CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Compiled by Hashim S. 1
 Many Aspects of Programming
• Programming is problem solving
– always trying to make computer do something useful — i.e.,
finding an optimal travel route
• Programming is controlling
– computer does exactly what you tell it to
• Programming is teaching
– computer can only “learn” to do new things if you tell it how
• Programming is creative
– must find a good solution out of many possibilities
• Programming is modelling
– describe salient (relevant) properties and behaviours of a system
of components (objects)
• Programming is abstraction
– identify important features without getting lost in detail
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 What’s a Program?
• Model of complex system
– model: simplified representation of salient features of something,
either tangible or abstract
– system: collection of components that work closely together
• Sequences of instructions expressed in specific programming
language:
– syntax: grammatical rules for forming instructions
– semantics: meaning/interpretation of instructions
• Instructions written (programmed/coded) by programmer
– coded in a specific programming language
– as a result, programs cannot be ambiguous
– all instructions together are called source code
– Executed by computer by carrying out individual instructions

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 Programming Languages
• Machine language
– machine is short for computing machine (i.e., computer)
– computer’s native language, sequence of zeroes and ones (binary)
– different computers understand different sequences
– hard for humans to understand: 01010001…
• Assembly language
– mnemonics for machine language
– low level: each instruction is minimal
– still hard for humans to understand:
ADD d0,d2
• High-level languages
– FORTRAN, Pascal, BASIC, C, C++, Java, etc.
– high level: each instruction composed of many low-level
instructions
– closer to English easier to read and understand:
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hypotenuse = Math.sqrt(opposite * opposite + adjacent * adjacent);
 Interpreting vs. Compiling Programs
• Each type of computer only “understands” its own machine
language (zeroes and ones)
• Thus we must translate from High-level language to machine
language
– a team of experts programs a translator, called a “compiler” which
translates entirety of a High-level language program to an
executable file in computer’s native machine language.
• Running :
– compilation: Your program → executable
– execution: run executable
• machine executes your program by “running” each machine language
instruction in the executable file

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 Interpreting vs. Compiling Programs
• An alternative to compiling your program is to interpret your
program
– each line of your program is translated into machine language and
immediately executed
• Like translating between natural languages
– Compiler: human translator translates book in its entirety and
then translated book is printed and read
– Interpreter: human interpreter translates each spoken statement
in sequence as speaker is speaking

• In the case of interpreter, the source code is translated

every time the
program is executed
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 Programming paradigm
• A computer program usually consists of two elements:
– Data – characteristics
– Code – action
• A programming paradigm
– A fundamental style of programming
– Provides the view that the programmer has for the execution of
the program
• Types
– Unstructured Programming
– Procedural programming
– Structured Programming
– Object Oriented Programming

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 Unstructured Programming
• consisting only of one large (usually main) program
• “main program”' stands for a sequence of commands or
statements
– data is global throughout the whole program

• disadvantages
– Complex
– The same statement sequence must be copied more than once
in the program

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 Procedural programming
• based upon the concept of procedure call
• A procedure call is used to invoke the procedure
• Procedures (routines, subroutines, methods, functions) simply
contain a series of computational steps to be carried out to
solve a problem
• Is a better choice than unstructured programming
• Involves moderate complexity or require significant ease of
maintainability
• The same code can be reused without copying it
• Is strongly modular or structured

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• We have a single program, which is divided into small pieces
called procedures

• Advantage
• to re-use the same code at different places in the program
without copying it
• easier way to keep track of program flow
• Example
• FORTRAN, VB, C
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 Structured Programming
• is a subset of procedural programming (also known as
modular programming)
• Enforces a logical structure on the program being written to
make it more efficient and easier to understand, and modify.
• A program is divided into several smaller parts called module
which interacts through procedure calls
• Each module can have its own data
– allows each module to manage an internal state which is
modified by calls to procedures of this module
• Employees top-down design model
– map out the overall program structure into separate subsections
• Example
– PASCAL

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• Advantage
• Reuse
• easier to understand and modify

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 Object Oriented Programming - OOP
• Data and operations are grouped together
• Each object is capable of
– receiving messages,
– processing data, and
– sending messages to other objects
• Uses objects and their interaction to design applications and
computer programs
• A program is a collection of individual units, or objects
• Organizes programs around data – Object.
• write programs by modelling problem as set of collaborating
components
– you determine what the building blocks are
– then put them together so they cooperate properly

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 Procedural vs. Object-Oriented
• how to write the logic, not • we want to manipulate objects
how to define the data rather than the logic required
to manipulate them
• unit programming is • unit in object-oriented
function programming is objects
• separates the data of the • focus on both the data and the
program from the operation
operations

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 The Basic OO Concepts
• It is a technique of modeling some kind of system based on
objects
• Basic OO concepts
⚫ Models
⚫ Objects
⚫ Classes
⚫ Encapsulation
⚫ Abstraction
⚫ Inheritance
⚫ Polymorphism

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 Modeling
• Successful programs solve problems in the real world.
– They correspond closely to the real world problems they solve.
– They model the problem domain and users’ activities.
• Modeling enables better communication and visualization for
all stakeholders.
• Successful OO designs almost always begin with a visual
“object model” of the problem domain, involving both the
domain experts and software designers alike.
• Would you let a contractor build your new house without
blueprints?
• The essence of modeling is to show all pertinent detail.

