1

Name: __________________________________ Date: ____________________

Course & Section: ________________________ Result: __________________

I. Identification. Write the correct answer on the space provided. You can refer to the
words in the box for some clues.

1. It is an organized collection of logically related data.

2. It refers to the data that describes another data.
3. A database operation allows the retrieval of information.
4. It refers to the data that have been processed.
5. A software package allows the management of databases.
6. It is a term that refers to any known facts or concepts.
7. It is a database operation which allows user to modify the contents
of tables.
8. It is equivalent to a row in a table.
9. It is a model that shows the high-level entities for the organization,
the relationships among those entities, and some data constraints.
10. It is equivalent to a column in a table.

2
3
Importance of Database and Information Management

Todays' world, which is usually termed as the "digital world," is becoming

complex. It was estimated that organizations and business entities around the world
generate about 44 zettabytes of data at the beginning of 2020. By 2025, there is an
approximation of 463 exabytes that would be created every 24 hours worldwide.
Thus, data is termed as the new oil of the present era (Vuleta, 2020). This signifies
that data and information are indeed valuable assets in any organization. Thus, it is
essential to look at this as an opportunity because fate will favor those who will be
able to select, manage, and use information efficiently. Appropriate and effective
information management will give any organization a competitive advantage and
indeed make a difference. In general, proper information management is crucial in
the attainment of an organization's success.

Information management involves analyzing database requirements,

gathering and selecting information, designing appropriate database structures, and
managing information by implementing databases within information systems
development to achieve the maximum benefits. It encompasses a range of
resources, including data, information, technology, information systems, business
processes, and people and ensures that information is accessible at the right time to
the person (Lal, 2017).

Information management, according to Lowry (2018), offers numerous

benefits. Some of them are the greater investment return on the implemented
information resources, easy information exchange, effective business operations
support through information system integration, adherence to standards, and pattern
extraction to support planning and forecasting.

Nowadays, managers and administrators are looking for ways to manage database
content to gain knowledge and competitive advantage effectively. For example, in a
university set-up, enrollment databases may be analyzed to determine the courses
that have a bigger and smaller number of enrollees. School administrators to create
sound decisions on course offerings or design advertising and marketing campaigns
of the university may use the result (knowledge derived from it) as a basis. In
general, proper management of data and information may lead to greater efficiency
in most organizations.

Basic Concepts and Definition

Data

Data (plural for datum) is referred to as any raw facts or concepts(Coronel,

Morris, & Rob, 2011; Hoffer, Ramesh, & Topi, 2019; Sukhani, nd). These are usually
useless in their natural form because the meaning that they imply is vague. In the
example given in figure 1.1, a set of values is presented to users, but the real sense
is not clear. Readers may give different interpretations of the values presented.
Some may say that the first column is a list of student names. Others may say that
those are names of doctors or faculty or any entity. The same thing may happen for
the second column. Thus, data are needed to be converted into information to be
validated, understood, and used correctly by the users.

4
Information

Once data that have been processed so as the meaning would be consistent
and be vividly understood by those who use them, they are turned into information
(Hoffer, Ramesh, & Topi, 2019). It can be done by organizing them, presenting them
in a given context, summarizing them, or presenting them for human interpretation in
the form of a graph.

Data placed in a given context is shown in figure 1.2.

As shown in figure 1.2, the list of information provides labels that ensure a
clear understanding of what the values are all about. In this regard, we are sure that
the values presented are information of faculty members at Bulacan State University.

Another way to convert data into information is to summarize them or present

them for human interpretation in form of graph such as shown in figure 1.3.

5
 Figure 1.3 shows the number of faculty in each department or college. This
information provides aggregated number of faculty and tells something about each
college workforce.

Database

In most general terms, a database is defined as a collection of interrelated

data and information. It is organized in such a way that it allows easy storage,
manipulation, and retrieval of information (Hoffer, Ramesh, & Topi, 2019).

Databases, which are accessible and manipulated by a group of users, are

built to hold data for specific purposes. They store information about some aspects
of the real world; thus, whatever changes occur in the real world are reflected in the
database representing it (Gupta,2007).

Metadata

Metadata refers to the information that describes the characteristics or properties

(which includes data definition, data structures, rules, and constraints) of the
database's data. It is used by the database designers and users who need
information about the database structure to understand what data exist, what the
data mean, and what the subtle distinctions are between seemingly similar data
items (Hoffer, Ramesh, & Topi, 2019).

Proper management of metadata is essential and crucial to avoid errors,

confusions, and misinterpretation of associated data.

Table 1.1. shows an example of metadata. For each data item that appears in
the Employee Rosters, the metadata shows the data item name, the data type, the
size or length (if appropriate, the minimum and maximum allowable values), a brief
description of each data item, and other constraints.

In the employee table, six fields or data items are shown. The first five data
items will accept text values with a pre-defined maximum size. On the other hand,
the birthdate data item will accept only date values while the salary field will accept
number values. All are considered mandatory columns except the birthdate and
salary, where the users may optionally provide values.

DBMS (Database Management System)

A database management system (DBMS) is a software package that allows

users to design, create, access, maintain, manipulate, and retrieve data and
information(Hoffer, Ramesh, & Topi, 2019). If a database is to be compared with an
organized electronic filing cabinet, the DBMS is used to manage the content of this

6
cabinet (Coronel, Morris, & Rob, 2011). Thus, using DBMS, data management is
performed with greater ease (Ayyavaraiah & Gopi, 2017). Examples of such are
Microsoft Access, as shown in figure 1.4, Oracle, MySQL, SQL Server, and the like.

Microsoft Access allows users to perform database applications such as

adding new records, modifying, and deleting records from databases. An example of
a database is shown in figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5 shows a database with five tables: COURSE, COLLEGE,

FACULTY, EXAM, and EXAMINEE on the left side of the figure. The larger pane
shows the relationships between the different tables in database 1. Each column of
the table is described as the table is created, as shown in figure 1.6.

7
 Figure 1.6 shows how every field or column properties in the table COURSE
is defined. In the example, CourseCode is set to be the primary key of the table. On
the other hand, the definition of CollegeCode should be similar to the definition of the
CollegeCode in table COLLEGE because it is considered a foreign key column.
Foreign keys and primary keys will be discussed later in this module. Sample
records are provided in tables 1.2- 1.6.

8
 Tables 1.2 – 1.5 shows five tables defined in database 1, with sample records
stored in every table. Every record is equivalent to a row in a table.

In constructing the database, we create tables to hold values representing

real-world objects such as college, faculty, examinee, exam, and course. Notice that
records in different tables may be related. For example, the records for college are
related to two other tables. Such as, college is related to faculty who is assigned to it.
Similarly, college is also associated with the course to determine what college offers
a specific course. It is also possible that several relationships may exist among
several records in different tables.

A DBMS performs several functions, including storing, modifying, retrieving,

and protecting data from unauthorized modification and possible damages.

Database Operations
A database application is an application program (or set of related programs)
used to perform a series of activities on behalf of database users.

Each database application performs some combination of the following

operations: add new records to tables (Create); retrieving contents of tables (Read);
modifying contents of tables (Update); and removing records from tables (Delete) in
a database (Hoffer, Ramesh, & Topi, 2019).

Examples of Create operations are as follows:

● Insert a record of Rose Bautista Mendoza into table faculty

● Add new examinee records.

Examples of Read operations include the following:

● Retrieve all courses offered by COE

● Select all examinees applied for BSIT
● List all faculty in CICT.

9
 Examples of Updates are as follows:

● Change the CollegeName of COE in the College table to the College of

Engineering.
● Modify the room assignment for examinee number 106 to IT8
● Modify the First name of E-106 and change it to Anna.

Examples of Delete operations include the following:

● Remove the record of the faculty of Alice Bautista Manio.

● Delete the entire contents of table Exam

Hierarchy of Data
The data hierarchy shows how data is organized in layers where the higher
level of data consists of one or more items from the lower layer (Mendiola, 2015).

Character: A character, equivalent to a byte, can be a letter, a number, special

symbol, punctuation mark, or space.

Field: A file is usually a combination of one or more related characters identified by a

field name. The nature of the character a filed will hold is dependent on the data
type.

Record: A record is equivalent to one row of a file/table or only a related field group.
The primary key (which may be atomic or composite) of the table uniquely identifies
each record in a file or table.

Data File: A data file is a collection of interrelated records. In layman’s term, it

merely refers to a table of values.

Database: A database is a collection of interrelated data files or tables.

Figure 1.7 shows examples of each hierarchy of data.

10
 Figure 1.7 shows an example of a character (T) of the CICT field value of
ColCode. A combination of related values about employee E-110 is a record in the
data file FACULTY. It is equivalent to one instance of FACULTY, which presents the
information to us in the form of a table. The diagram's database consists of five
related files COLLEGE, COURSE, EXAM, EXAMINEE, and FACULTY.

