above].
Cutting Tool Shapes & Forms:
Looking to Figure [ 7 ( a, b ) ] to understand the cutting tool shapes & forms in which they are
defined by the Tool angles.
width

Height

Flank

Fig. ( 7 ): Conventional cutting tool angles.

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Lecture seven:

Tool angles:
It is that parts of the cutting tool where cutting edges are found. It is on the end of shank or the tool
body (it is called Flank). The surfaces at that part have definite relationships to each other and defined
by angles.
Relief angle:
It depends upon the kind of cut., the larger the relief angle the lower the rate of wear on Flank. The
purpose of the relief angle as the name implies is to enable the side of the tool to clear the work and not
rub it.
Clearance angle ( Secondary relief angle ):
It is ground on the Shank below the insert of a Carbide or Ceramic Tool. It has no effect on the force,
power & the surface finish as long as it is large enough.
Rake angle:
It affects the angle of shear during the formation of chip, the larger the rake angle, the larger the shear
angle and the lower the cutting force and power, it is also an indication for a good surface finish.
 But increasing the rake angle to a certain point will leave less metal of the cutting tool to
support the cutting edge and to conduct away the heat.
 The rake angles shown above are positive. Rake angle measured counterclockwise from zero
are called negative rake angles [fig. (8)].

Fig. ( 8 ): The three possible types of Rake angles.

Cutting Edge angles:
 End Cutting Edge angle: It gives clearance to the trailing end of the cutting edge and reduce
drag that tends to cause Chatter. Too large an end – cutting edge angle takes away material
that supports the point and conduct away heat.
 Side Cutting edge angle: It affects tool life and surface finish; it enables a tool that is fed side
ways into a cut to contact the work first behind the tip.
Nose Radius:
It is favorable to long tool life and good surface finish. The amount of a nose radius that can be put on
a tool is limited because too large a nose radius is conductive to Chatter.
Tool Designation:
The shape of the tool may be described by a series of numbers specifying the values of the angles and
radius in the order just listed.

The main component of metal cutting:

1 – The Workpiece, the piece or object to be formed or shaped.
2 – The Tool, the device which is used to machine the Workpiece.
3 – The machine, to produce the power required to overcome the friction & the forces
that hold the metal together.

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Lecture seven:

Mechanics of Chip Formation:

Consider an orthogonal cutting model as illustrated in fig. ( 9 ), where:

 In the case of orthogonal cutting, the cutting edge of the tool is at right angles to the
direction of relative motion between the tool and the workpiece.
 The cutting tool basically consists of two intersecting surfaces to form the cutting edge
[fig. (9 a)] above, which are the rake face and the shear plane.
 The surface along which the chip flows is known as the rake face. The cutting face or
the rake face makes an angle (  ) with the normal which is called the rake angle [fig.
(9 b)].
 The angle between the tool body and the new workpiece surface is defined as the
clearance or relief angle.
 The shear plane angle can be calculated from the change in size of the chip that is
deformed along the shear plane. The precut chip thickness ( to ) and the rake angle (  )
are known.
 The chip thickness ( tc ) is measured normal to the rake face of the tool along a line that
makes an angle of (  ) with the shear plane [fig. (10) below].

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Lecture seven:

Fig. ( 10 ): The schematic drawing showing the relationship between ( to & tc ).

From the triangles:
∆ 𝑶𝑷𝑨, 𝒕𝒐 = 𝑶𝑨 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∅
∆ 𝑶𝑨𝑸, 𝒕𝒄 = 𝑶𝑨 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( ∅ − 𝜶 )
𝒕𝒐 𝑶𝑨 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∅ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∅
𝒓 = = = ⟹ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∅ = 𝒓 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( ∅ − 𝜶 ) 
𝒕𝒄 𝑶𝑨 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( ∅ − 𝜶 ) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( ∅ − 𝜶 )
Or, we can say: 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∅ = 𝒓 . ( 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∅ . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∅ . 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜶 ), 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒃𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∅
We will obtain that:
𝒕𝒂𝒏 ∅ = 𝒓 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶 + 𝒓 . 𝒕𝒂𝒏 ∅ . 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜶
𝒓 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶
𝒕𝒂𝒏 ∅ =
𝟏 − 𝒓 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜶
Based on definition of shear strain [ consider fig. ( 11 ) ]:
During the process of chip formation, each undeformed layer of the material passes through
the shear plane and undergoes considerable plastic deformation. Shear strain is defined as the
displacement of the layer ( a ) along the shear plane to the thickness of the layer ( b ).

