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Unit 5
Testing Tools and automation
As we know, software testing is a process of analyzing an application's functionality as per the
customer prerequisite.

If we want to ensure that our software is bug-free or stable, we must perform the various types of
software testing because testing is the only method that makes our application bug-free.

Various types of testing

The categorization of software testing is a part of diverse testing activities, such as test strategy,
test deliverables, a defined test objective, etc. And software testing is the execution of the
software to find defects.

The purpose of having a testing type is to confirm the AUT (Application Under Test).

To start testing, we should have a requirement, application-ready, necessary resources

available. To maintain accountability, we should assign a respective module to different test
engineers.

The software testing mainly divided into two parts, which are as follows:

o Manual Testing
o Automation Testing
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What is Manual Testing?

Testing any software or an application according to the client's needs without using any automation
tool is known as manual testing.

In other words, we can say that it is a procedure of verification and validation. Manual testing is
used to verify the behavior of an application or software in contradiction of requirements
specification.

We do not require any precise knowledge of any testing tool to execute the manual test cases. We
can easily prepare the test document while performing manual testing on any application.

To get in-detail information about manual testing, click on the following link:
https://www.javatpoint.com/manual-testing.

Classification of Manual Testing

In software testing, manual testing can be further classified into three different types of testing,
which are as follows:

o White Box Testing

o Black Box Testing
o Grey Box Testing
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For our better understanding let's see them one by one:

White Box Testing

In white-box testing, the developer will inspect every line of code before handing it over to the
testing team or the concerned test engineers.

Subsequently, the code is noticeable for developers throughout testing; that's why this process is
known as WBT (White Box Testing).

In other words, we can say that the developer will execute the complete white-box testing for the
particular software and send the specific application to the testing team.

The purpose of implementing the white box testing is to emphasize the flow of inputs and outputs
over the software and enhance the security of an application.

White box testing is also known as open box testing, glass box testing, structural testing, clear
box testing, and transparent box testing.

Black Box Testing

Another type of manual testing is black-box testing. In this testing, the test engineer will analyze
the software against requirements, identify the defects or bug, and sends it back to the development
team.

Then, the developers will fix those defects, do one round of White box testing, and send it to the
testing team.

Here, fixing the bugs means the defect is resolved, and the particular feature is working according
to the given requirement.
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The main objective of implementing the black box testing is to specify the business needs or the
customer's requirements.

In other words, we can say that black box testing is a process of checking the functionality of an
application as per the customer requirement. The source code is not visible in this testing; that's
why it is known as black-box testing.

Types of Black Box Testing

Black box testing further categorizes into two parts, which are as discussed below:

o Functional Testing
o Non-function Testing
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Functional Testing

The test engineer will check all the components systematically against requirement specifications
is known as functional testing. Functional testing is also known as Component testing.

In functional testing, all the components are tested by giving the value, defining the output, and
validating the actual output with the expected value.

Functional testing is a part of black-box testing as its emphases on application requirement rather
than actual code. The test engineer has to test only the program instead of the system.

Types of Functional Testing

Just like another type of testing is divided into several parts, functional testing is also classified
into various categories.

The diverse types of Functional Testing contain the following:

o Unit Testing
o Integration Testing
o System Testing

Now, Let's understand them one by one:

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1. Unit Testing

Unit testing is the first level of functional testing in order to test any software. In this, the test
engineer will test the module of an application independently or test all the module functionality
is called unit testing.

The primary objective of executing the unit testing is to confirm the unit components with their
performance. Here, a unit is defined as a single testable function of a software or an application.
And it is verified throughout the specified application development phase.

2. Integration Testing

Once we are successfully implementing the unit testing, we will go integration testing. It is the
second level of functional testing, where we test the data flow between dependent modules or
interface between two features is called integration testing.

The purpose of executing the integration testing is to test the statement's accuracy between each
module.

Types of Integration Testing

Integration testing is also further divided into the following parts:

o Incremental Testing
o Non-Incremental Testing

Incremental Integration Testing

Whenever there is a clear relationship between modules, we go for incremental integration testing.
Suppose, we take two modules and analysis the data flow between them if they are working fine
or not.

If these modules are working fine, then we can add one more module and test again. And we can
continue with the same process to get better results.

In other words, we can say that incrementally adding up the modules and test the data flow between
the modules is known as Incremental integration testing.

Types of Incremental Integration Testing

Incremental integration testing can further classify into two parts, which are as follows:
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1. Top-down Incremental Integration Testing

2. Bottom-up Incremental Integration Testing

Let's see a brief introduction of these types of integration testing:

1. Top-down Incremental Integration Testing

In this approach, we will add the modules step by step or incrementally and test the data flow
between them. We have to ensure that the modules we are adding are the child of the earlier ones.

2. Bottom-up Incremental Integration Testing

In the bottom-up approach, we will add the modules incrementally and check the data flow
between modules. And also, ensure that the module we are adding is the parent of the earlier
ones.

Non-Incremental Integration Testing/ Big Bang Method

Whenever the data flow is complex and very difficult to classify a parent and a child, we will go
for the non-incremental integration approach. The non-incremental method is also known as the
Big Bang method.

3. System Testing
Whenever we are done with the unit and integration testing, we can proceed with the system
testing.

In system testing, the test environment is parallel to the production environment. It is also known
as end-to-end testing.

In this type of testing, we will undergo each attribute of the software and test if the end feature
works according to the business requirement. And analysis the software product as a complete
system.

Non-function Testing

The next part of black-box testing is non-functional testing. It provides detailed information on
software product performance and used technologies.

Non-functional testing will help us minimize the risk of production and related costs of the
software.
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Non-functional testing is a combination of performance, load, stress, usability and,

compatibility testing.

