Contents

Define Database Management System .............................................................................................. 2

List the drawbacks of File Processing System over DBMS. .................................................................. 2
Write down the advantages of . ......................................................................................................... 3
Write about Query Processor ............................................................................................................ 3
What is Data Independence and list out it types ................................................................................ 3
Write about any 2 design issues in E-R diagram ................................................................................. 4
Write a short note on E-R model and Relational model...................................................................... 4
Explain the different types of Keys in DBMS....................................................................................... 5
Define Mapping Cardinality and list it types with simple example. ..................................................... 5
List out the operations of the relational algebra with suitable example (Any five) .............................. 6
Consider the Employee relational table- Employee (Empno, Name, Dept, Salary) and write the
queries .............................................................................................................................................. 6
Differentiate nested query and sub query with an example. .............................................................. 7
Construct the Student relational table – Student (Sid, StuName, City, DOB) and write queries to
create, insert, select, alter and drop. ................................................................................................. 8
Write down the properties of functional dependencies. .................................................................... 9
Give any 5 Codd Rules. ...................................................................................................................... 9
Describe the Acid properties of transactions...................................................................................... 9
Draw the various states of transaction and explain. ......................................................................... 10
Write about indexing in DBMS and list various indexing in DBMS. ................................................... 11
Define Serializability and explain the types of it. .............................................................................. 11
List the types of Recoverability and explain it. ................................................................................. 12
Write a short note on Triggers and its benefits. ............................................................................... 12
Write the difference between Deferred update and Immediate update .......................................... 13
List down the functions performed by Database Administrator ....................................................... 13
Draw and explain the types of views in DBMS.................................................................................. 14
Explain in detail about the data definition and data manipulation commands with examples. ......... 15
Construct an E-R diagram for Health care management system with almost all components and
explain. ........................................................................................................................................... 16
Explain in detail about Aggregation, Generalization and specialization with its design constraints. .. 17
What is Join and Explain in detail about various types of Joins with suitable examples.................... 17
What is Relational algebra and explain in detail about various operations of relational algebra in
detail. .............................................................................................................................................. 20
Explain the various levels of normalization with an example ............................................................ 22
Explain in detail about the structure of PL/SQL with an example...................................................... 24
Explain in detail about database security and its control measures are used to provide security of
data in databases ............................................................................................................................ 25
Database Security .................................................................................................................... 25
Key Threats to Database Security ............................................................................................. 25
Control Measures for Database Security .................................................................................. 25
What is Concurrency Control? Explain the two-phase protocol with an example. ............................ 26
Concurrency Control in Databases ........................................................................................... 26
Two-Phase Locking (2PL) Protocol ............................................................................................ 26
Example of 2PL ........................................................................................................................ 26
Advantages of 2PL: .................................................................................................................. 27
Disadvantages of 2PL: .............................................................................................................. 27

PART B

Define Database Management System

Database Management System (DBMS):

A Database Management System (DBMS) is software that enables users to store, retrieve,
manage, and manipulate data efficiently. It ensures data security, integrity, and consistency
while providing tools for querying and updating databases.

List the drawbacks of File Processing System over DBMS.

Drawbacks of File Processing System over DBMS:

1. Data Redundancy: Multiple copies of the same data can exist, leading to
inconsistencies.
2. Data Inconsistency: Changes in one file may not be reflected in others, causing
mismatched data.
3. Difficulty in Accessing Data: Queries are hard to construct and often require custom
code.
4. Limited Data Sharing: Sharing data between programs is complex.
5. Security Issues: File systems offer minimal security features.
6. Concurrency Control: Multiple users cannot access or update data simultaneously
without conflicts.
7. No Data Recovery Mechanism: No backup and recovery features to prevent data
loss.
8. Integrity Constraints: Hard to enforce rules for maintaining data integrity.
Write down the advantages of .

Advantages of (Structured Query Language):

1. Simple Language: Easy to learn and use, with commands resembling English.
2. Standardized Language: ANSI and ISO standard language used globally.
3. Data Manipulation: Allows insertion, updating, and deletion of records efficiently.
4. Query Flexibility: Enables complex queries using JOIN, UNION, and subqueries.
5. Scalability: Suitable for handling large datasets.
6. Security Features: Provides permissions and roles for access control.
7. Portability: Works with multiple databases like My, Oracle, Server, etc.
8. Integration: Supports integration with other programming languages like Python,
Java, and C++.
9. Data Definition and Control: Allows schema creation, modification, and
enforcement of constraints.
10. Transaction Control: Manages transactions using commands like COMMIT and
ROLLBACK.