Fig. ( 11 ): The schematic drawing showing the relationship between shear strain ( γ ) &( to & tc ).
The strain that takes place in chip formation can be depicted ideally as a displacement of thin
parallel plates as shown in [fig. ( 11 ) above]. Displacement occurs for one plate at a time
sliding the distance ( AB ) along the shear plane [ the trigonometric shown in fig. ( 11 ) ].

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Lecture seven:

From fig. ( 11 ), it is found that:

𝒂
𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 ( 𝜸 ) =
𝒃
𝑨𝑩 𝑶𝑨 𝑶𝑩
𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 ( 𝜸 ) = = +
𝑶𝑪 𝑶𝑪 𝑶𝑪
 = cot  + tan (  )
The main surfaces & planes in cutting process:
1 – The cutting surface in which the cutting force act along.
2 – The Rake face surface in which the friction force act along.
3 – The shear plane in which the shear force act along.
Velocity in Chip Formation:
The velocity of the chip is defined as the velocity with which the chip moves over the rake
face, the velocity with which the metal shears along the shear plane. The relationship between
these two velocities and the cutting velocity can be readily determined as following:
Again consider fig. ( 12 ) below:
Where: Vc = Vo ( The cutting velocity ).
Vs = The shear velocity.
Vf = The chip velocity.
 = The Rake velocity.
 = The shearing angle.

90  
Vf

 Vs


 

90 

Vo

Fig. ( 12 ): Schematic drawing showing the relation between cutting velocities.

From trigonometric ( sine law ), it could be gotten that:
𝑽𝒔 𝑽𝒐 𝑽𝒇
= =
𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝟗𝟎 − 𝜶 ) 𝒔𝒊𝒏 [ 𝟗𝟎 − ( ∅ − 𝜶)] 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∅
𝑽𝒔 𝑽𝒐 𝑽𝒇
= =
𝒔𝒊𝒏( 𝟗𝟎 − 𝜶 ) 𝒄𝒐𝒔( ∅ − 𝜶 ) 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∅
Theories of Cutting process:
 Merchant theory ( Shear angle Solution ):
Assumptions of this theory are:
1. Orthogonal cutting.
2. Minimum energy consumption is required.
3. Materials are formed by shearing.

8
Lecture seven:

4. The Tool used should be wider than work piece.

5. The stresses are uniformly distributed on the shear plane.
6. The total point is infinitely sharp.
7. The chips are being held in equilibrium condition.
Now consider fig. ( 13 ) below for the Forces diagram:

Fig. ( 13 ): Forces diagram - circle explanation.

Fc , Ft are forces on the cutting surface.
Ff , Fn are forces on the rake plane.
Fs , FN are forces on the shear plane.
 = The angle of friction.
From fig. ( 13 ), we will find that:
Ff = AE + ED = Fc . sin  + Ft . cos 
Fs = AQ  HQ = Fc . cos   Ft . sin 
Fn = Fc . cos   Ft . sin 
FN = Ft . cos  + Fc . sin 
Fc = R . cos (  )
Fs = R . cos (  )
By dividing the cutting force ( Fc ) with the shear force ( Fs ), we obtain:
𝑭𝒄 𝑹 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝜷 − 𝜶 ) 𝑭𝒔 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝜷 − 𝜶 )
= ⟹ 𝑭𝒄 =
𝑭𝒔 𝑹 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( ∅ + 𝜷 − 𝜶 ) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( ∅ + 𝜷 − 𝜶 )

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Lecture seven:

But the friction factor ( ) is equal to:

𝑭𝒕 𝑭𝒄 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜶 + 𝑭𝒕 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶
𝝁 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜷 = =
𝑭𝒏 𝑭𝒄 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶 − 𝑭𝒕 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜶
The shearing stress ( s ) is equal to:
𝑭𝒔
𝝉𝒔 ( 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ) =
𝑨
Where: A = Area of the shear plane
A = b . OA
But, from the beside schematic drawing:
𝒕𝒐
𝑶𝑨 = ⟹ 𝒕𝒐 = 𝑨𝑶 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∅
𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∅
𝑨𝒐 = 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒖𝒕 𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒑 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝒃 . 𝒕𝒐
∴ 𝑨𝒐 = 𝒃 . 𝑨𝑶. 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∅
Or, 𝑨𝒐 = 𝑨 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∅
𝑨𝒐
∴ 𝑨 =
𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∅

Then the cutting force will become:

𝑨𝒐 . 𝝉𝒔 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝜷 − 𝜶 )
𝑭𝒄 =
𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∅ . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( ∅ + 𝜷 − 𝜶 )

But the Merchant theory assumes minimum energy required which means that the
differentiation of the cutting force ( Fc ) with respect to the shear angle ( ∅ ), we will obtain:
𝒅𝑭𝒄 − 𝑨𝒐 . 𝝉𝒔 . 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝜷 − 𝒂 ). [ − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∅ . 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( ∅ + 𝜷 − 𝜶 ) + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( ∅ + 𝜷 − 𝜶 ). 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ ]
=
𝒅∅ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 ∅ . 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 ( ∅ + 𝜷 − 𝜶 )

Equating the differentiation to zero:

𝒅𝑭𝒄
= 𝟎
𝒅∅
Then we get that:
cos  ) = 0
cos (  ) = 0
𝝅
∴ 𝟐∅ + 𝜷 − 𝜶 =
𝟐
The effect of the Rake angle:
Rake angle is varies with the material being cut, since some materials slide more easily than
others, while some break up into small pieces. Brass, for instance, breaks up into small pieces,
and a rake angle of ( 0° ) is used. Aluminum, on the other hand, has a tendency to stick to the
face of the tool and requires a steep rake angle, usually in the region of ( 30° ).
Relative advantages of such rake angles are:

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Lecture seven:
• Positive rake – helps reduce cutting force and thus cutting power requirement, larger
angle uses for soft material to avoid material stick on the tool.
• Negative rake – to increase edge-strength and life of the tool, and it is used for tough
materials using the cemented carbide cutting tools, it is necessary, due to the brittle
nature of the carbide, to give maximum support to the tip. To achieve this, a negative
rake is used.
• Zero rakes – to simplify design and manufacture of the form tools, used for
fragmented material such as brass.
The Uncut, Cut & width of Chip:
To understand well the terms mentioned above, we should look carefully to the figures below,
[fig. ( 14 )] shows the Straight turning cutting, where the width of chip represent ( b ) which
called also the depth of cut and it can be calculated from the below equation:

Fig. ( 14 ): The Straight turning.

𝑫𝒐 − 𝑫𝟏
𝒃=
𝟐
The Uncut chip thickness ( to ) is called the feed per revolution ( Feed = mm / rev. ), so the Cut
chip thickness can be calculated from the formulas which are given in cutting lectures.
And [fig. ( 15 )] shows the Face or End face turning, where the width of chip represent ( b )
which called also the depth of cut and it can be calculated from the below equation:
𝒃 = 𝑳𝒐 − 𝑳𝟏

Fig. ( 15 ): The Face or End Face turning.

11
Lecture eight:
The Uncut chip thickness ( to ) is called the feed per revolution ( Feed = mm / rev. ), so the
Cut chip thickness can be calculated from the formulas which are given in cutting
lectures.
Steps to draw the Force Circle:
1 – For convenience forces R & R’ can be considered to be act at the tip tool point.
2 – Draw the force R to represent the diameter of a circle, this circle is the reference
circle and called the Force Circle. See fig. ( 16 – a ) below.
3 – The Force Circle is now can be used to draw any force acting along any surface
by decomposing the resultant force R into two perpendicular components ( such as ( Fc )
which is parallel to the cutting surface & ( Ft ) normal to it. See fig. ( 16 – b ) below.
4 – In the same way, R can be decomposed into ( Ff ) and ( Fn ) or into ( Fs ) & ( FN
), as shown in fig. ( 16 – c ).
5 – Then the relations in between the forces can be determined by using the
diagram shown in fig. ( 16– d ).