11
Name: _______________________________ Date: _______________________
Course & Section: _____________________ Result: _____________________

I. Answer the questions briefly.

1. Differentiate data from information.

2. Define DBMS and databases. Discuss the importance of DBMS to the

database system.

3. Enumerate the organization (hierarchy) of data from the simplest. Describe

each.

12
Name: _______________________________ Date: _______________________
Course & Section: _____________________ Result: _____________________

Rubrics:

Weight Actual
No. Items
Score
1. The distinction of data from information is properly
5
illustrated.

2. The definition of database and DBMS is concise. 5

3. The discussion of DBMS importance in the database

5
system is clear.

4. The sequence and explanation of the data hierarchy of

5
data are correct.

5. Expression of answers adheres to the quality standard

5
of formal writing.

13
14
Manual File Management and File System
The earliest form of organizing files is with a filing cabinet where vital records
were usually kept and secured with a lock. This approach works well and efficiently
as long as the essential information stored is small, and if most of the time, the
operations required are simple storage and retrieval of files. However, a manual filing
system is not sufficient if the information stored needs to be processed and have to
cross-reference. To address the need for more efficient data or information access,
the file system was developed. This was the earliest attempt to data processing
using a computer system. In a file system, files were created to hold the
organization's information. Data are stored in a set of computer files, which do not
have a relationship to other files, defined and managed by different application
programs. Flat files are accessed, and file handling is performed through the
application programs, usually written using C/C++ programming languages (Thakur,
nd). Figure 1.8 shows how the file-based system is organized.

The file system, as depicted in the figure, stored data in the form of files.
Several application programs are written to add, delete, update, and retrieve data to
and from appropriate files. Each of the application programs developed addresses
the data management requirements of a particular department. In effect, every
department in an organization maintains its "own" private files.

Consider a university that uses a file system to manage its files. Different
departments of the university maintain, control, and manipulate different and
separate data files. An MIS department may use an application program that will
manage students' grades and other enrolment concerns. On the other hand, the
Accounting department maintains files related to student fees. Notice that in the file
system, both departments keep the student master files, which are files about
students enrolled in the university. Since, in this approach, two files that provide the
same information may be maintained in several distinct departments, several issues
may arise, such as limited data sharing, data redundancy, data inconsistency,

15
metadata inconsistency, and data integrity issue. File systems do not also allow
concurrent access to data and back up and data recovery problems (Desai, 2019)

DBMS Approach
As organization data processing requirements become more complex, it
becomes evident that traditional file systems had several shortcomings and
limitations. As a result, file systems have been replaced by the DBMS system. Figure
1.9 shows how the DBMS approach works.

The DBMS approach emphasizes integrating and sharing data throughout the
organization or at least across major segments of the organization.

A fundamental to shifting to the DBMS approach is designing the database

with proper care to meet the organization's data and information needs. Data models
are created to guide the development of database structure and are used at different
levels of abstraction as a database is conceptualized and designed. Data models
show the relationships among data and are vital in developing an efficient
organization database (Hoffer, Ramesh, & Topi, 2016).

To understand in the most general way the organization data needs, we can
develop an initial list of the high-level entities that support the business activities of
the organization. An entity is an object or concept that is important to the
organization. We also define entity types to establish a better understanding of what
each is all about. Then we define the high-level relationships among the entity types.
For example, in an information system used in a university, we may consider some
critical entities such as faculty, college, and course. The entity types are defined as:

COLLEGE. A COLLEGE is a department in the university where the teaching

staff or faculty are assigned.

After the high-level entities were identified and defined, the next step is to
determine the associations, called relationships, in database technology. These can
be established by defining business rules such as:

16
 A COLLEGE offers one or more COURSEs. Conversely, each COURSE is
offered by only one COLLEGE.

Note: The business rules will be discussed further in the succeeding chapters.

The next step is to create the data model that shows the organization's
high-level entities and associations among those entities. This model emphasizes
integrating data and processes by concentrating on entities, relationships, and
business rules. A segment of the data model containing three entities and two
relevant associations is shown in Figure 1.9.

Major DBMS in the market are relational database management systems that
store and present data in tables. The data model we created is then mapped to a
relational model that focuses on tables, called relations in the database term.

Each column of a table represents an attribute (or characteristic) of an entity.

For example, the attributes shown for COLLEGE are CollegeCode and the
CollegeName. Each row of a table represents an instance (or occurrence) of the
entity. The relational model's important property represents relationships between
entities by values stored in the columns of the corresponding tables enforced by
referential integrity. Figure 1.10 shows the actual tables and the association among
the tables using Microsoft Access. Likewise, Figure 1.11 shows sample records
found in two related tables: College and Faculty.

17
 The example provided is intended to benefit the university admission office
staff and be installed on a stand-alone computer. However, to facilitate sharing data
and information, the university may use a local area network (LAN) - that links the
various information systems in the university admission to a database server. The
workstation may be used as a personal computer and connected to the database
server as needed through - the local area. On the other hand, an Intranet that uses
Web-based Internet technology and is only accessible within the university may also
be installed if improved intra-communication and decision-making are required.
Each workstation may be used as a web browser in the given scenario, gaining
faster access to university information, including college information, faculty
qualifications, etc.

The university may also anticipate adding a Web interface to its business
applications to conduct more internal business activities through its Intranet. They
may also plan to become more accessible to their client through the Internet.

Characteristics of DBMS Approach

DBMS approach is different from the file system approach in several ways.
The characteristics that distinguish the DBMS approach to file system approach are
(Anh, nd):

● DBMS is required: DBMS is an intermediary between database users

and database. It allows users to have issue queries to databases and
manipulate database content.
● Self-describing: The DBMS system contains the actual data and the
metadata, which are descriptions of the data structure and constraints.
The metadata allows the database users to understand what each data
is all about and what value it will accept.
● Program-data independence: Program-data independence refers to
the non-dependency of data descriptions on application programs.
DBMS system logically stored data and its definition in a repository and
permits data modification without changing its programs.
● Support multiple data views: DBMS system controls database
access through a view, a subset of the database. Different database
users are given different views, which is dependent on the data
requirement of the users.
● Multiuser system: DBMS allows multiple users to have concurrent
access to the database at the same time.

18
Advantages of DBMS Approach over File System
As organization requirements become more complex, it becomes evident that
traditional file systems are no longer sufficient. The following are the advantages of
DBMS over file systems (Shukla, 2020).

● Lower data redundancy: There is a high possibility that several

departments maintain the same file, as users need them, such as in the
case of the student master file held both in the MIS and Accounting
departments in our file system example. As such, it is challenging to avoid
redundancy of data in the file system. On the other hand, the database
approach's design goal is to integrate into a single, logical structure of its
data resources. Thus, the DBMS approach controls the redundancy of
data by ensuring that all information resource is stored in a single location.
Concerning this, waste in storage space usage is also avoided.

● Better data consistency and reliability: Inconsistent data in the file

system is possible because of data redundancy. Since the redundancy of
data is controlled in the database approach, then the data's consistency
and reliability are improved. The database user is guaranteed that the
retrieved information is reliable if there is only one copy of the data file
stored.

● Improved data sharing: In the DBMS approach, the database is designed

as a shared corporate resource; thus, sharing data among users is
allowed, unlike in file systems where sharing of data is difficult because of
the separation of files across departments.

● Allows data concurrency: DBMS approach enables several users to

access the same file, which is not permitted in file systems as only one
user can access data at a time.

● Enhanced data searching: The file system needs different application

programs in every search operation performed. On the other hand, a
simple database query is enough to perform a powerful search in the
DBMS approach.

● Higher data integrity: The file system specifies constraints in the

application program that will use the data. Additional constraint
requirement is difficult to integrate, and often will require rewriting the
application program. On the other hand, the DBMS system defines
constraints on the data itself, making it more flexible.

● Advanced data security: The DBMS approach has specialized features

and more security mechanisms than the file system that usually uses
password mechanisms. DBMS approach ensured security by allowing only
authorized users or groups of users to access the database through one or
more user views granted to them. The user view is a logical description of
some portion of the database granted to users to help them perform
assigned tasks.

● Permit backup and recovery of data: DBMS approach has a specialized

mechanism that provides backup and recovery of data even if it is lost.
Back up and data recovery is not possible in the file system.
19
 Hoffer, Ramesh, & Topi (2016) enumerated other DBMS approach benefits
aside from already discussed in the previous section.

● Increased Productivity of Application Development: A major

advantage of the database approach is that it greatly reduces the cost and
time for developing new business applications because the programmer
can concentrate on the specific functions required for the new application
without having to worry about file design and details assuming that the
database has already been implemented. Using the database approach,
the DBMS provides several high-level productivity tools that generate
some database design and implementation activities. These two reasons
combined ensure an increased productivity of application development.

● Enforcement of Standards: When the database approach is

implemented, data standards are established and enforced by a database
administrator who is granted full authority and responsibility for the
organization's information resource. The measures include naming
conventions, data quality standards, and uniform procedures for
accessing, updating, and protecting data.

