Vector and Scalar Quantities

Measureable physical quantities in Physics may also be classified as scalar and vector.
Scalar Quantity: is specified by a single value with an appropriate unit (magnitude) and has no
specified direction. Examples of scalar quantities are volume, mass, time intervals etc. The rules
of ordinary arithmetic are used to manipulate scalar quantities, since they do not have direction
associated in space.
Vector quantity: has both magnitude and direction. Examples of vector quantities are velocity,
acceleration and displacement etc. The number of components needed to specify the vector
depends on the geometry of the space which can be represented by lines.
Some Properties of Vectors
Two vectors A and B may be defined to be equal if they have the same magnitude and point in
the same direction. That is, A = B only if A=B and if A and B point in the same direction along
parallel lines.
Addition of Vectors: The rules for adding vectors are conveniently described by geometric
methods. To add vector B to vector A, first draw vector A, with its magnitude represented by a
convenient scale, on graph paper and then draw vector B to the same scale with its tail starting
from the tip of A. The resultant vector R = A +B is the vector drawn from the tail of A to the tip
of B. This procedure is known as the triangle method of addition.
Negative of a Vector: The negative of the vector A is defined as the vector that when added to
A gives zero for the vector sum. That is, A + (-A) = 0. The vectors A and -A have the same
magnitude but point in opposite directions.
Subtraction of Vectors: The operation of vector subtraction makes use of the definition of the
negative of a vector. We define the operation A - B as vector -B added to vector A:
A - B =A + (- B) (29)
Components of a Vector and Unit Vector
This is the method of adding vectors that makes use of the projections of vectors along the
coordinate axes. These projections are called the components of the vector. Any vector can be
completely described by its components.
Consider the diagram below:

1
Ax  ACos 
(30)
Ay  ASin

These components form two sides of a right triangle with a hypotenuse of length A. Thus, it
follows that the magnitude and direction of A are related to its components through the
expressions.

A  Ax 2  Ay 2
 Ay  (31)
  tan 1  
 Ax 
Note: The signs of the components Ax and Ay depend on the angle 

Relative Motion and Velocity

Motions in general are relative; this is why we should always choose a reference frame with
respect to which we can specify the motion. The earth is usually frame of reference chosen at rest
even though the earth is moving through space. The motion of a body relative to another is the
vector difference between the motions of the bodies
The relative velocity is a comparative velocity between two moving bodies with reference to a
point. If the velocity of a body A is Va and that of the second body B is Vb. Then;
The relative velocity of A to B, if both bodies are moving in the same direction = Va – Vb.
If both bodies are moving in opposite direction = Vb + Va.

Examples/Assignment [5]

1. A Toyota Jeep moving with a velocity of 65m/s travels in opposite direction to a Benz
Jeep with a velocity of 80m/s. Find the relative velocity of the Benz Jeep to the Toyota
Jeep.

           
F1  3 i  j  4 k , F2  4 i  4 j  3 k , F3  3 i  2 j  k and F4  2 i  2 j  3 k
2. are forces acting
on an object. Calculate the magnitude of the equilibrant of the forces.
3. Two aero plane, X and Y moving in space have position vectors
     
3 i  4 j  7k and  i  2 j  3 k respectively. In what direction should the pilot of X look to
see Y.

2
Work, Energy and Power
The work W done on an object by an agent exerting a constant force on the object is the product
of the component of the force in the direction of the displacement and the magnitude of the
displacement.
W=Fs Cos 𝞠 (32)
If an applied force F acts along the direction of the displacement, then   0 and cos   1 . In
this case, Eqn. (32) gives:
W  Fs (33)
Work is a scalar quantity, and its units are force multiplied by length. Therefore, the SI unit of
work is the newton meter (Nm). This combination of units is used so frequently that it has been
given a name of its own: the joule (J).

Energy
Energy is the ability to do work.
Types of Energy
 Mechanical Energy
 Solar Energy
 Nuclear Energy
 Chemical Energy
 Heat Energy
 Sound Energy etc
We shall limit to mechanical (which may be in the form of energy kinetic or potential energy)
Kinetic Energy: energy by virtue of motion of a body, it is stored in a body when the velocity
changes, given by:
1
K .E  mv 2 (34)
2

3
Potential Energy: energy by virtue of the position or level of a body, given by:
P.E  mgh (35)

Principle Conservation and Transformation of Energy

Although energy may be transformed from one form to another, the total energy in a closed or
isolated system is always constant. Mechanical energy is conserved when the energy changes by
virtue of the position of a body and when in motion, this can be illustrated when a body is
dropped from a given height.
Power
The time rate of doing work is called power. If an external force is applied to an object (which
we assume acts as a particle), and if the work done by this force in the time interval t is W, then
the average power expended during this interval is defined as:
W Fs
P   Fv (36)
t t
Note: 1 horse power (h.p) = 746 W
Examples/Assignment [6]