Write about Query Processor

Query Processor:

A Query Processor in DBMS interprets and executes queries. It translates user requests into
database commands for data retrieval or modification.

Key Components:

1. Query Parser: Checks the query syntax and verifies its correctness.
2. Query Optimizer: Optimizes query execution plans to minimize time and resource
usage.
3. Query Executor: Executes the optimized query to retrieve or modify data.
4. DDL Interpreter: Processes schema definitions and structure modifications.

What is Data Independence and list out it types

Data Independence:

Data Independence refers to the ability to modify a database schema without affecting the
application programs that use the data. It simplifies database maintenance and promotes
flexibility.

Types of Data Independence:

 1. Logical Data Independence:
o Changes to the logical schema (e.g., adding/removing attributes) do not affect
application programs.
2. Physical Data Independence:
o Changes to the physical storage structure (e.g., reorganization or indexing) do
not affect the logical schema or application programs.

Write about any 2 design issues in E-R diagram

Two Design Issues in E-R Diagram:

1. Redundancy:
o Problem: Redundancy occurs when the same information is stored in multiple
places, leading to data inconsistency.
o Example: If an employee's department information is stored both in the Employee
and Department entities, changes in one might not reflect in the other.
o Solution: Normalize the data by separating it into distinct entities and defining
relationships properly.
2. Weak Entities:
o Problem: Weak entities cannot exist without a strong entity, and designing
relationships between them requires identifying relationships and foreign keys.
o Example: A Dependent entity (child) depends on a Parent entity.
o Solution: Assign a discriminator (partial key) and link it to the primary key of the
strong entity.

Write a short note on E-R model and Relational model.

E-R Model and Relational Model:

1. E-R Model:
o The Entity-Relationship (E-R) Model represents data using entities, attributes, and
relationships.
o It is a conceptual design tool used to visualize database structure before
implementation.
o Components:
 Entities: Objects (e.g., Student, Teacher).
 Attributes: Properties of entities (e.g., Name, Age).
 Relationships: Associations between entities (e.g., Teaches).
2. Relational Model:
o The Relational Model represents data in tables (relations) consisting of rows
(tuples) and columns (attributes).
o It focuses on data storage and retrieval using and supports normalization to
eliminate redundancy.
o Components:
 Relation/Table: Stores data.
 Primary Key: Ensures unique identification of rows.
 Foreign Key: Establishes relationships between tables.
Explain the different types of Keys in DBMS.

Types of Keys in DBMS:

1. Primary Key:
o A unique identifier for a record in a table (e.g., Student_ID).
2. Candidate Key:
o A set of attributes that can uniquely identify a record. One candidate key is chosen
as the primary key.
3. Super Key:
o A set of attributes that can uniquely identify a record, but may include extra
attributes (e.g., {Student_ID, Name}).
4. Foreign Key:
o An attribute in one table that refers to the primary key of another table, establishing
a relationship.
5. Alternate Key:
o Candidate keys that are not selected as the primary key.
6. Composite Key:
o A key formed by combining two or more attributes to uniquely identify records.
7. Unique Key:
o Ensures all values in a column are distinct but allows NULL values.

Write a short note on conversion of E-R diagram into Relational table

Conversion of E-R Diagram into Relational Table:

1. Entities to Tables:
o Each entity in the E-R diagram becomes a table.
o Attributes become columns, and the primary key is selected.
2. Relationships to Foreign Keys:
o Relationships are converted into foreign keys to link tables.
o For 1:1 relationships, add the primary key of one table as a foreign key in the other.
o For 1:N relationships, add the primary key of the '1' side as a foreign key in the 'N'
side.
o For M:N relationships, create a new table with both primary keys as composite
keys.
3. Weak Entities to Tables:
o Include a foreign key referencing the strong entity and a discriminator attribute.

Define Mapping Cardinality and list it types with simple example.

Mapping Cardinality:
Mapping Cardinality defines the number of associations between entities in a relationship.
It specifies how many instances of one entity can be related to instances of another entity.