● Improved Data Quality: The database approach provides several tools

and processes to enhance the quality of data. This can be done through
specifying constraints and rules enforced by the DBMS that cannot be
violated by database users. Another way to improve data quality is by
implementing a data warehouse environment in which operational data is
extracted from the source and transformed before accepted for storage.

● Reduced Program Maintenance: Stored data must be changed

frequently for a variety of reasons. In a database environment, data are
not anymore dependent on the application programs that use them.
Therefore, data or the application programs that use the data can be
changed without necessitating a change in the other factor. As a result,
program maintenance can be significantly reduced. Modification of data
values is also simplified because the data update will only be done in one
location.

20
Name: _______________________________ Date: _______________________
Course & Section: _____________________ Result: _____________________

II. Answer the questions briefly.

1. Discuss how data are organized and stored in a file system approach and
DBMS approach.

2. Enumerate the characteristics of the DBMS approach and provide a concise

discussion of each.

21
 3. List the potential benefits of the DBMS approach over conventional file
systems.

Name: _______________________________ Date: _______________________

Course & Section: _____________________ Result: _____________________

Rubrics:

Weight Actual
No. Items
Score
1. The description of the data organization in the file
5
system is detailed and correct.

2. The description of the data organization in the DBMS

5
approach is detailed and correct.

3. The description of DBMS characteristics is profound. 5

22
4. The potential benefits of the DBMS approach over the
5
conventional file system are sufficiently illustrated.

5. Expression of answers adheres to the quality standard

5
of formal writing.

23
Database Application
Database applications are software programs developed to collect, manage,
and provide information efficiently to end-users. These programs allow searching,
sorting, manipulating, and sharing of information. They can also provide security to
database contents by restricting access to data by validating usernames and
passwords whenever necessary. Most of these applications are tailor-fit to the
organization's need with a database programming language (Wall, nd).

Listed are some of the Database applications we have:

● Enrolment System: stores information about students, subjects, colleges,

grades, and others

● Library System: records information about books, publishers, library users,

and others

● Telecom System: handles information regarding customer demographic

information, calls made, network usage, and others

● Banking System: handles information about bank clients, customer credit

score, everyday credit and debit transactions, customer loans, and others

● Payroll System: holds information about employees, taxes, employees

dependents, job information, and others.

● Hotel Reservation System: stores information about customers, hotel rooms,

amenities, reservation details, and others

● Airlines Reservation System: stores information about customers, flight

schedules, reservation details, and others
24
 ● Accounting System: holds financial information such as company assets and
liabilities, resource inventory, purchase orders, and others, even suppliers' and
customers' information.

Range of Databases Application

The examples provided in the previous section are the most common
database applications familiar to us. The range of database applications varies
according to the following (Hoffer, Ramesh, & Topi, 2016):

Personal Databases

Personal databases support only one user at a time. It usually holds several
megabytes of data and is often stored on laptops, palmtop, desktop, or personal
digital assistants (PDAs) computers. The primary goal of developing personal
databases is to improve personal productivity. Its limitation, however, maybe the
sharing of data. For this reason, personal databases will be ideal only for a very
small organization where the need to share the data among users of the personal
database is unlikely to arise.

An example of an application that supports personal database is a

management application with a small database stored on a salesperson's laptop
computer and probably holds customers' (actual or prospective) information, sales
presentation, or pricing information. This database application helps the salesperson
create marketing strategies and determine the best combination of quantity and type
of items to offer to customers to initiate order.

Multitier Client/Server Databases

Multitier databases support a large number of users. Most of the time, it

keeps the different data activity needs of a particular department or unit. Figure 1.12
shows an example of a multitier client/server database architecture.

In figure 1.12, the database users interact in the system through the client tier.
The application tier manages the presentation or business logic needed to handle
25
users' requests while the enterprise tier maintains it. The separation of the
application layer or web server tier and the enterprise tier results to better
performance and maintainability of the database application and the database.

Enterprise Database

An enterprise database is a database whose scope is the entire organization

or the majority of its departments. It supports various information needs from several
departments, as well as organization-wide operations and decision-making. Medium
to large size organizations usually maintains more than one enterprise databases.

The major development in enterprise databases is implementing the

Enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems and the Data warehouse. ERP
systems are now essentials in today's many modern organizations since they
support the execution of essential business tasks by capturing the data in every
organization's transaction that define how the business performs. While ERP
systems work in an enterprise's current operational data, the data warehouse
consolidates information from different data sources, including those from various
operational databases, including personal, workgroup, department, and ERP
databases. The data warehouse allows the users to extract meaningful patterns and
trends necessary in decision-making and development of strategic plans.

Internet Databases

Internet is a public network accessed by hundreds of millions of people

worldwide through a Web browser interface. An Intranet is a private network that
utilizes Internet technologies to disseminate pertinent information to its employees.
The connection is protected by a firewall, which prevents external users from
connecting to it. An extranet is the logical extension of the Intranet in such a way
that the access to the company's information is extended to other stakeholders such
as business suppliers and customers with whom an agreement has reached about
legitimate access and use of each other's data and information. All internet
applications, whether those of the Internet or Intranet or Extranet, require database
support. This kind of database is among the most complex multiuser databases

Types of Databases
A DBMS can support many different types of databases, classified according
to the number of users, the database locations, and the expected extent of use
(Coronel, Morris, & Rob, 2011).

Database Types According to the Number of Users

The first way to classify databases is by the number of users who access the
content of the databases concurrently. The access to database content may be one
user at a time or simultaneously among several users.

Single-user Database

26
 A Single-user database supports only one user at a time. It is also called
personal database since the primary goal is to improve personal productivity. The
previous section already provides good discussion about personal databases.

Multiuser Database

A multiuser database supports multiple users at the same time. Workgroup,

department, and enterprise are multiuser databases.

A workgroup is a relatively small group of people, typically comprised of less

than 25 persons working together on the same project, such as construction projects
or applications, such as developing a new computer application. On the other hand,
a workgroup database is a database that supports the collaborative efforts of the
workgroup. It typically stores on a server and holds several megabytes to gigabytes
of data. Workgroup database allows easy data sharing among team members.

A department, such as human resources, accounting, marketing, and others,

is a unit within an organization that performs a specific or diverse range of functions.
On the other hand, a department database is a database developed to support the
various operations and activities of a department. It typically stores on a server and
holds several gigabytes of data.

An enterprise refers to the entire organization. An enterprise database is a

database developed to support the organization's operations and decision-making or
at least the organization's significant segments. An organization may have several
enterprise databases depending upon the complexity of the organization and its
network design.

Database Types According to Database Location

The location on which the data or information is stored also classifies the
databases. Database classification based on location is centralized or distributed.

Centralized databases

A centralized database supports data located and maintained at a single

location, usually called the central computer, mainframe computer, or main computer.
It is generally accessed using an internet connection or through LAN or WAN. The
processing of data happened in the central computer (Kaur, 2020). Figure 1.13
shows how a centralized database looks.

27
 Advantages of using centralized databases (Onsman, 2018):

Since data are stored and retrieved in a single location, the following are
some of the advantages of centralized databases.

● Higher data integrity

● Lower data redundancy
● Higher security of data can be enforced.
● The lower price due to less power and maintenance requirement
● Information is accessible from the same location and at the same time.

Disadvantages of Centralized Database (Coronel, Morris, & Rob, 2011).

● Performance degradation when the number of users increases

● High cost associated with the central computer's maintenance
● Single point of failure
● Scalability problems associated with the physical limits imposed by a
single location
● Organizational rigidity imposed by the database might not support the
flexibility and agility required by modern global organizations.

Distributed databases

A distributed database is a database that supports data distributed across

several different sites such as in several computers in a particular place or
geographically spread in distant places but appears as a single database to users.
Figure 1.14 shows a distributed database system (Castro, 2018).

28
 Figure 1.14 shows that the distributed database components are in a different
location; however, it appears as a single entity to users.
Distributed Database Management System (DDBMS) can be homogeneous
where the DBMS and data models used across all locations are uniform or
heterogeneous, where different data models, such as hierarchical, relational, and
other, are used.
Advantages (Coronel, Morris, & Rob, 2011).
● Availability of data: Needed data are located near the greatest demand
site
● Faster data access: Users work with only a locally stored subset of the
company's data
● Faster data processing: Data processing is spread at several sites;
system workload is lighter.
● More room for growth: New nodes can be added without affecting the
operations of the others
● Improved communication: Local sites are established close to related
stakeholders
● User friendly: Workstations are provided with a simple graphical user
interface
● Less danger for a single point of failure: Other nodes can pick up the
workload during one node's failure
Disadvantages (Coronel, Morris, & Rob, 2011).
● The complexity of management and control: Database activities must
be coordinated to avoid database degradation due to data anomalies.
Technology-related issues such as data integrity, security, back up, etc.
should also be addressed.
● Security: As more sites are added, the probability of security lapses
increases.
● Lack of Standards: No standard communication protocols are
established yet at the database level.
● Increased storage and infrastructure requirements: More storage
space is needed due to multiple copies of data.
● Increased Training Cost: There is more training needed for the smooth
functioning of the system.
● Costs: Additional cost for duplicated infrastructure to operate

Database Types According to the Use

Operational databases

29
 Operational databases are databases that support the day-to-day operations
of the organization. They are also referred to as transactional or production
databases. Operational databases usually support the primary database operations
such as read, update, delete, and insert; therefore, tables are generally in the third
normal form.

