UNIT-5

Discuss Object Code Form?

Object code is the machine-readable version of the program generated by a compiler after
translating the source code (written in a high-level language) into a low-level language
(usually assembly or machine code). It is an intermediate representation, often in binary
format, that can be executed by the computer's processor after being linked.

Key Features of Object Code:

1. Binary Format:
a. Object code consists of binary instructions (1s and 0s) that are understood
by the computer’s CPU.
2. Modular:
a. It represents small, independent modules (or object files), each
corresponding to a function or section of the program.
3. Contains Machine Instructions:
a. The object code contains the actual machine instructions corresponding to
the logic and operations of the source code.
4. Not Fully Executable:
a. Object code is not directly executable. It needs to be linked with other object
files and libraries to create a complete executable file.

Components of Object Code:

1. Text Section (Code Segment):

o Contains the machine instructions generated from the source code.
2. Data Section:
o Stores initialized variables or constants.
3. BSS Section:
o Holds uninitialized variables.
4. Symbol Table:
o Maps variable and function names to their corresponding memory
addresses.
5. Relocation Information:
 o Used by the linker to adjust memory addresses when the program is linked.

Example:

A simple statement like int x = 5; in C would be translated into machine code in the
object file, which could look like:
MOV R1, 5 // Store 5 into register R1
MOV [x], R1 // Store value from R1 into variable 'x'

Purpose:

 Object code is a crucial step in the compilation process, allowing for modular code
generation and enabling the linking process to produce a final executable program.

Explain Register Allocation and Assignment

Register allocation and assignment are essential tasks in the code generation phase of a
compiler. They are concerned with efficiently using the limited number of registers
available in a processor to store variables and intermediate values during program
execution.

1. Register Allocation

Register allocation is the process of deciding which variables or values should be stored
in the limited number of CPU registers during the execution of a program. Since registers
are faster than memory, allocating registers to frequently used variables can significantly
improve the program’s performance.

Key Concepts:

 Registers vs. Memory: Registers are small storage locations within the CPU that
can be accessed very quickly compared to memory. Using registers effectively
improves the execution speed of the program.
 Limited Registers: CPUs typically have a small number of registers (e.g., 8 to 32),
so not all variables can be stored in registers at the same time. This makes efficient
register allocation crucial for performance.
Goals of Register Allocation:

 Minimize the use of memory by storing frequently accessed variables in registers.

 Reduce the number of memory accesses, which are slower compared to register
accesses.
 Ensure that variables that are live (needed for future computation) during a given
time are assigned to available registers.

2. Register Assignment

Register assignment follows register allocation and refers to the actual process of
assigning specific registers to variables. Once the allocation decision is made (i.e., which
variables need to be in registers), the next task is to assign them to specific registers.

Example:

Consider the following variables and their live intervals during execution:

 Variable a is used from time t1 to t3.

 Variable b is used from time t2 to t4.
 Variable c is used from time t3 to t5.

If there are only two registers available, the allocation might look like this:

 Register R1 could be assigned to a from t1 to t3.

 Register R2 could be assigned to b from t2 to t4.
 After a is no longer needed, R1 can be reassigned to c.

Techniques for Register Allocation:

1. Graph Coloring:
o A common method where a graph is constructed where each node
represents a variable, and an edge represents an interference between two
variables (i.e., they are live at the same time). The goal is to color the graph
with the minimum number of colors (each color represents a register).
2. Spilling:
o When there are more variables than available registers, some variables need
to be "spilled" to memory. This means storing the variable in memory and
loading it into a register when needed.
 o Linear Scan:
o A simpler approach where variables are allocated to registers in a linear pass
through the program, prioritizing recently used variables.

Benefits of Efficient Register Allocation and Assignment:

 Improved Performance: Reduces memory access time by maximizing the use of

registers, leading to faster program execution.
 Memory Efficiency: By minimizing the need for memory loads and stores, the
program becomes more efficient in terms of memory access.

Conclusion:

Register allocation optimizes the use of CPU registers, and register assignment ensures
that specific registers are allocated to variables during execution. Together, they are vital
for improving the efficiency of the compiled code, reducing memory access times, and
enhancing the overall performance of the program.

Explain issues in Code Generation

1. Target Machine Architecture:

o Code generation must be tailored to the target machine's instruction set
architecture (ISA), register configuration, and memory hierarchy, which vary
across processors.
2. Register Allocation:
o Efficiently allocating registers to variables is crucial because there are
typically limited registers available. Strategies like graph coloring and
spilling (moving variables to memory) are used to manage this.
3. Instruction Selection:
o The compiler must translate intermediate code into the most efficient
machine instructions. This involves pattern matching and selecting the best
instruction based on performance and available resources.
4. Control Flow Handling:
o High-level control structures (if-else, loops, function calls) must be
translated into corresponding machine-level control flow instructions (e.g.,
branches, jumps, and function prologues/epilogues).
5. Expression Evaluation and Optimization:
 o Efficiently generating machine instructions for arithmetic and logical
expressions, minimizing redundant calculations, and applying optimizations
like common subexpression elimination.
6. Memory Access Optimization:
o Optimizing memory accesses by choosing efficient addressing modes and
minimizing load/store operations. It also involves ensuring good cache
efficiency.
7. Control and Data Flow Analysis:
o Ensuring that data flow (variable usage) and control flow (program execution
paths) are correctly analyzed to avoid errors and ensure correctness in
generated code.
8. Error Handling and Debugging:
o Including error detection during code generation and generating debugging
information (such as source line mappings) for easier debugging of the
compiled code.
9. Code Optimization:
o During code generation, optimizations like peephole optimization (small
instruction improvements), loop unrolling, and inline expansion help
improve the performance of the final executable.
10. Cross-Platform Code Generation:
 When targeting multiple architectures, the compiler must generate machine code
for different platforms, requiring flexibility in the code generation process.