Types with Examples:

1. One-to-One (1:1):
o Example: Husband - Wife (Each husband has one wife, and vice versa).
2. One-to-Many (1:N):
o Example: Department - Employee (One department has many employees, but an
employee belongs to one department).
3. Many-to-One (M:1):
o Example: Student - Advisor (Many students have one advisor).
4. Many-to-Many (M:N):
o Example: Student - Course (Many students enroll in many courses).

List out the operations of the relational algebra with suitable example
(Any five)

Operations of Relational Algebra (Any 5):

1. Selection (σ):
o Filters rows based on a condition.
o Example:
σ(Dept = 'IT') (Employee) – Selects employees from the IT department.
2. Projection (π):
o Displays specific columns (attributes).
o Example:
π(Name, Salary) (Employee) – Displays only the Name and Salary columns.
3. Union (∪):
o Combines rows from two relations (tables) with no duplicates.
o Example:
Employee ∪ Manager – Combines rows from Employee and Manager tables.
4. Intersection (∩):
o Returns rows that are common between two relations.
o Example:
Employee ∩ Manager – Finds common rows in both tables.
5. Join (⨝):
o Combines rows from two relations based on a common attribute.
o Example:
Employee ⨝ Dept (DeptNo) – Joins Employee and Dept on the DeptNo column.

Consider the Employee relational table- Employee (Empno, Name,

Dept, Salary) and write the queries
i) List all the employees whose name starts with the letter ‘S’

ii) Find the maximum salary given to employees in each department

iii) Find the number of employees working in “Computer Science” department

Queries for Employee Table:

Table: Employee (Empno, Name, Dept, Salary)

1. List all the employees whose name starts with the letter ‘S’:

SELECT * FROM Employee WHERE Name LIKE 'S%';

2. Find the maximum salary given to employees in each department:

SELECT Dept, MAX(Salary) AS MaxSalary FROM Employee GROUP BY Dept;

3. Find the number of employees working in the “Computer Science” department:

SELECT COUNT(*) AS NumEmployees FROM Employee WHERE Dept = 'Computer Science';

Differentiate nested query and sub query with an example.

Difference Between Nested Query and Subquery:

1. Subquery:
o A query inside another query, executed first, and its result is used in the outer
query.
o Example:

SELECT Name FROM Employee WHERE Salary > (SELECT AVG(Salary) FROM Employee);
The inner query calculates the average salary, and the outer query fetches employees with salaries
above average.

Nested Query:

 A multi-level subquery where one query depends on another subquery.

 Example

SELECT Name FROM Employee WHERE Dept = (SELECT Dept FROM Employee WHERE Name =
'John');

The inner query fetches John’s department, and the outer query lists employees in the same
department.

Write about select and project operation with an example.

 Select (σ):

 Filters rows based on conditions.

 Example:
 SELECT * FROM Employee
WHERE Salary > 50000;

 Retrieves employees with salary greater than 50,000.

 Project (π):

 Selects specific columns.

 Example:

SELECT Name, Salary FROM Employee;

 Displays only Name and Salary columns.

Construct the Student relational table – Student (Sid, StuName, City,

DOB) and write queries to create, insert, select, alter and drop.

Queries for Student Table:

Table Structure: Student (Sid, StuName, City, DOB)

1. Create Table:

CREATE TABLE Student (

Sid INT PRIMARY KEY,
StuName VARCHAR(50),
City VARCHAR(50),
DOB DATE
);

2. Insert Data:

INSERT INTO Student VALUES (1, 'John', 'Delhi', '2000-05-15');

INSERT INTO Student VALUES (2, 'Sara', 'Mumbai', '2001-08-20');

3. Select Data:

SELECT * FROM Student;

4. Alter Table: (Add a new column)

ALTER TABLE Student ADD Phone VARCHAR(15);

5. Drop Table:

DROP TABLE Student;

Write down the properties of functional dependencies.

Properties of Functional Dependencies:

1. Reflexivity:
o If Y ⊆ X, then X → Y (Subset dependency).
o Example: {A, B} → A.
2. Augmentation:
o If X → Y, then XZ → YZ (Adding attributes preserves dependency).
o Example: A → B implies AC → BC.
3. Transitivity:
o If X → Y and Y → Z, then X → Z.
o Example: A → B and B → C implies A → C.
4. Union:
o If X → Y and X → Z, then X → YZ (Combine dependencies).
o Example: A → B and A → C implies A → {B, C}.
5. Decomposition:
o If X → YZ, then X → Y and X → Z.
o Example: A → {B, C} implies A → B and A → C.
6. Pseudotransitivity:
o If X → Y and WY → Z, then WX → Z.
o Example: A → B and CB → D implies CA → D.