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig. ( 16 )

12
Lecture eight:

Cutting Energy & Specific Energy:

 The total Power input in cutting process is:
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑷 = 𝑭𝒄 . 𝑽𝒄
Where: P = the power input in Watt (W) or (KW)
Fc = the cutting force in Newton (N) or (kW)
Vc = the cutting velocity in (meter / second) (m/s)

Figure 1: Approximation
of turning by the
orthogonal model: (a)
turning; and (b) the
corresponding orthogonal
cutting.

𝑭 𝒄 . 𝑽𝒄
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑷 =
𝟔𝟎
Where: Vc = cutting velocity in meter/min (m/min), but we know that the cutting
velocity (Vc) which is also the surface velocity and is equal to:
𝑽𝒄 = 𝒓 . 𝝎 = 𝒓. (𝟐 𝝅 . 𝑵) = 𝝅 . 𝒅 . 𝑵
Where: 𝛚 = the angular velocity (rad/min) = 2 𝛑 . N
N = the rotational velocity in revolution per minute (rpm)
d = the workpiece diameter in meter (m)
r = the workpiece radius in meter (m)
Thus,
𝑽𝒄 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 ∗ 𝑽𝒄
𝑵 =, 𝒐𝒓, 𝑵 =
𝝅. 𝒅 𝝅. 𝒅
Where: d = the workpiece diameter in (mm)
Specific Energy ( uc ):
It is defined as the total power energy per unit volume of material removed (m 3/min or
cm3/min), thus ( uc ) is equal to:
𝑷 𝑭𝒄 . 𝑽 𝒄 𝑭𝒄
𝒖𝒄 = = =
𝑽𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒄 . 𝒇 . 𝒃 𝒕𝒐 . 𝒃
It is simply ( uc ) is the ratio of the cutting force ( N ) to projected area of the cut (mm2).
Where: Vremoval = the volume of the material removed ( m3/min or cm3/min )
f = the uncut chip thickness ( to ) or the feed per revolution ( mm / rev. )
b = the width of chip ( mm )
In the same way, it can also be seen that the power required to overcome friction at the
tool chip interface is the product of ( Ff ) and ( Vc ), or in terms of frictional specific
energy ( uf ) is equal to:

13
Lecture eight:
𝑭𝒇 . 𝑽𝒇 𝑭𝒇 . 𝒓
𝒖𝒇 = =
𝑽𝒄 . 𝒇 . 𝒃 𝒕𝒐 . 𝒃
Likewise, the power required for shearing along the shear plane is the product of ( Fs )
and ( Vs ), hence the specific energy for shear ( us ) is given by:
𝑭𝒔 . 𝑽𝒔 𝑭𝒔 . 𝑽𝒔
𝒖𝒔 = =
𝑽𝒄 . 𝒇 . 𝒃 𝒕𝒐 . 𝒃 . 𝑽𝒄
The total specific energy ( uc ) is the sum of the above two specific energies:
𝒖𝒄 = 𝒖𝒇 + 𝒖 𝒔
 Tool Wear:
Tool wear causes the tool to lose its original shape, so that in time the tool ceases to cut
efficiently or even fails completely.
Gradual wear occurs at two principal locations on a cutting tool: the top rake face and
the flank. Accordingly, two main types of tool wear can be distinguished: crater wear,
flank wear & nose wear, as illustrated in Figure (2).

Figure 2: Diagram of worn cutting tool, showing the principal locations and types of wear that
occur.
Crater wear consists of a cavity in the rake face of the tool that forms and grows from the
action of the chip sliding against the surface. High stresses & temperatures characterize
the tool–chip contact interface, contributing to the wearing action.
Flank wear occurs on the flank, or relief face, of the tool. It results from rubbing between
the newly generated work surface and the flank face adjacent to the cutting edge.
Nose radius wear; this type occurs on the nose radius leading into the end cutting edge.

 Tool Wear:
Tool life may be defined as the effective cutting time between re-sharpenings. When the
wear reaches a certain value the tool is not capable of further cutting unless it is
resharpened.
The general relationship of tool wear versus cutting time is shown in Figure (3). Three
regions can usually be identified in the curve.
The first is the break-in period, in which the sharp cutting edge wears rapidly at the
beginning of its use within the first few minutes of cutting.
The second is a uniform rate of wear called the steady-state wear region. It is shown as a
linear function of time.
Finally, wear reaches a level at which the wear rate begins to accelerate. This marks the
beginning of the failure region, in which cutting temperatures are higher, and the general
efficiency of the machining process is reduced.