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 Objects
• Represents a real world entity
• Is a unique, distinct, identifiable, self-contained entity that
possesses operations and contains attributes (data)
• Possesses all the know-how and information it needs to perform
the services for which it was designed
– E.g. Building, Employee, Patient etc.
• Consist of attributes (data) and behaviors (methods)
▪ Objects collaborate to provide functionality by exchanging
messages
▪ The interface of the object is the attributes and methods that are
visible (available) from the outside of the object for other objects
▪ Are self-consistent, coherent, and complete.
▪ Are (usually) not very complex or large.
▪ Are as loosely coupled with other objects as possible.

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 Characteristics of Objects
▪ They have unique identity.
▪ They fall into categories, or classes.
▪ They fall into hierarchies or aggregations.
▪ They have well defined behaviors & responsibilities.
▪ They separate interface from implementation.
▪ They hide their internal structures.
▪ They have states.
▪ They provide services.
▪ They send messages to other objects.
▪ They receive messages from other objects, and react
appropriately.
▪ They delegate responsibilities to other objects.

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 Object Examples
• Example 1: Dogs
– States: name, color, breed, and “is hungry?”
– Behaviors: bark, run, and wag tail
• Example 2: Cars
– States: color, model, speed, direction
– Behaviors: accelerate, turn, change gears
 Class
• A class is a template (blueprint) used to create multiple
objects with similar features
• Is an abstract description of the data (characteristic) and
behavior of a collection of similar objects.
• A class can have: attributes and behaviors
– Attributes (fields): data variables which determine the status of
the class or an object
– behavior (methods): executable code of the class built from
statements. It allows us to manipulate/change the status of
an object or access the value of the data member
• Classes are to objects as blueprints are to houses
• The classification(s) of a collection of objects often depends
on the attributes in which you are interested.
– Examples: streets, roads, and highways...
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• Classes can be considered as data type
• The properties and methods defined by a class are called
members
• Even though all dogs have four legs, and bark, each dog’s
behavior is independent of other dogs.
• For example: Dog #1 is a black Poodle, Dog #2 is a red Irish
Setter
 Object vs. Class
• “Class” refers to a blueprint. It defines the variables and
methods the objects support
• “Object” is an instance of a class. Each object has a class
which defines its data and behavior.
– Example : Class – Girl
• Object- Abebech, Lili, Kiki …
• The world conceptually consists of objects
• We call the object type a class
• An Object is instantiated from a Class
– Example
BankAccount myAccount ;
myAccount = new BankAccount

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 Objects vs. Classes
• Class • Object
– Classes provide the benefit of – Has the set of operations
reusability given in the class
– objects are defined in terms – Objects provide the benefit
of classes of modularity and
information hiding

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 Encapsulation
• The only thing that an object knows about another object is
the object’s interface
• Exposing only the details that are relevant: the public
interface.
• What? not How?
• Hiding the “gears and levers”.
• Exposing only the client’s view of the object’s
responsibilities
• Protects the object from outside interference.
• Protects other objects from relying on details that are likely
to change.
• It allows the developer to separate an object's implementation
from its behavior.
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• As long as the interface remains the same, any changes to the
internal implementation are transparent to the user
• Information hiding promotes loose coupling between objects
and modularity, which promotes flexible design, which
promotes reusability.
• Reduces interdependencies in the code.
– Example: Your car’s gas pedal.
• Best practice: Objects only speak to each other by method
(i.e. function) calls. They never directly access each other’s
attributes.

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 Polymorphism
• “The ability of two or more classes of objects to respond to
the same message, each in its own way.”
• “The ability to use any object which implements a given
interface”
• works together with encapsulation and inheritance to simplify
the flow control in an object-oriented program
• allows a sending object to communicate with different objects
in a consistent manner without worrying about how many
different implementations of a message.
• The sending object does not have to know how the receiving
object implements the message. Only the receiving objects
worries about that

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 Polymorphism

Polymorphic Variables Shape

area()
Shape is an abstract class
perimeter()
with no implementation of
area() and perimeter()

Rectangle
Circle
area()
area()
perimeter()
perimeter()

• Rectangle are concrete classes with their own separate

implementations
Circle and Rectangleof
arethe methods
concrete classesarea() and
with their ownPerimeter()
separate
implementations
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 Inheritance
• allows a class to have the same behavior as another class and
extend or tailor that behavior to provide special action for
specific needs.
– Example: “Class Y is like Class X except for the following
differences… ”
• Classes that inherit from a class are called subclasses
(Derived Class).
• The class a subclass inherits from are called superclass (Base
Class).
• Why use inheritance?
– When you have two types where one is necessarily an extension
of the other.
– Sometimes (but not all the time) you are going to want to ignore
the differences and look only at the what they have in common
(the base class).
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• This is called generalization.
• Consider a system that can manipulate various kinds of
shapes:
• The sub-class inherits the base class’ data members and
member functions
• A sub-class has all data members of its base-class plus its own
– Base class = parent class = superclass.
– Derived class = child class = subclass.
• is-a relationship: inheritance
• A Square is-a-kind-of Rectangle (uses inheritance).
• has-a relationship: composition
• A clock has a date

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• Abstraction
– is simplifying complex reality by modeling classes
appropriate to the problem, and
– working at the most appropriate level of inheritance for a
given aspect of the problem.
– Is achieved through Composition
 Summary of OO Concepts
• Everything is an object.
• Computation is performed by objects communicating with
each other, requesting that other objects perform actions.
• Each object has its own memory.
• Every object is an instance of a class.
• The class is the repository (storage) for behavior associated
with an object.
• Classes can be organized into a single rooted tree structure
called inheritance hierarchy

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