Data Warehouse

Data warehouses are databases that usually hold big data and store
information from various data sources, including different operational databases.
They support decision-making by allowing data analysts to extract hidden patterns to
create insights necessary to build the company's tactics and strategies. The design
of the data warehouse is different from the operational databases. Data warehouses
hold historical data, which can be used in creating predictions and forecasts.

The different databases already discussed in the previous sections support

the storage and maintenance of highly structured data. However, in our today’s
computing world, semi-structured and unstructured data are also used. The storage
and management needs of semi-structured and unstructured data are addressed
through a new generation of databases known as XML databases.

Table 1.7 shows the standard database management system available in the
market and the specific database types each supports.

30
Name: _______________________________ Date: _______________________
Course & Section: _____________________ Result: _____________________

Answer the questions concisely

1. Describe the different types of database according to database location.

31
 2. Elaborate on the difference between operational databases and data
warehouses. Describe the data used in each type of database.

Name: _______________________________ Date: _______________________

Course & Section: _____________________ Result: _____________________

Rubrics:

Weight Actual
No. Items
% Score

32
1. The description of the different types of database
5
according to database location is detailed and correct.

2. The discussion about the difference between

operational databases and data warehouses is 5
profound.

3. The discussion about the data in operational and data

5
warehouses is correct

4. Samples of database application are correct 5

5 List of data files in the database application you have

5
chosen is sufficient and interesting.

6. The provided fields per data file are correct 5

7. Expression of answers adheres to the quality standard

5
of formal writing.

33
The Database System Environment

A database environment refers to a group of system components that define

and control the collection, storage, management, and data use. The database
system, as shown in Figure 1.15, consists of five major components: including
hardware, software, people, procedures, and data (Coronel, Morris, & Rob, 2011;
Mangavkar, 2020).

34
Hardware

The database system's hardware component refers to all tangible or physical

devices used to manage the database. This includes the computer itself and its
peripherals such as input-output devices, including printers, keyboards, monitors,
etc. The different storage devices and network devices such as routers, cables,
fiber optics, switches, and hubs are also part of the hardware component.

Software

The software component refers to the intangible elements that help control
and manage the database and its contents. The software component includes the
DBMS software itself, the Operating System, and the application programs to access
the database.

● DBMS: The DBMS is a software package that allows users to manage

and control the databases' contents. Examples of DBMS software are MS
SQL Server, Oracle, MySQL, DB2, PostgreSQL, MongoDB, etc.
● Operating System (OS): The OS is the software that manages the
computer system's hardware and software resources and allows programs
to run smoothly. Examples of OS are Windows 10, UNIX, MAC OS, etc.
exercising.
● Application Programs: Application programs allows user to
communicate with the DBMS and its contents through graphical user
interfaces (GUIs). GUI makes end-users perform database operations
such as adding new records, deleting or modifying existing records, and
retrieving information through a report, tabulation, or other formats
available.

People

The people component of the database environment refers to all who control,
manage, and use its contents. Five essential types of users in a database system
are system administrators, database administrators, database designers, system
analysts and programmers, and end-users.

● System Administrators: Systems administrators are responsible for

maintaining servers, including those used in database systems operations.

35
 ● Database Administrators: Database Administrators are in charge of
managing DBMS and the entire organization information resource.
● Database Designers: Database Designers create the database structure
design necessary in producing a useful database environment.
● System Analysts and Application Developers: System Analysts and
Application Developers analyze the organization's data requirements, plan
and recommend solutions, design, and implement the application programs.
They create the graphical user interface (GUI) necessary for data entry,
manipulating the database, and retrieving reports.
● End Users: End users are any people throughout the organization who use
the application programs in routine operations to interact with the DBMS and
the database's content. The end-users perform the addition, deletion,
modification, and retrieval of data from databases.

Procedures

The procedures are the set of rules or instructions that govern DBMS, design,
and implementation of the database and the database system. Procedures are
composed of facts and information necessary in the enforcement of business-related
standards. Procedures are also essential to allow proper monitoring and audit of
data stored in the database and the information generated by the system.

Data

The data refers to the entire information resource, both the actual or
operational data and the metadata stored in its database.

The Database Users

Database users, in general, are people who are directly and indirectly
involved in database use such as IT specialists who are involved in the design, use,
and maintenance of a database or anyone who simply request information in the
database. The database users include one or more of the following:

Database and Data Administrators:

Database and Data Administrators (DBAs) are responsible for the

organization's over-all information resource, ensuring consistency and integrity
across databases. The DBAs are also accountable in the DBMS and related
software. They are also responsible for determining the hardware and software
requirements, granting user views and level of access to database users, monitoring
efficient database use, and database related problems such as low response time
and data security breach (Mahali, 2019).

Database Designers:

Database designers are expected to work and communicate with system

users to capture their needs and eventually address their requirements appropriately.
The majority of the database designers works, therefore, begin before the database
implementation. In general, they are responsible for designing the appropriate data
36
structures that will support the organization's data processing requirements (Mahali,
2019).

Tool Developers:

Tools are software packages that are optionally brought by an organization to

improve database performance. Some tools support the automatic generation of
database designs, code generation, performance monitoring, prototyping, etc. The
Tool developers are those individuals who design and implement tools necessary to
facilitate improved database performance (Elmasri & Navathe, 2016).

Software Engineers:

Software engineers are those individuals who follow a systematic approach in

designing, developing, testing, evaluating, and maintaining an information system.
Software engineers must be knowledgeable with the full range of DBMS capabilities
because they may perform system analysts and developers' duties in the context of
system and database development. As system analysts, they determine the users'
data processing requirements, create specifications, and propose tailored-fit
solutions to meet these needs. On the other hand, as application developers, they
convert the specifications to program codes; then, codes are tested, documented,
and maintained (Elmasri & Navathe, 2016).

End users:

End-users are all people who frequently access the contents of the database
to accomplish the tasks assigned to them. They add new records, edit and modify
database contents, and retrieve database contents presented in reports (Elmasri &
Navathe, 2016).

Categories of end-users (Elmasri & Navathe, 2016).:

● Casual end-user: Casual end users are usually infrequent database

users, managers in the high and middle levels. These individuals only
access the database whenever they need information, which is usually
different each time.

● Naive or Parametric end-user: Naive or parametric end users are usually

the operational database users who rely heavily on the database's
contents on their day-to-day duties and perform basic database
operations, often database updates and database queries. Examples are
front desk personnel, bank tellers, university cashier, and others.

● Sophisticated end users: Sophisticated end users are very much

knowledgeable with the DBMS facilities, which enables them to use it in
their applications as they solve complex requirements. These users
include scientists, business analysts, and other knowledge workers.

● Stand-alone users: Stand-alone users maintain personal databases

supported by tailor-made programs with user-friendly graphics-based
interfaces.

37
Name: _______________________________ Date: _______________________
Course & Section: _____________________ Result: _____________________

38
I. Answer the questions briefly.
1. Enumerate and define the five major components of database system
environment.

2. Identify the different kinds of end users and provide brief description.

Name: _______________________________ Date: _______________________

Course & Section: _____________________ Result: _____________________

Rubrics:
39
major components of database system environment
different kinds of end users and provide brief description

Weight Actual
No. Items
Score
1. The list of the components of database system
5
environment is complete.

2. The definition of the components of database system

5
environment is concise.

3. The enumerated end users are complete. 5

4. The description of end users types is clear. 5

5. Expression of answers adheres to the quality standard

5
of formal writing.

40
The System Development Life Cycle
The system development life cycle (SDLC) is a traditional, time-tested way of
creating effective information systems. It comprises phases the developers follow to
develop, maintain, and replace information systems, where a database is its
essential component. Thus, the database life cycle is intrinsically connected with the
information system life cycle. In this regard, in every phase in SDLC, there is always
a correspondence activity in the database development cycle.
Figure 1.16 shows the system development life cycle and the related
database development activities.

41
SDLC Planning Phase
The SDLC start is the system planning when the overall information system
plan, including estimates on time, staff, materials, and data, is established based on
users' requirements. It is in this initial phase where the analysts gain a preliminary
understanding of the business situations. It is in this phase where the possible
opportunity regarding creating or improving an information system is established.

Enterprise Modeling at the SDLC Planning Phase

In the initial stage, the analysts identify the data needed in general terms.
The analysis of the business functions included within the project's scope and their
database needs takes place to determine what data already exist and what data are
to be added to address the user needs in the proposed project. The analysts also
justify the proposed database and the possible data it will hold to support the
business activities.