Give any 5 Codd Rules.

Codd’s Rules (Any 5):

1. Information Rule:
o All data must be stored in table format (rows and columns).
2. Guaranteed Access Rule:
o Each data item must be accessible through a combination of table name, primary
key, and column name.
3. Systematic Treatment of NULL Values:
o NULL values must be treated uniformly to represent missing or inapplicable
information.
4. Active Online Catalog:
o Metadata should be stored in the database and accessible using .
5. Comprehensive Data Sublanguage Rule:
o The database must support a language like for data definition, manipulation, and
transaction management.

Describe the Acid properties of transactions.

ACID Properties of Transactions:

 1. Atomicity:
o A transaction is all or nothing—either all operations are executed, or none.
o Example: Money transfer fails, and no partial updates occur.
2. Consistency:
o Ensures the database remains consistent before and after a transaction.
o Example: Total account balance remains unchanged during transactions.
3. Isolation:
o Transactions operate independently, and intermediate results are hidden until
committed.
o Example: Two users can’t modify the same data simultaneously.
4. Durability:
o Once a transaction is committed, changes are permanent even in case of system
failure.
o Example: Bank transaction data remains safe after power loss.

Draw the various states of transaction and explain.

States of Transaction:

Start

Active

↙ ↘

Partially Failed

Committed ↓

↓ Aborted

Committed ↑

Rollback

 Active:

 Transaction starts and executes operations.

 Partially Committed:

 Operations are complete, but final commit is pending.

 Committed:

 Changes are made permanent.

 Failed:
  Transaction violates constraints or encounters errors.

 Aborted:

 Transaction is rolled back, restoring the database to the previous state.

Write about indexing in DBMS and list various indexing in DBMS.

Indexing in DBMS:

Indexing is a technique to optimize the performance of database queries by minimizing the

number of disk accesses required. It provides quick access to rows in a table based on the
values of columns.

Types of Indexing:

1. Primary Index:
o Built on the primary key of the table.
o Example: Index on Student_ID in the Student table.
2. Secondary Index:
o Built on non-key attributes to speed up queries.
o Example: Index on Student_Name for searching names quickly.
3. Clustered Index:
o Rows are physically ordered based on the index.
o Example: Index on Employee_ID, where records are stored in sorted order.
4. Non-clustered Index:
o Creates a separate structure that maps index keys to row pointers.
o Example: Index on City in a table where data is unordered.
5. Unique Index:
o Ensures that indexed values are unique in the table.
o Example: Index on Email_ID in a user table.
6. Bitmap Index:
o Efficient for columns with low cardinality (few distinct values).
o Example: Index on Gender or Status columns.

Define Serializability and explain the types of it.

Serializability:

Serializability in DBMS ensures that the concurrent execution of transactions is equivalent

to executing them in some serial order without violating consistency. It guarantees isolation
in transactions, preventing anomalies like dirty reads and lost updates.
Types of Serializability:

1. Conflict Serializability:
o Ensures that transactions can be rearranged to form a serial schedule by swapping
non-conflicting operations.
o Conflicting Operations: Two operations conflict if:
1. They operate on the same data item.
2. At least one operation is a write.
o Example: T1: Read(A), Write(A) and T2: Write(A) conflict, but T1: Read(A) and T2:
Read(A) do not.
2. View Serializability:
o Transactions produce the same result as a serial execution, even if their operations
are interleaved.
o It is less restrictive than conflict serializability but harder to test.

List the types of Recoverability and explain it.

Types of Recoverability:

1. Recoverable Schedule:
o A schedule where transactions commit only after all transactions whose changes
they depend on have committed.
o Example: T1 writes data; T2 reads it. T2 should commit only after T1 commits.
2. Cascadeless Schedule:
o Prevents cascading rollbacks by ensuring that a transaction reads only committed
data.
o Example: If T1 fails, T2 (which depends on T1) does not need to roll back because it
didn’t read uncommitted data.
3. Strict Schedule:
o Ensures no changes are made until transactions commit, maintaining a strong
consistency guarantee.
o Example: Transactions can neither read nor write uncommitted data.
4. Rigorous Schedule:
o Stronger than strict schedules, it prevents reading and writing of data until a
transaction has fully committed.