1. Calculate the work done in moving a body along a straight line from (3, 2, -1) to (2, -1, 4)
  
in a force field given by F4  4 i  3 j  2 k .
2. A young man uses a horizontal force of 200N to push a crate up a ramp of 8m long at 200
above the horizontal. How much work does the guy perform and if he takes 12s to push
the crate up the ramp, what is his power output in h.p.
3. A jet of 3,000kg acquires a speed of 2,000m/s in a minute after takeoff. Calculate the
average power expended during this time neglecting friction and gravitational forces.
4. A Benz Jeep of mass 1200kg moves up a long inclined 50 with a constant velocity of
36km/hr. Calculate the work done by the engine of the Benz Jeep in 5s and the power
developed by it, if all frictional effects are neglected.

4
The Law of Gravity
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation: Every particle in the universe attracts every other
particle with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
If the particles have masses m1 and m2 and are separated by a distance r, the magnitude of this
gravitational force is
1
Fm1m2 and F 
r2
m1m2
 Fg  G (37)
r2

Where G is a constant, called the universal gravitational constant G  6.6731011 Nm2kg 2 (m3kg-
1 -2
s )
The Gravitational Field
The gravitational field is a region in which every object on the earth surface is pulled by the
earth’s gravity or is attracted towards it. It is at a point in space equals the gravitational force
experienced by a test particle placed at that point divided by the mass of the test particle.
Fg Gme
g  (38)
m R 2e

Gravitational Potential Energy

The gravitational potential at a point on the earth’s surface is the work done in moving a unit
mass of a body from infinity to that point.
The gravitational potential energy associated with any pair of particles of masses m1 and m2
separated by a distance r is given as:
Gm1m2
U  (39)
r
Escape Velocity
Is the velocity required for a body of mass, m to just escape from the gravitational influence of
the earth; it can be derived from:

1 Gme m 1 Gme m 1 Gme m

K .E P.E  mv 2   mv 2   0  mv 2  (40)
2 Re 2 Re 2 Re

5
 2GM e
ve   11.3kms 1  1.13104 ms 1 (41)
Re

Where, mass of the earth, me=5.98×1024 kg, Radius of the earth, Re=6.38×106 m, g=9.8ms-2

Kepler’s Law
Kepler’s laws of planetary motion was derived by the German astronomer Johannes Kepler a
German, whose analysis of the observations of the 16th-century Danish astronomer Tycho
Brahe enabled him to announce his first two laws in the year 1609 and a third law nearly a
decade later, in 1618. Kepler himself never numbered these laws or specially distinguished them
from his other discoveries.
The laws describe the motions of the planets in the solar system and they are used
in astronomy and classical physics. Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion can be stated as
follows:
1. All planets move about the sun in elliptical orbits, having the sun as one of the foci.
2. A radius vector joining any planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal lengths of
time; this implies that all line drawn from the sun to any planet sweeps out equal areas in
equal intervals.
3. The squares of the orbital (sidereal) periods (of revolution) of the planets are directly
proportional to the cubes of their mean (average) distances from the planet to the sun.

mp v 2 Gms mp
mp a   (42)
r r2
2 r
Where, v 
T

 2 r 
2

Gm  T 
 2s   (43)
r r

 4 2  3
T 
2
 r  ks r
3
(44)
 Gm s 

Eqn. (44) is the Kepler’s 3rd Law.

Note: Mass of the earth, me=5.98×1024 kg, Radius of the earth, Re=6.38×106 m, T=5.98×107 s,
near distance for the sun = 1.496×1011 m

6
 4 2
ms  (Mass of the sun)
Gks

4 2
 ks   2.97 1019 s 2 m3
Gms (45)
The relevance of Kepler’s laws extends to the motions of natural and artificial satellites as well
as to unpowered spacecraft in orbit in stellar systems or near planets. As formulated by Kepler,
the laws do not, of course, take into account the gravitational interactions (as perturbing effects)
of the various planets on each other. The general problem of accurately predicting the motions of
more than two bodies under their mutual attractions is quite complicated; analytical solutions of
the three-body problem are unobtainable except for some special cases. It may be noted that
Kepler’s laws apply not only to gravitational but also to all other inverse-square-law forces and,
if due allowance is made for relativistic and quantum effects, to the electromagnetic forces
within the atom.

Examples/Assignment [7]
1. A satellite is expected to circle round the earth in an orbit 40000km from the surface.
Calculate the velocity of the satellite in its orbit, its period and the acceleration due to
gravity at that instant (take the radius of the earth = 6400km).
2. Relate the acceleration of gravity to the mass of the earth. Hence, use your answer to
estimate the mass of the earth.
3. Derive an expression for estimating the mass of a planet with a satellite.
4. The escape velocity is the minimum velocity with which a body must be fired from the
earth if it to reach infinity. Hence, compute the escape velocity of body from the earth.