Properties of Matter

Matter is either a mixture or a pure substance that is made up of small particles often called
molecules. These molecules are formed from minute tiny particles known as atoms or ions.
There are three generally known states of matter that is solids, liquids and gases; although,
plasmas are being considered as a separate state of matter but is it not prominent.
States of Matter
Objects that take up space and have mass are known as matter. There are three generally known
states of matter that is solids, liquids and gases; although, plasmas are being considered as a
separate state of matter but is it not yet prominent.
An understanding of the fundamental properties of these different states of matter is important in
all aspect of sciences, engineering and medicine. Forces put stresses on solids, and stresses can
strain, deform, and break those solids, whether they are steel beams or bones. Fluids under
pressure can perform work, or they can carry nutrients and essential solutes, like the blood
flowing through our arteries and veins. Flowing gas causes pressure differences that can lift a
massive cargo plane or the roof off a house in a hurricane.
High temperature plasmas created in fusion reactors may someday allow humankind to harness
the energy source of the sun.
The properties of the particles are:
Properties Solids Liquids Gases
Shape, Size Fixed shape, size and No fixed shape but No fixed shape, size or
and Volume volume fixed volume
Volume
Vibration Vibrate about a fixed Can flow; some Can move freely and at
position movement random
randomly around each at very high velocity in
other all space
available
Particle Particles are closely bound Particles loosely bound Particles are free to
move
Attraction Strong attractive and weaker force of exert no force on each
repulsive attraction other
force between them
Expansion Little expansion upon Slightly more Large expansion upon
heating expansion heating
upon heating

1
Compression Little or no compression Little or no Much more compression
on compression on upon heating
application of pressure
application of pressure

Brownian motion
Random movement of particles of liquids or gases (fluid) is called Brownian motion. It was
discovered by Scottish Botanist Robert Brown in 1827. He observed that the fine pollen grain on
the surface of water are not stationary but moving about in a random motion. This random
motion of pollen grains caused by much smaller, invisible faster moving water particles when
they hit pollen grains from all direction. This motion is called Brownian motion after the scientist
who observed this phenomenon for the first time.
Evaporation, Boiling and Melting
Evaporation Boiling Melting
Evaporation is the process of Boiling is the process of Melting is the process of
converting liquid into converting liquid into converting solids into
vapours. vapours at the boiling point liquids
As a result of increasing the As a result of increasing the As a result of increasing the
temperature of liquid the temperature of liquid the temperature of solid the
molecules start moving molecules start moving molecules start vibrating at
faster and gain enough faster and gain enough faster rate and gain enough
energy to break the energy to break the energy to weaken the
intermolecular bonding and intermolecular bonding and intermolecular bonding.
escape from the surface. escape from the liquid
It happens at any It happens only at the It happens only at melting
temperature boiling point of the liquid. point of the solid.
It happens at the liquid It happens anywhere within It happens at the surface
surface only. the liquid.
Average Ek decreases and Average Ek stays the same Average Ek stays the same
therefore the temperature of and therefore the while melting and therefore
liquid decreases temperature of liquid does the temperature of solid does
not increase not increase
Bubbles not formed Bubbles formed No bubbles formed
The opposite of evaporation The opposite of boiling is The opposite of melting is
is condensation by cooling condensation by cooling solidification or freezing by
cooling

2
Forces Due to Fluids
Fluid are substance that can flow they are liquid and gases.
Fluid flow can be classified in many ways:
Viscous or Non-viscous:
Steady or Non-steady: If the velocity V(r, t) where r is position and t is time is independent of
time t, then the flow is steady. (In other words, every fluid element passing through a point r will
have the same velocity as all other passing this point earlier and the same velocity as all others to
come). Otherwise it is non-steady. In a steady flow, if a fluid element arrives at r at some time to,
we know where it is going and can tell where it will be at all times later than to and indeed we
know where it has been.
Compressible or Incompressible: If the density is constant, the fluid is incompressible,
otherwise it is compressible. Liquids can easily be considered incompressible and in most cases,
changes in density of a gas may be unimportant, in that case the gas flow incompressibly.
Compressible fluid is one whose density change with depth, example air, while Incompressible
fluid is one whose density does not change with depth, example water.
Rotational or Irrotational: If a small element of a fluid at some point has no rotational motion
about it centre of mass the fluid flow at that point is locally irrotationally. If this is true for all
elements of the fluid, then its flow is irrotational. Otherwise it is rotational.
In general we usually study steady, irrotational, incompressible and non-viscous (SIIN).

Pressure and Density

Pressure: is defined as the force, F per unit area, A. Pressure may vary from point to point on a
liquid boundary.
Mathematically,
F
P (46)
A
It is measure in N/m2 called Pascal (Pa).
The force which any surface in contact with a fluid exercises is always perpendicular/normal
(right angle) to the surface. In describing fluids, density is very crucial.
Density
Density is defined as the mass, m per unit volume, v. Density depends on many factors such as
temperature and pressure. For liquid the density is approximately constant but for gases it’s
varies.
Mathematically,
m
 (47)
v
3
The density of solids and liquids are mainly expressed in kg/m3 and that of gases in g/cm3.