These issues collectively ensure that the generated code is efficient, correct, and portable
across different machines and architectures.

Explain Generic Code Generation Algorithm

The generic code generation algorithm is a crucial part of a compiler that translates an
intermediate representation (IR) of the source program into the target machine code
(machine instructions). The goal is to produce efficient and correct code while considering
the constraints and features of the target architecture.

Key Steps in the Generic Code Generation Algorithm:

1. Intermediate Code Generation:

o The compiler translates the high-level source code into an intermediate code
representation (such as three-address code or intermediate representations
 like LLVM IR). This step simplifies the source code and makes it easier to
generate machine code.
2. Instruction Selection:
o The algorithm selects the appropriate machine instructions for each
intermediate code operation. Each intermediate operation (e.g., a = b + c)
is mapped to a corresponding machine instruction (e.g., ADD R1, R2, R3
for R1 = R2 + R3).
3. Register Allocation:
o The compiler assigns variables to available CPU registers. It uses algorithms
like graph coloring to decide which variables should reside in registers, as
registers are much faster than memory. If the number of live variables
exceeds the available registers, some variables are spilled into memory.
4. Address Calculation:
o The algorithm generates the correct addressing modes for variables, such as
direct, indirect, or indexed addressing, depending on how the variables are
stored in memory or registers.
5. Code Scheduling:
o Instruction scheduling optimizes the sequence of machine instructions to
avoid pipeline stalls or reduce dependencies. The goal is to minimize the
execution time by ensuring that independent operations are executed in
parallel and that resources (like registers or execution units) are efficiently
utilized.
6. Control Flow Generation:
o For control flow structures like loops and conditionals, the algorithm
generates appropriate jump (branch) instructions. It uses branch prediction
and loop unrolling techniques to optimize control flow.
7. Final Code Generation:
o The final step involves generating the actual target machine code from the
selected instructions, incorporating debug information (e.g., source code
line numbers) and ensuring that all variables and constants are correctly
handled.

Example:

For an intermediate code like:

a = b + c
d = a * b
e = a + d

The generic code generation might produce assembly-like code like:

MOV R1, b ; Load b into R1

MOV R2, c ; Load c into R2
ADD R1, R2 ; R1 = b + c
MOV a, R1 ; Store result in a

MOV R3, b ; Load b into R3

MUL R1, R3 ; R1 = a * b (from previous operation)
MOV d, R1 ; Store result in d

ADD R1, R3 ; R1 = a + d
MOV e, R1 ; Store result in e

Conclusion:

The generic code generation algorithm is designed to convert high-level code into
machine code by selecting the right instructions, managing registers, and optimizing
control flow. The overall aim is to generate code that is correct, efficient, and tailored to
the target architecture.

DAG Representation of a Basic Block (Detailed Explanation)

A Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) is a powerful tool used in compiler optimization to

represent expressions and dependencies between variables in a basic block. In a DAG, the
nodes represent variables and intermediate expressions, while the directed edges
represent data flow or the dependencies between them. This representation helps to
visualize and optimize the computation flow in a program.

Key Features of a DAG:

 Nodes: Represent variables or expressions (like b, a, b + c, etc.).

  Edges: Directed edges represent data dependencies between nodes. For example,
an edge from b and c to b + c means that the value of b + c depends on the
values of b and c.
 Acyclic: There are no cycles in the graph, meaning a node cannot have a directed
path back to itself. This ensures there is no circular dependency between
operations.

Key Steps to Create a DAG:

1. Identify Operations: List operations in the basic block (e.g., a = b + c).

2. Create Nodes: Each variable and intermediate result is a node.
3. Add Edges: Connect nodes to represent dependencies (e.g., b + c → a).
4. Eliminate Redundancy: Merge common subexpressions to avoid repeated
calculations.

Benefits:

 Eliminates redundant calculations.

 Simplifies code generation by reusing results.
 Optimizes the generation of efficient machine code.

DAG Representation Example

t1 = 5 + a
t2 = x[t1]
t3 = 5 + a
t4 = y[t3]
t5 = t2 + t4
t6 = b * t5
b = t6
t7 = a * 3
a = t7 if a < log(0 to 1)
Steps to Create the DAG:

1. Identify Variables and Operations:

a. Variables: a, b, t1, t2, t3, t4, t5, t6, t7, x[], y[].
b. Operations: t1 = 5 + a, t2 = x[t1], t3 = 5 + a, t4 =
y[t3], t5 = t2 + t4, t6 = b * t5, t7 = a * 3.
2. Create Nodes:
a. Nodes for variables and intermediate results: t1, t2, t3, t4, t5,
t6, t7, x[], y[], etc.
3. Add Edges:
a. Data flow between nodes:
i. t1 = 5 + a → t2 = x[t1], t3 = 5 + a, t4 = y[t3], t5
= t2 + t4, t6 = b * t5, t7 = a * 3.
4. Optimize:
a. Since t1 and t3 are both 5 + a, they share a node, eliminating
redundancy.
DAG Visualization:

5
|
a--+--> (t1 = 5 + a)
|
x[t1]--> (t2 = x[t1])
|
y[t3]--> (t4 = y[t3])
|
(t2 + t4)--> (t5 = t2 + t4)
|
b * t5--> (t6 = b * t5)
|
b = t6
|
a * 3--> (t7 = a * 3)
|
a = t7 if a < log(0 to 1)

Conclusion:

The DAG representation of a basic block is a powerful way to structure and optimize
intermediate code. It eliminates redundant computations, simplifies instruction selection,
and aids in further optimizations during code generation. By capturing the flow of data and
dependencies, DAGs enable the compiler to generate more efficient and optimized
machine code.