Conceptual Data Modeling at the SDLC Planning Phase

During the planning phase, the analysts define the scope of the proposed
project's database requirements without considering what databases already exist.

42
The data model developed here shows the high-level entities and the associated
relationships that support the overall data requirements for business functions.

SDLC Analysis Phase

In the analysis phase, the analysis of the project's functional requirements and
the users' needs happen to determine if the proposed system is worth pursuing and
will meet the expectations. The purpose of this phase is to produce overall
information requirements and organizational specifications.

Conceptual Data Modeling at the SDLC Analysis Phase

The development of a detailed data model that reflects the entire

organizational data needed in the information system takes place in the Analysis
phase. In this phase, all the entity types, attributes, relationships, and constraints
that dictate data integrity are specified. The consistency of the conceptual data
model related to other kinds of information system models is also examined to clarify
different dimensions, such as processing steps, event timing, data handling rules,
etc., of the intended information systems. The conceptual schema, a
technology-independent description of the overall organizational data structure, is
the output of this conceptual modeling phase.

SDLC Design Phase

The third phase, the design, describes the system requirements and selects
the competing system features that will satisfy the proposed system's functional
requirements.

Logical Database Design at the SDLC Design Phase

The logical database design involves transforming the conceptual schema,

which is technology-independent, into a logical schema, which already specifies the
data model used to implement the database. The most common data model we use
today is the relational model. In this case, if we opt to use the relational model, the
detailed entity-relationship diagram is mapped into tables with columns and rows.
Relational keys such as primary keys and foreign keys are considered. Domain
constraints, entity integrity, and referential integrity and other constraints are also
enforced. This phase's output is the database's logical schema, where data are
explicitly structured to a chosen database model, such as a relational model.

In this phase, the designer also reviews in detailed the transactions, forms,
displays, and views that the database will support and decide the nature and format
of each transaction, form, display, and database view.

The final step in the logical database design ensures that the resultant
structure is indivisible yet sufficient by performing the normalization process and
adhering to well-structured data specifications.

Physical Database Design at the SDLC Design Phase

The database's physical schema defines the database and describes how
data are stored in a computer's secondary memory by specific DBMS. In this phase,
the analyst decides on the organization of data and, together with the database
43
designer outline and design, the data processing programs to generate required
reports. All aspects of the physical system, such as computer hardware, software,
and data communications, are also coordinated.

SDLC Implementation Phase

The implementation phase in SDLC is also known as programming because
this phase includes writing, testing, and installing the developed information system.
Documentation preparation and system users' training are also part of the
implementation phase.

Database Implementation at the SDLC Implementation Phase

In database implementation, the program that accesses and manipulates

databases are created, installed and tested. It is also in this phase that database
documentation and training materials are developed. Users’ training also takes
place.

Also happening in this step are the actual database development, testing, and
installation. Databases are tested for any required data conversion from prior or
legacy systems. Data is also loaded and, whenever necessary, performs data
conversion from earlier systems. Lastly, production databases are created. The
database then and its associated applications are ready for use by system users.

SDLC Maintenance Phase

The maintenance, also known as the support phase, monitors the system's
operation and usefulness after its full implementation to repair and improve the
system whenever necessary.

Database Maintenance at the SDLC Maintenance Phase

Database maintenance is the most extended phase in SDLC and DBLC since
it covers its entire lifespan and the associated information system. Database
performance tuning or schema changes happen to improve performance, meet
evolving information requirements, or fix errors when databases become
contaminated.

44
Name: _______________________________ Date: _______________________
Course & Section: _____________________ Result: _____________________

I. Answer the questions briefly.

1. Provide the difference between the conceptual data model developed during
planning and analysis phases of the system development life cycle.

2. Discuss the different activities performed in the logical database design.

3. Elaborate the importance of database maintenance.

45
Name: _______________________________ Date: _______________________
Course & Section: _____________________ Result: _____________________

Rubrics:

1. Elaborate the importance of database maintenance

Weight Actual
No. Items
Score
1. The difference between the conceptual data model
developed during planning and analysis phases is 5
appropriately illustrated.

2. The discussion on different activities in the logical

5
database design is concise.

3. The discussion of the importance of database

5
maintenance is clear.

4. Expression of answers adheres to the quality standard

5
of formal writing.

46
Three-Level Database Architecture
The three-level database architecture aims to achieve the essential
characteristics of the database approach, including self-describing, program-data
independence, and support of multiple views. The architecture illustrates in figure
1.17 the separation of the user applications from the physical database (Coronel,
Morris, & Rob, 2011).

47
External Level (External View, User View or External Schema)

The external level in the database architecture consists of several user

views, external views, or external schemas. Each user view contains a
subset of the database or of the associated conceptual schema relevant to a
particular user or group of users. It includes the entities, attributes and
relationships important to their task assignment. On the other hand, it hides
all other parts of the database that are irrelevant to users. Different user views
are given to different database users.

In programming language terms, the original depiction of a user view is

a computer screen display, business transaction, or a report. These often
depict all of the data needed by a program that processes that display,
transaction, or report. On the other hand, the logical representation of a user
view is a segment of the entity-relationship diagram, object diagram, sections
of relations.

Conceptual Level (Conceptual Schema)

The conceptual level is the middle-level in the three-level database

architecture and contains the conceptual schema. The conceptual schema
provides a detailed technology-independent and storage-independent
description of the overall structure of the database. It hides the details of
physical storage structures. It focuses on entities, their attributes,
relationships, and other constraints depicted in graphical format using
entity-relationship diagram (ERD) or other object-modeling notation. Often, a
representative data model describes the conceptual schema in database
system implementation. In general, it represents the complete view of the
organization’s database

Internal Level (Physical Schema or Internal Schema)

The internal level where the internal or physical schema lies describes
how data are stored in the computer's memory. It provides all the
specifications to the database technology to allocate and manage physical
secondary memory space where data are stored and accessed. It considers
storage space utilization, runtime performance optimization, and data
encryption techniques.
48
 The three-level architecture shows the clear separation of users' external
level, the database's conceptual level, and the internal storage level for designing a
database. In the three-level architecture, the actual data are stored at the physical
level while the other levels are only descriptions of data. Each group of users refers
to its user view or external schema for any request to the database, and then the
DBMS transforms it into a request against the conceptual schema. When the
internal schema received the request, it will perform processing over the stored
database and ensure that the result is reformatted to match the user’s external view.

Data Independence
Data independence implies that the changes performed at the schema at one
level of a database system should not affect the schema at another level. There are
two types of data independence:

Physical Data Independence

Physical data independence allows changes in the internal schema or

physical schema without affecting or causing changes in the data's conceptual
schema or an external view. Internal data changes happen whenever
physical files need re-organization for improved performance during data
modification and retrieval. Most DBMS is capable of allowing the
implementation of the physical data independence where DBMS hides from
users the physical details such as data location on disk, placement,
compression, merging records, and so on.

Conceptual Data Independence

Conceptual data independence allows changes in the conceptual

schema without affecting or causing changes in the external schema or
application program. This means that changes in the conceptual schema,
such as adding new records, changing constraints, or removing records,
should not affect the external schema. However, conceptual data
independence is more difficult to achieve because stricter requirements
should be met in conceptual schema changes such as structural and
constraint changes not to affect the application programs.

Name: _______________________________ Date: _______________________

49
Course & Section: _____________________ Result: _____________________

Answer the questions concisely

1. Describe the three-level architecture. Why is there a need to provide different

views to different groups of users?

2. Elaborate the difference between conceptual data independence and physical

data independence. Identify which is harder to achieve and discuss the
reasons.

50
Name: _______________________________ Date: _______________________
Course & Section: _____________________ Result: _____________________

Rubrics:

Weight Actual
No. Items
% Score
1. The description of three-level architecture is detailed
20
and correct.

2. The reason provided why different group of users

20
need different user views is profound.

3. The explanation of the difference between conceptual

data independence and physical data independence is 20
concise.

4. The choice of which data independence is harder is

30
correct. The reasons are explained well

5. Expression of answers adheres to the quality standard

10
of formal writing.

Project Description:

51
 Bulacan State University (BulSU) is a trade college transformed into a
university in 1993.

It is a relatively large institution and may be considered one of the largest

tertiary institutions in Region III in terms of population.

BulSU envisions itself as one of the country's leading institutions in developing

graduates receptive to the region's needs and global standards.

True to its mission of producing highly competitive graduates, BulSU requires

students who aspire to enter the University to qualify for admission based on an
entrance examination popularly known as the Bulacan State University Admission
Test (BSUAT). Thus, each aspirant is given an equal chance to take the entrance
examination to prove his academic ability. However, the volume of students who
wish to enroll in the University is large.

The process of the test schedule in the admission department is done

manually. A significant number of test schedules and many examinees who wish to
enroll in the University may bring massive problems.