Write a short note on Triggers and its benefits.

Triggers in DBMS:

Triggers are predefined procedures or rules that are automatically executed in response to
specific events (INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE) on a table or view.
Syntax Example:

CREATE TRIGGER salary_update

BEFORE UPDATE ON Employee

FOR EACH ROW

BEGIN

IF NEW.Salary < 0 THEN

SIGNAL STATE '45000' SET MESSAGE_TEXT = 'Invalid salary!';

END IF;

END;

Benefits of Triggers:

1. Automatic Execution: Responds automatically to events, reducing manual effort.

2. Consistency and Validation: Enforces business rules, such as constraints and
validation checks.
3. Auditing and Logging: Tracks changes and logs historical data for auditing
purposes.
4. Data Integrity: Maintains integrity by preventing invalid transactions.
5. Cascading Changes: Automatically updates related tables.

Write the difference between Deferred update and Immediate

update

Difference between Deferred Update and Immediate Update:

Aspect Deferred Update Immediate Update

Timing of Changes are not written immediately to Changes are written
Changes the database but stored in logs. immediately to the database.
Rollback Simply ignores the logs if the transaction Must undo changes if the
Mechanism fails. transaction fails.
More complex due to the need
Complexity Simpler as no rollback is needed.
for undo logs.
Faster as changes are delayed until Slower due to frequent disk
Performance
commit. writes.
Example Use Batch processing systems. Online transaction systems.

List down the functions performed by Database Administrator

Functions Performed by Database Administrator (DBA):

1. Database Design and Implementation:

o Designs the database schema and implements structures.
2. Data Security and Authorization:
o Implements security policies, user permissions, and access controls.
3. Backup and Recovery:
o Plans and executes data backup strategies and recovers data in case of failures.
4. Performance Monitoring and Optimization:
o Monitors database performance and optimizes queries and indexes.
5. Database Maintenance:
o Maintains consistency, integrity, and updates patches or upgrades.
6. User Management:
o Adds or removes users, manages roles, and monitors activity.
7. Troubleshooting:
o Identifies and resolves database issues, such as deadlocks or failures.
8. Replication and Synchronization:
o Ensures data is replicated across multiple systems for high availability.
9. Documentation:
o Keeps records of configurations, changes, and recovery processes.
10. Auditing:
o Tracks changes for accountability and compliance with regulations.

PART C

Draw and explain the types of views in DBMS

Types of Views in DBMS

A view in DBMS is a virtual table based on the result of a query. It does not store data itself
but provides a customized perspective of the data stored in the database.

1. Simple View

 Definition: A view that is created from a single table without any aggregation or
grouping.
 Example:

CREATE VIEW EmployeeView AS

SELECT EmpID, EmpName, Department
FROM Employee;

 Use: Provides limited access to specific columns.

2. Complex View

 Definition: A view created using multiple tables, joins, or with aggregation functions.
 Example:
CREATE VIEW DeptSalaryView AS
SELECT Department, AVG(Salary) AS AvgSalary
FROM Employee
GROUP BY Department;

 Use: Shows aggregated data and combines information from multiple tables.

3. Materialized View

 Definition: Unlike regular views, it stores the result of the query physically and
refreshes periodically.
 Example:

CREATE MATERIALIZED VIEW SalesSummary AS

SELECT ProductID, SUM(SalesAmount) AS TotalSales
FROM Sales
GROUP BY ProductID;

 Use: Optimizes performance for complex queries by storing results.

Explain in detail about the data definition and data manipulation

commands with examples.

Data Definition and Data Manipulation Commands

1. Data Definition Language (DDL):

 Purpose: Used to define or modify database schema.

Common Commands:

1. CREATE - To create a new table, database, or view.

CREATE TABLE Students (

StudentID INT PRIMARY KEY,
Name VARCHAR(50),
Age INT
);

2. ALTER - To modify existing schema objects.

ALTER TABLE Students ADD Email VARCHAR(100);

3. DROP - To delete objects.

DROP TABLE Students;

 4. TRUNCATE - To delete all rows from a table without logging.

TRUNCATE TABLE Students;

5. RENAME - To rename database objects.

RENAME TABLE Students TO Pupils;

2. Data Manipulation Language (DML):

 Purpose: Used to manipulate data stored in the database.