Relative Density, R.D

R.D which is also known specific gravity is the ratio of the density of the body to the density of a
body taken as a standard. In the case of solids and liquids are normally referred to water as a
standard, while gases referred to air as a standard.
R.D = density of body/density of water
R.D = mass of body/mass of an equal volume of water
R.D = weight of body/weight of an equal volume of water.

Pascal’s and Archimedes’ Principles

Pascal’s Principles
Pascal’s principles states that the pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted
undiminished to every portion of the fluid and to walls of its container.

Archimedes’ Principle
Archimedes’ Principle states that an object completely or partially immersed or submerged in a
fluid is buoyed up (kept afloat) by a force with magnitude equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the object.
Upthust: The upthrust which is a reaction force that acts on a body when the body is partially or
wholly immersed or submerged in fluid experienced depends on the volume of the body and the
density of the fluid.
Bouyant: The bouyant is force is considered as acting vertically upward through the center of
gravity of the displaced fluid and it is equal the weight of displaced fluid.
Principle of Floatation
This principle states that when a body is completely or partially immersed or submerged
completely or partially immersed or submerged, its weight is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced. Objects like ship and ice float simple because; they displace their own weight of the
water in which their weights are in equilibrium with the upthrust.
The instrument used for determining the density and R.D of liquid is called Hydrometer (simple
and practical) and its principle is based on the principle of floatation.
Viscosity
Viscosity is the frictional force in fluid which is due to the internal friction between the layers of
fluid and it’s varies with temperature. Viscosity, F is proportional to the product of the cross
sectional area, A and the velocity gradient ∆V.

4
F AV  F   AV (48)

v2  v1 V
V   (49)
l 2 l1 l

AV
F  (50)
l
Fl
The coefficient of viscosity  
AV (51)
Stroke’s Law and Terminal Velocity
Surface Tension
This is the tension by the surface of a liquid due to a resultant inward pull on the molecules at the
surface. If you look closely at a dewdrop sparkling in the morning sunlight, you will find that the
drop is spherical. The drop takes this shape because of a property of liquid surfaces called
surface tension.
The surface tension γ in a film of liquid is defined as the magnitude of the surface tension force
F divided by the length, l along which the force acts:
F
 (52)
l
The SI unit of surface tension is the newton per meter (Nm-1).

Fick’s Law
Fick’s Law states that the rate of movement of molecules from left to right will equal the rate
from right to left if the concentration equilibrium is reached.
mass m  c c 
Diffusion rate    DA  2 1  (53)
time t  l 
m
The rate of A
t
c2  c1
A is change in concentration per distance, is concentration gradient and D is diffusion
l
coefficient (m2s-1).

Stroke’s Law
Stroke’s law states that the frictional force acting on a sphere of radius, r which attains a terminal
velocity in a viscous fluid of coefficient of viscosity is given mathematically as:

5
F  6 rv (54)

A body that is moving through a fluid experiences a retarding force due to viscosity of the fluid.
When a small object, such as small steel ball is dropped into a viscous liquid it accelerates as
first but its velocity soon reaches a steady values known as terminal velocity. That means; the
velocity increases until it reaches a velocity (terminal velocity, v).

Bernoulli’s Theorem
When a fluid is in motion the pressure within the fluid varies with the velocity of the fluid, if the
fluid is streamlined (laminar). This variation is a consequence of Bernoulli’s theorem. This
theorem states that the sum of the of the pressure P, the kinetic energy per unit volume, and the
potential energy per unit volume has the same value at all points along a streamline (the path of
motion by fluid elements in steady flow). This implies that the pressure within a fast moving
fluid is lower than that in a similar fluid moving slowly. This is Bernoulli’s equation is often
expressed as:
1 1
P   v 2  cons tan t  P   v 2   gh  cons tan t (55)
2 2

1 1
P1   v12   gh1  P2   v22   gh 2 (56)
2 2
Poisueille’s Law
Considering the viscosity of a fluid flowing through a tube of length, l and radius, r due to a
pressure difference, ∆P between its ends

 Pr 4 v
Q  Flow rate, Q  [Poisueille’s Equation] (57)
8l t
This equation gives the relationship between Q of a fluid flowing through a capillary (or any
flow channel) in terms of physical parameters that exist in capillary system or any flow channel
in steady flow.
Torricelli’s Theorem
This applies to fluid flowing from a drum with horizontal opening near the base. If the difference
in levels between the holes and the upper liquid surface is h, then;

V2  2 gh (58)

V1 = 0 in Bernoulli’s Equation.
Streamline Flow
The path of motion by fluid elements in a steady flow is known as streamline.

6
Reynold show the condition that would give turbulence in a flow of a fluid, the velocity in a
tube:
Re
vc 
2 r

Re is the Reynold’s number

If Re 2000 the flow is streamlined (Liminar)
Re 3000 the flow is turbulent
But if it lies between these two, the flow is unstable.