Note: the given case study is intentionally simplified (focus only on the scheduling
part) for demonstration and easy understanding. However, database design
development, in reality, considers several numbers of entities.

Enterprise Data Modeling

The team composing of IT specialists developed a list of high-level entities for

the examination schedule assignment part of the BulSU College Admission Test
System. The initial set of high-level entities were also established.

Some of the high-level entities identified at the College Admission Test System
are the following: EXAMINEE, EXAMINATION, COLLEGE, COURSE, FACULTY with
definition showing below:

● EXAMINEE. An EXAMINEE is any person who applies for college in the

Bulacan State University.

● EXAMINATION. An EXAMINATION is the information/schedule of the exam

given to examinees.

● COLLEGE. A COLLEGE is a university department that offers specialized

courses where the students applied for admission.

● COURSE. A COURSE is the field of study the examinees applied.

● FACULTY. A FACULTY is teaching personnel of the University who is

assigned to facilitate college admission test.

The team has also established a list of business rules describing the BulSU
College Admission Test System's policies. Some of these rules are as follows:

52
 1. A COLLEGE offers one or more COURSEs. Conversely, each COURSE is
offered by only one COLLEGE.

2. A COURSE is chosen by any number of EXAMINEEs. Conversely, each

EXAMINEE chooses only one COURSE.

3. Each EXAMINEE is given exactly one EXAMINATION. Conversely, each

EXAMINATION is given to any number of EXAMINEEs.

4. A FACULTY may facilitate an EXAMINATION. Conversely, EXAMINATION is

facilitated by exactly one FACULTY.

5. A COLLEGE may send in any number of FACULTY. Conversely, a FACULTY is

sent in by exactly one COLLEGE.

Each business rule is then analyzed and represented. The developed

associations are put together to come up with a preliminary enterprise data model
that graphically shown using an entity-relationship diagram similar to the figure
shown below:

53
Name: _______________________________ Date: _______________________
Course & Section: _____________________ Result: _____________________

After working on the lessons under Unit 1 Fundamentals of Database

Management System, in 1 to 2 paragraph, write your insight about the things
that you have learned. Write as well the topics that still need clarifications.
Write your answer below:

54
Name: _______________________________ Date: _______________________
Course & Section: _____________________ Result: _____________________
Crossword Puzzle. Identify the term by filling out the puzzle with correct letters based on
the clues given below.

1 8

2 7

HORIZONTAL

1. a column

2. data describing another data

3. named table

4. DB operation: retrieve information

5. functional unit of an organization

55
VERTICAL

5. allows users to have access to database

6. one row of a table

7. raw concept or fact

8. concept important to business

9. private network utilizing internet technology

56
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1252">
<title>6 Database Management</title>

</head>

<body bgcolor="#FFFFFF">
<font size="7">

</font><p align="center"><font size="7"></font><b><font size="5"><font

color="#000000"><u>Chapter 6</u></font></font></b></p><b><font size="5">
</font>

<p align="center"><font size="5" color="#000000"><u>Database

Management</u></font></p>

</b><p><b><font color="#000000"><big><big>6.1 Hierarchy of

Data</big></big></font></b><font color="#000000"><big><big> [Figure 6.1][Slide 6-
4]</big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>Data are the principal resources of an

organization.
Data stored in computer systems form a hierarchy extending from a single bit to a
database, the major record-keeping entity of a firm. Each higher rung of this
hierarchy is
organized from the components below it.</big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>Data are logically organized

into:</big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>1. Bits (characters)</big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>2. Fields</big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>3. Records</big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>4. Files</big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>5. Databases</big></big></font></p>

<i><b>

</b></i><p><i><b><font
color="#000000"><big><big>Bit</big></big></font></b></i><font
color="#000000"><big><big> (Character) - a bit is the smallest unit of
data representation (value of a bit may be a 0 or 1). Eight bits make a byte which
can
represent a character or a special symbol in a character
code.</big></big></font></p>
<i><b>

</b></i><p><i><b><font
color="#000000"><big><big>Field</big></big></font></b></i><font
color="#000000"><big><big> - a field consists of a grouping of
characters. A data field represents an attribute (a characteristic or quality) of
some
entity (object, person, place, or event).</big></big></font></p>
<i><b>

</b></i><p><i><b><font
color="#000000"><big><big>Record</big></big></font></b></i><font
color="#000000"><big><big> - a record represents a collection of
attributes that describe a real-world entity. A record consists of fields, with
each field
describing an attribute of the entity. </big></big></font></p>
<i><b>

</b></i><p><i><b><font
color="#000000"><big><big>File</big></big></font></b></i><font
color="#000000"><big><big> - a group of related records. Files are
frequently classified by the application for which they are primarily used
(employee
file). A <i><b>primary key</b></i> in a file is the field (or fields) whose value
identifies a record among others in a data file.</big></big></font></p>
<i><b>

</b></i><p><i><b><font
color="#000000"><big><big>Database</big></big></font></b></i><font
color="#000000"><big><big> - is an integrated collection of
logically related records or files. A database consolidates records previously
stored in
separate files into a common pool of data records that provides data for many
applications. The data is managed by systems software called database management
systems
(DBMS). The data stored in a database is independent of the application programs
using it
and of the types of secondary storage devices on which it is
stored.</big></big></font></p>
<b>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>6.2 File Environment and its

Limitations</big></big></font></p>
</b>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>There are three principal methods of organizing

files,
of which only two provide the direct access necessary in on-line systems.
</big></big></font></p>
<b>

</b><p><b><font color="#000000"><big><big>File Organization

</big></big></font></b><font color="#000000"><big><big>[Figure 6.2 &amp;
6.3]</big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>Data files are organized so as to facilitate

access to
records and to ensure their efficient storage. A tradeoff between these two
requirements
generally exists: if rapid access is required, more storage is required to make it
possible.</big></big></font></p>
<i><b>

</b></i><p><i><b><font
color="#000000"><big><big>Access</big></big></font></b></i><font
color="#000000"><big><big> to a record for reading it is the
essential operation on data. There are two types of access:</big></big></font></p>

<blockquote>
<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>1. <i><b>Sequential access</b></i> - is
performed when
records are accessed in the order they are stored. Sequential access is the main
access
mode only in batch systems, where files are used and updated at regular
intervals.</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>2. <i><b>Direct access</b></i>
- on-line processing requires direct access, whereby a record can be accessed
without
accessing the records between it and the beginning of the file. The primary key
serves to
identify the needed record.</big></big></font></p>
</blockquote>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>There are three methods of file organization:

[Table
6.1]</big></big></font></p>

<blockquote>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>1. Sequential organization</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>2. Indexed-sequential
organization</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>3. Direct organization</big></big></font></p>
</blockquote>
<b>

</b><p><b><font color="#000000"><big><big>Sequential
Organization</big></big></font></b></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>In sequential organization records are

physically
stored in a specified order according to a key field in each
record.</big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>Advantages of sequential

access:</big></big></font></p>

<blockquote>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>1. It is fast and efficient
when dealing with large volumes of data that need to be processed periodically
(batch
system).</big></big></font></p>
</blockquote>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>Disadvantages of sequential

access:</big></big></font></p>

<blockquote>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>1. Requires that all new
transactions be sorted into the proper sequence for sequential access
processing.</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>2. Locating, storing,
modifying, deleting, or adding records in the file requires rearranging the
file.</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>3. This method is too slow
to handle applications requiring immediate updating or
responses.</big></big></font></p>
</blockquote>
<b>

</b><p><b><font color="#000000"><big><big>Indexed-Sequential
Organization</big></big></font></b></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>In the indexed-sequential files method, records

are
physically stored in sequential order on a magnetic disk or other direct access
storage
device based on the key field of each record. Each file contains an index that
references
one or more key fields of each data record to its storage location
address.</big></big></font></p>
<b>

</b><p><b><font color="#000000"><big><big>Direct
Organization</big></big></font></b></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>Direct file organization provides the fastest

direct
access to records. When using direct access methods, records do not have to be
arranged in
any particular sequence on storage media. Characteristics of the direct access
method
include:</big></big></font></p>

<blockquote>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>1. Computers must keep
track of the storage location of each record using a variety of direct
organization
methods so that data can be retrieved when needed.</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>2. New transactions' data
do not have to be sorted.</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>3. Processing that requires
immediate responses or updating is easily performed.</big></big></font></p>
</blockquote>
<b>

</b><p><b><font color="#000000"><big><big>6.3 Database Environment

</big></big></font></b><font color="#000000"><big><big>[Figure 6.6][Slide
6-5]</big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>A database is an organized collection of

interrelated
data that serves a number of applications in an enterprise. The database stores not
only
the values of the attributes of various entities but also the relationships between
these
entities. A database is managed by a database management system (DBMS), a systems
software
that provides assistance in managing databases shared by many
users.</big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>A DBMS:</big></big></font></p>