Common Commands:

1. INSERT - To add new records.

INSERT INTO Students (StudentID, Name, Age) VALUES (1, 'John', 18);

2. UPDATE - To modify existing data.

UPDATE Students SET Age = 19 WHERE StudentID = 1;

3. DELETE - To remove records.

DELETE FROM Students WHERE StudentID = 1;

4. SELECT - To retrieve data.

SELECT * FROM Students;

Conclusion:

 Views simplify data access and improve security by limiting data exposure.
 DDL commands define and manage database structures, while DML commands
handle data manipulation within those structures.
 Mastering these commands is fundamental to working with relational databases.

Construct an E-R diagram for Health care management system with

almost all components and explain.
E-R Diagram for Health Care Management System

Entities and Relationships:

1. Patient - Attributes: PatientID, Name, Age, Gender, Address.

2. Doctor - Attributes: DoctorID, Name, Specialization, Contact.
3. Appointment - Attributes: AppointmentID, Date, Time.
4. Medicine - Attributes: MedicineID, Name, Dosage.
5. Prescription - Attributes: PrescriptionID, Details.
 6. Bill - Attributes: BillID, Amount, Payment Status.

Relationships:

 A Patient can book multiple Appointments.

 A Doctor can handle multiple Appointments.
 An Appointment can have a Prescription.
 A Prescription can include multiple Medicines.
 A Bill is generated for an Appointment.

Explain in detail about Aggregation, Generalization and specialization

with its design constraints.
Aggregation, Generalization, and Specialization

1. Aggregation:
o Definition: It is a higher-level relationship that represents a relationship
between relationships.
o Example: In the Health Care System, an Appointment involves both Patient
and Doctor, and this relationship can be associated with Bill.
o Diagram Representation: A diamond symbol representing the association
between entities.
2. Generalization:
o Definition: Process of extracting shared characteristics from two or more
entities and creating a higher-level entity.
o Example: Entities Surgeon and Physician can be generalized into a single
entity Doctor.
o Diagram Representation: An arrow pointing from child entities to the parent
entity.
3. Specialization:
o Definition: Opposite of generalization, where a higher-level entity is divided
into sub-entities based on specific attributes.
o Example: Entity Doctor can be specialized into Surgeon and Physician.
o Diagram Representation: An arrow pointing from the parent entity to child
entities.

Design Constraints:

 Participation: Specifies whether all entities participate in a relationship (Total or

Partial).
 Cardinality: Defines the number of instances of an entity involved in a relationship
(1:1, 1:N, N:M).

What is Join and Explain in detail about various types of Joins with
suitable examples.
JOIN

A JOIN is used to combine rows from two or more tables based on a related column
between them. It allows querying data from multiple tables as if they were a single table.

Types of Joins

1. INNER JOIN
o Returns rows that have matching values in both tables.
o Syntax:

SELECT columns
FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column = table2.column;

o Example:

SELECT Employees.EmployeeID, Employees.Name,

Departments.DepartmentName
FROM Employees
INNER JOIN Departments
ON Employees.DepartmentID = Departments.DepartmentID;

o Output: Only employees who belong to a department.

2. LEFT JOIN (LEFT OUTER JOIN)
o Returns all rows from the left table and the matching rows from the right table.
o Rows with no match in the right table will have NULL values.
o Syntax:

SELECT columns
FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.column = table2.column;

o Example:

SELECT Employees.EmployeeID, Employees.Name,

Departments.DepartmentName
FROM Employees
LEFT JOIN Departments
ON Employees.DepartmentID = Departments.DepartmentID;

o Output: All employees, even those without a department, are shown.

3. RIGHT JOIN (RIGHT OUTER JOIN)
o Returns all rows from the right table and the matching rows from the left table.
o Rows with no match in the left table will have NULL values.
 o Syntax:

SELECT columns
FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.column = table2.column;

o Example:

SELECT Employees.EmployeeID, Employees.Name,

Departments.DepartmentName
FROM Employees
RIGHT JOIN Departments
ON Employees.DepartmentID = Departments.DepartmentID;

o Output: All departments, even those without employees, are shown.