Viscosity in Gasses
The viscosity in gases is due to the transfer of momentum between neighbouring layers of gas.
nm v
 (59)
3

1
Where,   (60)
2 2 n
Eqn. (60) is the Eqn. for mean free path of the molecules, n is the number of molecules per unit
volume, v is the average velocity of the gas molecules and  is the effective diameter of the
molecules.
The coefficient of viscosity of gas is proportional to the velocity, such that the velocity is related
to the temperature of the gas. The coefficient of viscosity increases with increasing temperature
but independent of pressure, except at very low pressure.

Capillary Action
Capillary is the rise of a liquid to some distance in a narrow glass tube when the tube is dipped
into a liquid that wets it. Such liquid that rises some distance depends on; the cross-section area
of the tube (the narrower the tube the greater the rise of liquid in it) and the surface tension.
Capillary action occurs when the adhesion to the walls is stronger than the cohesive forces
between the liquid molecules. The height to which capillary action will take water in a uniform
circular tube is limited by surface tension. The height h to which capillary action will lift water
depends upon the weight of water which the surface tension will lift:

T 2 r   g (h r 2 ) (61)

The height to which the liquid can be lifted is given by:

7
 2T
h (62)
 rg
Capillary action is the result of adhesion and surface tension. Adhesion of water to the walls of a
vessel will cause an upward force on the liquid at the edges and result in a meniscus which turns
upward. The surface tension acts to hold the surface intact, so instead of just the edges moving
upward, the whole liquid surface is dragged upward.
Cohesion and Adhesion
Molecules in liquid state experience strong intermolecular attractive forces. When those forces
are between like molecules, they are referred to as cohesive forces. For example, the molecules
of a water droplet are held together by cohesive forces, and the especially strong cohesive forces
at the surface constitute surface tension. Cohesion is therefore the force of attraction between
identical molecules.
When the attractive forces are between unlike molecules, they are said to be adhesive forces. The
adhesive forces between water molecules and the walls of a glass tube are stronger than the
cohesive forces lead to an upward turning meniscus at the walls of the vessel and contribute to
capillary action. Adhesion therefore, is the force of attraction between molecules of different
substances.
The attractive forces between molecules in a liquid can be viewed as residual electrostatic forces
and are sometimes called van der Waals forces or van der Waals bonds.

Elastic Property of Matter

Elasticity
Force changes the shape or size of a body; causing change in the relative positions of the
molecules within the body. This change is known as elasticity.
Stress
Stress is the force per unit area it is sometimes seen as the pressure on a body. It is the measure
of the cause of the deformation caused by a force. The maximum stress a body can stand without
fracture is known as breaking stress (BS). BS is of two kinds: Compressive BS (the maximum
squashing stress before fracture) and Tensile BS (the maximum stretching stress before fracture).
f
Stress  ( Nm2  pascal ) (63)
A
Strain
Strain is the rate of change in size of a body to its original size.
l l l
Strain   2 1 (unitless)
l l

8
 (64)

Stress

Strain
Diagram
Elastic Modulus
This is the property that will indicate how a specimen will behave when subjected to a given
stress.
stress
Elastic Modulus  (65)
strain

There are three types of elastic modulus:

Bulk Modulus (K): refer to the change in volume with pressure
Shear/Rigidity Modulus (G): refer to a twisting
Young Modulus (E): refer to a stretching or compression

Types of Modulus Nature on Stress Nature on Strain

K Change of pressure Change of size but not shape
G Tangential force divided by area Change of shape but not size
E Longitudinal force divided by Change of shape and size
area

Hooke’s Law (Robert Hooke, 1976)

F e (66)

F  ke (67)

Hooke’s law can only hold [Eqn. (66)] if and only if the elastic limit is not exceeded.

9
The work done by force acting on a stressed wire is equal to the energy gained by the wire
(isolated system)
Wok done = average force × extension
1 1 1
W F  e  ke  e  ke 2 (68)
2 2 2

Recall that;

stress F Fe
E  A
strain e Al
l (69)
EAe
F 
l

1 EAe2
Work done = energy stored  (70)
2 l

If the extension increases  e  e1  e2 

1 EA
The energy stored   e2  e1 2 (71)
2 l
Examples/Assignment [8]
1. Water leaves the jet of a horizontal hose at . If the velocity of water within
the hose is . Calculate the pressure within the hose.
2. A steel wire 10.00m long with a cross sectional area of 0.01cm2 is hung from a support
and a mass of 5.00kg is hung from its end. Find the new length of the wire.
3. Calculate the terminal velocity of a raindrop of radius 0.20cm falling through air.
4. An artery in a certain man has been reduced to half its original inside diameter by
deposits in the inner wall of the artery. By what factor will the blood flow through the
artery be reduced if the pressure differential across the artery has remained unchanged?
5. A horizontal pipe of diameter 6cm has a construction of diameter 2cm. The velocity of
the water in the pipe is 2m/s and the pressure is 2×105 N/m2. Find the final velocity and
pressure in the construction (1 atm = 105 N/m2).

10