<blockquote>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>1. Helps organize data for
effective access by a variety of users with different access needs and for
efficient
storage.</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>2. It makes it possible to
create, access, maintain, and control databases.</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>3. Through a DBMS, data can
be integrated and presented on demand.</big></big></font></p>
</blockquote>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>Advantages of a database management

approach:</big></big></font></p>

<blockquote>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>1. Avoiding uncontrolled
data redundancy and preventing inconsistency</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>2. Program-data
independence</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>3. Flexible access to
shared data</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>4. Advantages of
centralized control of data</big></big></font></p>
</blockquote>
<b>

</b><p><b><font color="#000000"><big><big>6.4 Levels of Data Definition in

Databases </big></big></font></b><font color="#000000"><big><big>[Figure
6.7]</big></big></font></p>
<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>The user view of a DBMS becomes the basis for
the date
modelling steps where the relationships between data elements are identified. These
data
models define the logical relationships among the data elements needed to support a
basic
business process. A DBMS serves as a logical framework (schema, subschema, and
physical)
on which to base the physical design of databases and the development of
application
programs to support the business processes of the organization. A DBMS enables us
to
define a database on three levels:</big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>1. <i><b>Schema</b></i> - is an overall logical

view of
the relationships between data in a database.</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier">

</font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>2.<i><b>Subschema</b></i> - is a logical view of
data relationships needed to support specific end user application programs that
will
access the database.</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier">

</font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>3.<i><b>Physical</b></i> - looks at how data is
physically arranged, stored, and accessed on the magnetic disks and other secondary
storage devices of a computer system. </big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>A DBMS provides the language, called <i><b>data

definition language</b></i> (DDL), for defining the database objects on the three
levels.
It also provides a language for manipulating the data, called the <i><b>data
manipulation
language</b></i> (DML), which makes it possible to access records, change values of
attributes, and delete or insert records.</big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>&nbsp;<b>6.5 Data Models or How to Represent

Relationships between Data</b></big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>A data model is a method for organizing

databases on
the logical level, the level of the schema and subschemas. The main concern in such
a
model is how to represent relationships among database records. The relationships
among
the many individual records in databases are based on one of several logical data
structures or models. DBMS are designed to provide end users with quick, easy
access to
information stored in databases. Three principal models include:
</big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>1. Hierarchical Structure</big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>2. Network Structure</big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>3. Relational Structure</big></big></font></p>

<b>

</b><p><b><font color="#000000"><big><big>Hierarchical:</big></big></font></b></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>Early mainframe DBMS packages used the<i>

<b>hierarchical
structure</b></i>, in which:</big></big></font></p>

<blockquote>
<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>1. Relationships between records form a
hierarchy or
tree like structure.</big></big></font></p>
<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>2. Records are dependent and arranged in
multilevel
structures, consisting of one <u>root</u> record &amp; any number of subordinate
levels.</big></big></font></p>
<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>3. Relationships among the records are one-to-
many,
since each data element is related only to one element above
it.</big></big></font></p>
<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>4. Data element or record at the highest level
of the
hierarchy is called the root element. Any data element can be accessed by moving
progressively downward from the root and along the branches of the tree until the
desired
record is located.</big></big></font></p>
</blockquote>
<b>

</b><p><b><font color="#000000"><big><big>Network
Structure:</big></big></font></b></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>The network structure:</big></big></font></p>

<blockquote>
<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>1. Can represent more complex logical
relationships,
and is still used by many mainframe DBMS packages.</big></big></font></p>
<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>2. Allows many-to-many relationship among
records. That
is, the network model can access a data element by following one of several
paths, because
any data element or record can be related to any number of other data
elements.</big></big></font></p>
</blockquote>
<b>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>Relational Structure:</big></big></font></p>

</b>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>The relational structure:</big></big></font></p>

<blockquote>
<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>1. Most popular of the three database
structures.</big></big></font></p>
<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>2. Used by most microcomputer DBMS packages,
as well as
many minicomputer and mainframe systems.</big></big></font></p>
<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>3. Data elements within the database are
stored in the
form of simple <u>tables</u>. Tables are related if they contain common
fields.</big></big></font></p>
<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>4. DBMS packages based on the relational model
can link
data elements from various tables to provide information to
users.</big></big></font></p>
<b>
</b></blockquote><b>

</b><p><b><font color="#000000"><big><big>Evaluation of Database

Structures</big></big></font></b></p>

<table border="1" cellspacing="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="8"

width="624">
<tbody><tr>
<td width="25%" valign="TOP"><font size="4" color="#000000">MODEL</font></td>
<td width="31%" valign="TOP"><font size="4"
color="#000000">ADVANTAGES</font></td>
<td width="44%" valign="TOP"><font size="4"
color="#000000">DISADVANTAGES</font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="25%" valign="TOP"><font size="4" color="#000000">Hierarchical Data
Structure</font></td>
<td width="31%" valign="TOP"><font size="4"><font color="#000000">Ease with
which data can
be stored and retrieved in structured, routine types of
transactions.</font><p><font color="#000000">Ease with which data can be extracted
for reporting purposes.</font></p>
</font><p><font size="4"><font color="#000000">Routine types of transaction
processing is fast and efficiently.</font></font></p></td>
<td width="44%" valign="TOP"><font size="4"><font color="#000000">Hierarchical
one-to many
relationships must be specified in advance, and are not flexible.
</font><p><font color="#000000">Cannot easily handle ad hoc requests for
information.</font></p>
<p><font color="#000000">Modifying a hierarchical database structure is
complex.</font></p>
<p><font color="#000000">Great deal of redundancy.</font></p>
</font><p><font size="4"><font color="#000000">Requires knowledge of a
programming language.</font></font></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="25%" valign="TOP"><font size="4" color="#000000">Network
Structure</font></td>
<td width="31%" valign="TOP"><font size="4"><font color="#000000">More flexible
that the
hierarchical model.</font></font><p><font size="4"><font
color="#000000">Ability to provide sophisticated
logical relationships among the records</font></font></p></td>
<td width="44%" valign="TOP"><font size="4"><font color="#000000">Network many-
to-many
relationships must be specified in advance</font><p><font color="#000000">User
is limited
to retrieving data that can be accessed using the established links between
records.
Cannot easily handle ad hoc requests for information.</font></p>
<p><font color="#000000">Requires knowledge of a programming
language.</font></p>
</font><p><font size="4"></font><font color="#000000">&nbsp;</font></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="25%" valign="TOP"><font size="4"><font
color="#000000">&nbsp;</font></font><p><font size="4"><font
color="#000000">Relational Structure</font></font></p></td>
<td width="31%" valign="TOP"><font size="4"><font color="#000000">Flexible in
that it can
handle ad hoc information requests.</font><p><font color="#000000">Easy for
programmers to
work with. End users can use this model with litter effort or training.
</font></p>
</font><p><font size="4"><font color="#000000">Easier to maintain than the
hierarchical and network models.</font></font></p></td>
<td width="44%" valign="TOP"><font size="4" color="#000000">Cannot process
large amounts
of business transactions as quickly and efficiently as the hierarchical and
network
models. </font></td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<b>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>6.6 Relational Databases [Figure 6.11,

6.13]</big></big></font></p>
</b>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>A relational database is a collection of tables.

Such a
database is relatively easy for end users to understand. Relational databases
afford
flexibility across the data and are easy to understand and
modify.</big></big></font></p>

<blockquote>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>1. Select, which selects
from a specified table the rows that satisfy a given
condition.</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>2. Project, which selects
from a given table the specified attribute values</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>3. Join, which builds a new
table from two specified tables.</big></big></font></p>
</blockquote>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>The power of the relational model derives from

the join
operation. It is precisely because records are related to one another through a
join
operation, rather than through links, that we do not need a predefined access path.
The
join operation is also highly time-consuming, requiring access to many records
stored on
disk in order to find the needed records.</big></big></font></p>
<b>
<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>6.7 SQL - A Relational Query
Language</big></big></font></p>
</b>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>Structured Query Languages (SQL) has become an

international standard access language for defining and manipulating data in
databases. It
is a data-definition-and-management language of most well-known DBMS, including
some
nonrelational ones. SQL may be used as an independent query language to define the
objects
in a database, enter the data into the database, and access the data. The so-called
embedded SQL is also provided for programming in procedural languages (<font
face="WP TypographicSymbols">A</font>host<font face="WP
TypographicSymbols">@</font>
languages), such as C, COBOL, or PL/L, in order to access a database from an
application
program. In the end-user environment, SQL is generally hidden by more user-friendly
interfaces.</big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>The principal facilities of SQL

include:</big></big></font></p>

<blockquote>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>1. Data definition</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>2. Data manipulation</big></big></font></p>
</blockquote>
<b>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>6.8 Designing a Relational