14
Lecture eight:

Figure 3: Tool wear as a function of cutting time and cutting speed.

 Taylor Tool Life Equation:

It has been shown that the relationship between the tool live and the cutting speed can be
represented by the following equation [figure (4)]:
𝑽 . 𝑻𝒏 = 𝑪

Figure 4: Natural log–log plot of cutting speed versus tool life.

Where: V = cutting speed (m/min); T = tool life (min); and ( n ) and ( C ) are
parameters whose values depend on feed, depth of cut, work material, tooling (material
in particular), and the tool life criterion used (flank wear value, such as 0.5 mm).

15
Lecture eight:
An expanded version of Taylor Equation can be formulated to include the effects of feed,
depth (width) of cut, and even work material hardness:
𝑽 . 𝑻𝒏 . 𝒇𝒎 . 𝒃𝒑 . 𝑯𝒒 = 𝑪
Where: f = feed, mm (in); b = depth (width) of cut, mm (in); H = hardness, expressed in
an appropriate hardness scale; [ m, p, and q ] are exponents whose values are
experimentally determined for the conditions of the operation; C = constant.
To reduce these problems and make the scope of the equation more manageable, some of
the terms are usually eliminated. For example, omitting depth and hardness reduces
Equation to the following:
𝑽 . 𝑻𝒏 . 𝒇𝒎 = 𝑪
 Cutting Fluids:
A cutting fluid is any liquid or gas that is applied directly to the machining operation to
improve cutting performance. Cutting fluids address two main problems:
(1) Heat generation at the shear zone and friction zone, and,
(2) Friction at the tool–chip and tool–work interfaces.
This will work to:
(1) Removing heat and reducing friction cause to prolong the tool life.
(2) Washing away chips (especially in grinding and milling).
(3) Reducing cutting forces and power requirements.
(4) Reducing the temperature of the work-part for easier handling.
(5) Improving dimensional stability of the work-part & improving surface finish.
(6) Protect the newly machined surface from corrosion.
Cutting Fluid Functions:
There are two general categories of cutting fluids, corresponding to the two main
problems they are designed to address: coolants and lubricants.
Coolants:
They are chemical fluids (chemicals in a water solution). The dissolved chemicals include
compounds of sulfur, chlorine, and phosphorus, plus wetting agents. The chemicals are
intended to provide some degree of lubrication to the solution.
The capacity of a cutting fluid to reduce temperatures in machining depends on its
thermal properties. Specific heat and thermal conductivity are the most important
properties.
Water has high specific heat and thermal conductivity relative to other liquids, which is
why water is used as the base in coolant-type cutting fluids.
Lubricants:
They are usually oil-based fluids (because oils possess good lubricating qualities)
formulated to reduce friction at the tool–chip and tool–work interfaces.
Lubricant-type cutting fluids are most effective at lower cutting speeds. They tend to lose
their effectiveness at high speeds (above about 120 m/min) because the motion of the chip
at these speeds prevents the cutting fluid from reaching the tool–chip interface.
Kind of Cutting Fluid: cutting fluids may be classified as:
(1) Gases (Air, CO2). (2) Water solution. (3) Oils. (4) Waxes.
Temperature Rise in Metal Cutting:
Almost all the work done in deformation the material to form the chip and move the chip
and the freshly cut work surface over the tool is converted into heat.
Figure (5) below shows the regions where the heat is primarily developed at the shear
zone (Q1), at the face tool [secondary zone (Q2)] and at tool workpiece interface (Q3).

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 Lecture eight:

Figure 5: Source of heat

generation in metal
cutting.