4. FULL JOIN (FULL OUTER JOIN)
o Returns all rows from both tables.
o Rows with no match in either table will have NULL values.
o Syntax:

SELECT columns
FROM table1
FULL JOIN table2
ON table1.column = table2.column;

o Example:

SELECT Employees.EmployeeID, Employees.Name,

Departments.DepartmentName
FROM Employees
FULL JOIN Departments
ON Employees.DepartmentID = Departments.DepartmentID;

o Output: Includes all employees and departments, showing NULL wherever no match
is found.
5. CROSS JOIN
o Returns the Cartesian product of both tables, combining each row of the first table
with every row of the second table.
o Syntax:

SELECT columns
FROM table1
CROSS JOIN table2;

o Example:
 SELECT Employees.Name, Departments.DepartmentName
FROM Employees
CROSS JOIN Departments;

o Output: Every combination of employees and departments.

6. SELF JOIN
o Joins a table with itself, often used for hierarchical or comparative data.
o Syntax:

SELECT A.column1, B.column2

FROM table A, table B
WHERE A.common_column = B.common_column;

o Example:

SELECT E1.Name AS Employee, E2.Name AS Manager

FROM Employees E1
INNER JOIN Employees E2
ON E1.ManagerID = E2.EmployeeID;

o Output: Matches employees with their managers.

What is Relational algebra and explain in detail about various

operations of relational algebra in detail.

Relational Algebra

Relational Algebra is a procedural query language used to manipulate and retrieve data
stored in relational databases. It provides a foundation for SQL queries.

Basic Operations in Relational Algebra

1. Selection (σ) – Filters rows based on a condition.

Example:

σ (Department = 'IT') (Employees)

o Selects employees belonging to the 'IT' department.

2. Projection (π) – Selects specific columns.
Example:
 π (Name, Department) (Employees)

o Projects only the Name and Department columns.

3. Union (⋃) – Combines the results of two relations and removes duplicates.
Example:

R1 ⋃ R2

o Combines results from R1 and R2 with unique values.

4. Intersection (⋂) – Returns common rows between two relations.
Example:

R1 ⋂ R2

o Displays rows present in both R1 and R2.

5. Difference (−) – Returns rows that are in one relation but not in the other.
Example:

R1 − R2

o Shows rows in R1 but not in R2.

6. Cartesian Product (×) – Returns the combination of all rows from two tables.
Example:

R1 × R2

o Produces a Cartesian product of relations R1 and R2.

7. Join (⨝) – Combines relations based on a condition.
Example:

R1 ⨝ R1.A = R2.B R2

o Matches rows in R1 and R2 where A equals B.

8. Rename (ρ) – Renames a relation or its attributes.
Example:

ρ (NewTable, (ID, Name)) (Employees)

o Renames the table and its columns.

Additional Operations in Relational Algebra

1. Division (÷) – Finds rows in one relation that match all rows in another.
Example:
 css

A ÷ B

o Used for queries like “Find students who have taken all courses.”
2. Aggregation Functions – Performs operations like SUM, AVG, MIN, MAX, etc.
Example:

γ Department, SUM(Salary) (Employees)

o Groups data by department and calculates the total salary.

3. Group By – Groups rows based on a column and applies aggregate functions.
Example:

γ Department (Employees)

o Groups employees by department.

Explain the various levels of normalization with an example

Normalization and Its Levels with Example

Normalization is a process in database design that organizes data to reduce redundancy and improve
data integrity. It involves dividing a database into two or more tables and defining relationships
between the tables.

1. First Normal Form (1NF)

Rule: Eliminate duplicate columns and ensure each column contains atomic values (indivisible).

Example:

OrderIDCustomer Products

1 John Pen, Notebook

2 Mary Pencil, Eraser

Problem: Multiple products stored in a single column violate 1NF.

1NF Solution:
OrderIDCustomer Product

1 John Pen

1 John Notebook

2 Mary Pencil

2 Mary Eraser

2. Second Normal Form (2NF)

Rule: Meet all 1NF requirements and ensure all non-key columns are fully dependent on the primary
key.

Example:

OrderIDProduct Customer Address

1 Pen John 123 Main St

1 Notebook John 123 Main St

Problem: Customer and Address depend only on Customer, not OrderID.