Database</big></big></font></p>
</b>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>Database design progresses from the design of

the
logical levels of the schema and the subschema to the design of the physical level.
</big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>The aim of <i><b>logical design</b></i>, also

known as <i><b>data
modeling</b></i>, is to design the schema of the database and all the necessary
subschemas. A relational database will consist of tables (relations), each of which
describes only the attributes of a particular class of entities. Logical design
begins
with identifying the entity classes to be represented in the database and
establishing
relationships between pairs of these entities. A relationship is simply an
interaction
between the entities represented by the data. This relationship will be important
for
accessing the data. Frequently, <i><b>entity-relationship (E-R) diagrams</b></i>,
are used
to perform data modeling. </big></big></font></p>
<i><b>

</b></i><p><i><b><font
color="#000000"><big><big>Normalization</big></big></font></b></i><font
color="#000000"><big><big> is the simplification of the
logical view of data in relational databases. Each table is normalized, which means
that
all its fields will contain single data elements, all its records will be distinct,
and
each table will describe only a single class of entities. The objective of
normalization
is to prevent replication of data, with all its negative
consequences.</big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>After the logical design comes the

<i><b>physical
design</b></i> of the database. All fields are specified as to their length and the
nature
of the data (numeric, characters, and so on). A principal objective of physical
design is
to minimize the number of time-consuming disk accesses that will be necessary in
order to
answer typical database queries. Frequently, indexes are provided to ensure fast
access
for such queries.</big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>&nbsp;<b>6.9 The Data

Dictionary</b></big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>A <i><b>data dictionary</b></i> is a software

module
and database containing descriptions and definitions concerning the structure, data
elements, interrelationships, and other characteristics of an organization's
database.</big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>Data dictionaries store the following

information about
the data maintained in databases:</big></big></font></p>

<blockquote>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>1. Schema, subschemas, and
physical schema</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>2. Which applications and
users may retrieve the specific data and which applications and users are able to
modify
the data</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>3. Cross-reference
information, such as which programs use what data and which users receive what
reports</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>4. Where individual data
elements originate, and who is responsible for maintaining the
data</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>5. What the standard naming
conventions is for database entities.</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>6. What the integrity rules
is for the data</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>7. Where the data are
stored in geographically distributed databases.</big></big></font></p>
</blockquote>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>A data dictionary:</big></big></font></p>

<blockquote>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>1. Contains all the data
definitions, and the information necessary to identify data
ownership</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>2. Ensures security and
privacy of the data, as well as the information used during the development and
maintenance of applications which rely on the database.</big></big></font></p>
<p><font color="#000000">&nbsp;</font></p>
</blockquote>
<b>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>6.10 Managing the Data Resource of an

Organization</big></big></font></p>
</b>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>The use of database technology enables

organizations to
control their data as a resource, however, it does not automatically produce
organizational control of data. </big></big></font></p>
<b>

</b><p><b><font color="#000000"><big><big>Components of Information Resource

Management</big></big></font></b><font color="#000000"><big><big>
[Figure 6.17]</big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>Both organizational actions and technological

means are
necessary to:</big></big></font></p>

<blockquote>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>1. Ensure that a firm
systematically accumulates data in its databases</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>2. Maintains the data over
time</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>3. Provides the appropriate
access to the data to the appropriate employees.</big></big></font></p>
</blockquote>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>The principal components of this information

resource
management are:</big></big></font></p>

<blockquote>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>1. Organizational processes</big></big></font></p>
<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>- Information Planning and data
modeling</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>2. Enabling technologies</big></big></font></p>
<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>- DBMS and a Data
Dictionary</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>3. Organizational functions</big></big></font></p>
<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>- data administration and database
administration</big></big></font></p>
<b>
</b></blockquote><b>

</b><p><b><font color="#000000"><big><big>Database Administration and Database

Administration</big></big></font></b><font color="#000000"><big><big>
[Figure 6.18]</big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>The functional units responsible for managing

the data
are:</big></big></font></p>

<blockquote>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>1. Data administrator (DA) </big></big></font></p>
</blockquote>

<blockquote>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>2. Database administrator
(DBA)</big></big></font></p>
</blockquote>
<i><b>

</b></i><p><i><b><font color="#000000"><big><big>Data
administrator</big></big></font></b></i><font color="#000000"><big><big> - the
person who has the
central responsibility for an organizations data. </big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>Responsibilities include:</big></big></font></p>

<blockquote>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>1. Establishing the
policies and specific procedures for collecting, validating, sharing, and
inventorying
data to be stored in databases and for making information accessible to the
members of the
organization and, possibly, to persons outside of it.</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>2. Data administration is a
policy making function and the DA should have access to senior corporate
management.</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>3. Key person involved in
the strategic planning of the data resource.</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>4. Often defines the
principal data entities, their attributes, and the relationships among
them.</big></big></font></p>
</blockquote>
<i><b>
</b></i><p><i><b><font color="#000000"><big><big>Database Administrator
</big></big></font></b></i><font color="#000000"><big><big>- is a specialist
responsible for maintaining standards for the development, maintenance, and
security of an
organization's databases.</big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>Responsibilities include:</big></big></font></p>

<blockquote>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>1. Creating the databases
and carrying out the policies laid down by the data administrator.
</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>2. In large organizations,
the DBA function is actually performed by a group of professionals. In a small
firm, a
programmer/analyst may perform the DBA function, while one of the managers acts
as the DA.
</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>3. Schema and subschemas of
the database are most often defined by the DBA, who has the requisite technical
knowledge.
They also define the physical layout of the databases, with a view toward
optimizing
system performance for the expected pattern of database
usage.</big></big></font></p>
</blockquote>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>Joint responsibilities of the DA and

DBA:</big></big></font></p>

<blockquote>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>1. Maintaining the data
dictionary</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>2. Standardizing names and
other aspects of data definition</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>3. Providing backup</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>4. Provide security for the
data stored in a database, and ensure privacy based on this
security.</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>5. Establish a disaster
recovery plan for the databases</big></big></font></p>
</blockquote>
<b>

</b><p><b><font color="#000000"><big><big>6.11 Developmental Trends in Database

Management</big></big></font></b></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>Three important trends in database management

include:</big></big></font></p>

<blockquote>
 <font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>1. Distributed databases</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>2. Data warehousing</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>3. Rich databases (includes
object-oriented databases)</big></big></font></p>
</blockquote>
<b>

</b><p><b><font color="#000000"><big><big>Distributed
Databases</big></big></font></b><font color="#000000"><big><big> [Figure 6.19]
[Slide 6-8]</big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>Distributed databases are that are spread across

several physical locations. In distributed databases, the data are placed where
they are
used most often, but the entire database is available to each authorized user.
These are
databases of local work groups (LAN), and departments at regional offices (WAN),
branch
offices, manufacturing plants, and other work sites. These databases can include
segments
of both common operational and common user databases, as well as data generated and
used
only at a user's own site.</big></big></font></p>
<b>

</b><p><b><font color="#000000"><big><big>Data Warehouses Databases

</big></big></font></b><font color="#000000"><big><big>[Figure
6.20]</big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>A data warehouse stores data from current and

previous
years that has been extracted from the various operational and management databases
of an
organization. It is a central source of data that has been standardized and
integrated so
it can be used by managers and other end user professionals from throughout an
organization. The objective of a corporate data warehouse is to continually select
data
from the operational databases, transform the data into a uniform format, and open
the
warehouse to the end users through a friendly and consistent interface.
</big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>Data warehouses are also used for data mining -

automated discovery of potentially significant relationships among various
categories of
data. </big></big></font></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>Systems supporting a data warehouse consists of

three
components:</big></big></font></p>

<blockquote>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>1. Extract and Prepare Data</big></big></font></p>
<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>- the first subsystem extracts the data from
the
operational systems, many of them older legacy systems, and <font face="WP
TypographicSymbols">A</font>scrubs<font face="WP TypographicSymbols">@</font> it
by removing errors and inconsistencies.</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>2. Store Date in the
Warehouse</big></big></font></p>
<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>- the second support component is actually the
DBMS
that will manage the warehouse data.</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>3. Provide Access and
Analysis Capabilities</big></big></font></p>
<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>- the third subsystem is made up of the query
tools
that help users access the data and includes the OLAP and other DSS tools
supporting data
analysis.</big></big></font></p>
</blockquote>
<b>

</b><p><b><font color="#000000"><big><big>Object-oriented and other Rich

Databases</big></big></font></b></p>

<p><font color="#000000"><big><big>With the vastly expanded capabilities of

information
technology, the content of the databases is becoming richer. Traditional databases
have
been oriented toward largely numerical data or short fragments of text, organized
into
well-structured records. As the processing and storage capabilities of computer
systems
expand and as the telecommunications capacities grow, it is possible to support
knowledge
work more fully with rich data. These include:</big></big></font></p>

<blockquote>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>1. Geographic information
systems</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>2. Object-oriented
databases</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>3. Hypertext and hypermedia
databases</big></big></font></p>
<font face="Courier"></font><p><font face="Courier"></font><font
color="#000000"><big><big>4. Image databases and text
databases</big></big></font></p>
</blockquote>

<p><font color="#000000">&nbsp;</font></p>

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