Under normal conditions, the largest portion of the work is done in forming the chip at the
shear plane (Q1), most the heat resulting from this work remains in the chip is carried away
by it, while only a small percentage is conducted into the workpiece.
(Q2) is the heat generated in the tool – chip interface, it is due to friction between the chip and
the tool face.
(Q3) is the heat generated in tool – workpiece interface, only a small percentage of the total
work done is converted into this heat.
That means:
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑷 = 𝑭𝒄 . 𝑽𝒄 = 𝑸 = 𝑸𝟏 + 𝑸𝟐 ,
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆, 𝑸𝟑 ≅ 𝟎 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒍𝒆
It is found that approximately (80%) of the generated heat is dissipated by the chip, (18%) by
the tool and the rest by the work surface. From this it clear that most of the heat in the metal
cutting is dissipated by the moving chip:
𝑸 = 𝑸𝑪 + 𝑸𝑻 + 𝑸𝑾
Where: QC = heat dissipated with chip.
QT = heat dissipated with tool.
QW = heat dissipated with workpiece.
So, the maximum temperature rise in the chip occurs where the material leaves the secondary
deformation zone and is given by:
𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑻𝒐 + ∆𝑻𝟏 + ∆𝑻𝟐
Where: To = the initial workpiece temperature (℃)
∆T1 = temperature rise of the material passing through the primary zone (℃)
∆T2 = temperature rise of the material passing through the secondary zone (℃)
Temperature in Primary Shear Zone:
Note that: 𝑸𝟏 = 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑿 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
So, 𝑸𝟏 = 𝑭𝒔 . 𝑽𝒔 = 𝒖𝒔 . ( 𝒃 . 𝒕𝒐 . 𝑽𝒄 )
We can prove that,
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶 𝑽𝒔 𝑽𝒔
𝜸 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏∅ = = ⟹ 𝜸 =
𝒄𝒐𝒔(∅ − 𝜶) 𝑽𝒄 𝑽𝒄 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏∅
But we have,
𝑭𝒔 . 𝑽𝒔 𝑭𝒔 . 𝜸 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏∅
𝒖𝒔 = = = 𝝉 .𝜸
𝒕𝒐 . 𝒃 . 𝑽𝒄 𝒕𝒐 . 𝒃

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Lecture eight:
𝑽𝒔
∴ 𝑸𝟏 = 𝝉 . 𝜸 . ( 𝒃 . 𝒕𝒐 . 𝑽𝒄 ) = 𝝉 . . ( 𝒃 . 𝒕𝒐 . 𝑽𝒄 )
𝑽𝒄 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏∅
But,
𝝉. 𝜸
𝑸𝟏 = 𝝆 . ( 𝒃 . 𝒕𝒐 . 𝑽𝒄 ) . 𝑪𝒑 . ∆𝑻𝟏 = 𝝉 . 𝜸 . ( 𝒃 . 𝒕𝒐 . 𝑽𝒄 ) ⟹ ∆𝑻𝟏 =
𝝆 . 𝑪𝒑
Where:
𝛒 = the material's density (kg/m3)
∆T1 = the increase in chip's temperature above ambient temperature (℃)
The rate of heat generation in the primary zone is (Q1), and a fraction of this heat (m) is
conducted into the workpiece, the remainder (1 – m) is transported with the chip. Let (n = 1 –
m), thus the average temperature rise (∆T1) of the material passing through the primary zone
is given by:
𝒏 .𝝉 . 𝜸
∆𝑻𝟏 =
𝝆 . 𝑪𝒑
Temperature in Secondary Zone ( face tool ):
Note that: 𝑸𝟐 = 𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑿 𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
So, 𝑸𝟐 = 𝑭𝒇 . 𝑽𝒇 = 𝒖𝒇 . ( 𝒃 . 𝒕𝒐 . 𝑽𝒄 )
In the same way, we conclude that the temperature rise (∆T2) of the material passing through
the secondary zone is given by:
𝑭𝒇 . 𝒓
∆𝑻𝟐 =
𝝆 . 𝑪 𝒑 . ( 𝒃 . 𝒕𝒐 )
Finally, the total temperature rise ( ∆Tmax ) can be written as mentioned previously by:
𝒏 . 𝝉 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶 𝑭𝒇 . 𝒓
∆𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑻𝒐 + +
𝝆 . 𝑪𝒑 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏∅ . 𝒄𝒐𝒔(∅ − 𝜶) 𝝆 . 𝑪𝒑 . (𝒃 . 𝒕𝒐 )

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