2NF Solution: Separate the tables:

Orders Table:

OrderIDProduct

1 Pen

1 Notebook

Customers Table:

Customer Address

John 123 Main St

3. Third Normal Form (3NF)

Rule: Meet all 2NF requirements and eliminate transitive dependency (no non-key column should
depend on another non-key column).

Example:
OrderIDCustomerID City State ZipCode

1 101 New York NY 10001

Problem: City depends on ZipCode, not CustomerID.

3NF Solution: Separate the tables:

Orders Table:

OrderIDCustomerID ZipCode

1 101 10001

ZipCode Table:

ZipCode City State

10001 New York NY

Explain in detail about the structure of PL/SQL with an example.

Structure of PL/SQL with Example

PL/SQL (Procedural Language/Structured Query Language) is Oracle’s procedural extension

of SQL. It allows variables, loops, and conditional statements.

Structure of PL/SQL Block:

1. Declaration Section: Variables and constants are declared.

2. Execution Section: Contains SQL and procedural statements.
3. Exception Handling Section: Handles errors and exceptions.

Example: Program to calculate the sum of two numbers.

DECLARE
num1 NUMBER := 10; -- Declaration
num2 NUMBER := 20;
sum NUMBER;

BEGIN
sum := num1 + num2; -- Execution
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Sum = ' || sum); -- Output statement
EXCEPTION
WHEN OTHERS THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('An error occurred'); -- Error handling
END;
/

Explanation:

1. Declaration: Variables num1, num2, and sum are declared.

2. Execution: Calculates sum and prints it.
3. Exception: Handles unexpected errors.

Explain in detail about database security and its control measures are
used to provide security of data in databases

Database Security

Database security involves protecting the database from unauthorized access, misuse, and
malicious threats. It ensures confidentiality, integrity, and availability (CIA) of data.

Key Threats to Database Security

1. Unauthorized Access – Accessing data without permission.

2. SQL Injection Attacks – Injecting malicious SQL code to manipulate or steal data.
3. Data Leakage – Sensitive data exposed through errors or misconfigurations.
4. Privilege Abuse – Users exploiting excessive privileges.
5. Malware and Viruses – Harmful programs damaging database systems.

Control Measures for Database Security

1. Authentication and Authorization:

o Authentication: Verifies user identity using usernames, passwords, or biometrics.
o Authorization: Grants access based on roles and permissions (Role-Based Access
Control - RBAC).
2. Encryption:
o Encrypts data to protect it during storage and transmission (e.g., AES, SSL/TLS).
3. Access Control:
o Implements policies to restrict user access based on roles and tasks.
4. Auditing and Monitoring:
o Tracks database activities and logs user actions for analysis.
5. Backup and Recovery:
o Maintains regular backups to restore data in case of data loss or corruption.
6. Firewalls and Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS):
o Prevent unauthorized network access and detect suspicious activities.
7. Database Hardening:
 o Disables unnecessary features and updates patches to remove vulnerabilities.
8. SQL Injection Prevention:
o Uses parameterized queries or stored procedures to validate input.

What is Concurrency Control? Explain the two-phase protocol with an

example.

Concurrency Control in Databases

Concurrency control ensures that multiple transactions can occur simultaneously without
causing inconsistencies. It prevents lost updates, dirty reads, and uncommitted data issues.

Two-Phase Locking (2PL) Protocol

The 2PL protocol ensures serializability by dividing a transaction’s locking phase into two
parts:

1. Growing Phase:
o The transaction acquires locks as needed but cannot release any lock.
2. Shrinking Phase:
o The transaction releases locks but cannot acquire any new lock.

Rules:

 No lock can be acquired after releasing any lock.

 Deadlocks can occur but are handled by timeout mechanisms or wait-die/wound-wait
schemes.

Example of 2PL

Transactions:

 T1: Reads and updates A.

 T2: Reads and updates B.

Steps:

1. T1 acquires a lock on A (growing phase).

2. T1 updates A and acquires a lock on B.
3. T1 updates B and releases the lock on A (shrinking phase).
4. T1 releases the lock on B, completing the transaction.
If T2 tries to access B while T1 holds the lock, it waits until T1 releases the lock.

Advantages of 2PL:

 Guarantees serializability.
 Suitable for applications requiring strict consistency.

Disadvantages of 2PL:

 May lead to deadlocks.

 Reduced concurrency because transactions may need to wait for locks.