Types of Non-functional Testing

Non-functional testing categorized into different parts of testing, which we are going to discuss
further:

o Performance Testing
o Usability Testing
o Compatibility Testing

1. Performance Testing

In performance testing, the test engineer will test the working of an application by applying some
load.

In this type of non-functional testing, the test engineer will only focus on several aspects, such
as Response time, Load, scalability, and Stability of the software or an application.

Classification of Performance Testing

Performance testing includes the various types of testing, which are as follows:

o Load Testing
o Stress Testing
o Scalability Testing
o Stability Testing
o Load Testing

While executing the performance testing, we will apply some load on the particular application to
check the application's performance, known as load testing. Here, the load could be less than or
equal to the desired load.

It will help us to detect the highest operating volume of the software and bottlenecks.

o Stress Testing

It is used to analyze the user-friendliness and robustness of the software beyond the common
functional limits.
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Primarily, stress testing is used for critical software, but it can also be used for all types of software
applications.

o Scalability Testing

To analysis, the application's performance by enhancing or reducing the load in particular balances
is known as scalability testing.

In scalability testing, we can also check the system, processes, or database's ability to meet an
upward need. And in this, the Test Cases are designed and implemented efficiently.

o Stability Testing

Stability testing is a procedure where we evaluate the application's performance by a pplying the
load for a precise time.

It mainly checks the constancy problems of the application and the efficiency of a developed
product. In this type of testing, we can rapidly find the system's defect even in a stressful situation.

2. Usability Testing

Another type of non-functional testing is usability testing. In usability testing, we will analyze
the user-friendliness of an application and detect the bugs in the software's end-user interface.

Here, the term user-friendliness defines the following aspects of an application:

o The application should be easy to understand, which means that all the features must be
visible to end-users.
o The application's look and feel should be good that means the application should be
pleasant looking and make a feel to the end-user to use it.

3. Compatibility Testing

In compatibility testing, we will check the functionality of an application in specific hardware and
software environments. Once the application is functionally stable then only, we go
for compatibility testing.

Here, software means we can test the application on the different operating systems and other
browsers, and hardware means we can test the application on different sizes.
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Grey Box Testing

Another part of manual testing is Grey box testing. It is a collaboration of black box and white
box testing.

Since, the grey box testing includes access to internal coding for designing test cases. Grey box
testing is performed by a person who knows coding as well as testing.

In other words, we can say that if a single-person team done both white box and black-box
testing, it is considered grey box testing.

Automation Testing

The most significant part of Software testing is Automation testing. It uses specific tools to
automate manual design test cases without any human interference.

Automation testing is the best way to enhance the efficiency, productivity, and coverage of
Software testing.

It is used to re-run the test scenarios, which were executed manually, quickly, and repeatedly.

In other words, we can say that whenever we are testing an application by using some tools is
known as automation testing.

We will go for automation testing when various releases or several regression cycles goes on the
application or software. We cannot write the test script or perform the automation testing without
understanding the programming language.

Automation of testing Pros and cons

Some other types of Software Testing

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In software testing, we also have some other types of testing that are not part of any above
discussed testing, but those testing are required while testing any software or an application.

o Smoke Testing
o Sanity Testing
o Regression Testing
o User Acceptance Testing
o Exploratory Testing
o Adhoc Testing
o Security Testing
o Globalization Testing

Let's understand those types of testing one by one:

In smoke testing, we will test an application's basic and critical features before doing one round
of deep and rigorous testing.

Or before checking all possible positive and negative values is known as smoke testing.
Analyzing the workflow of the application's core and main functions is the main objective of
performing the smoke testing.

Sanity Testing

It is used to ensure that all the bugs have been fixed and no added issues come into existence due
to these changes. Sanity testing is unscripted, which means we cannot documented it. It checks the
correctness of the newly added features and components.

Regression Testing

Regression testing is the most commonly used type of software testing. Here, the
term regression implies that we have to re-test those parts of an unaffected application.

Regression testing is the most suitable testing for automation tools. As per the project type and
accessibility of resources, regression testing can be similar to Retesting.

Whenever a bug is fixed by the developers and then testing the other features of the applications
that might be simulated because of the bug fixing is known as regression testing.
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In other words, we can say that whenever there is a new release for some project, then we can
perform Regression Testing, and due to a new feature may affect the old features in the earlier
releases.

User Acceptance Testing

The User acceptance testing (UAT) is done by the individual team known as domain
expert/customer or the client. And knowing the application before accepting the final product is
called as user acceptance testing.

In user acceptance testing, we analyze the business scenarios, and real-time scenarios on the
distinct environment called the UAT environment. In this testing, we will test the application
before UAI for customer approval.

Exploratory Testing

Whenever the requirement is missing, early iteration is required, and the testing team has
experienced testers when we have a critical application. New test engineer entered into the team
then we go for the exploratory testing.

To execute the exploratory testing, we will first go through the application in all possible ways,
make a test document, understand the flow of the application, and then test the application.

Adhoc Testing

Testing the application randomly as soon as the build is in the checked sequence is known
as Adhoc testing.

It is also called Monkey testing and Gorilla testing. In Adhoc testing, we will check the
application in contradiction of the client's requirements; that's why it is also known as negative
testing.

When the end-user using the application casually, and he/she may detect a bug. Still, the
specialized test engineer uses the software thoroughly, so he/she may not identify a similar
detection.

Security Testing

It is an essential part of software testing, used to determine the weakness, risks, or threats in the
software application.
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The execution of security testing will help us to avoid the nasty attack from outsiders and ensure
our software applications' security.

In other words, we can say that security testing is mainly used to define that the data will be safe
and endure the software's working process.

Globalization Testing

Another type of software testing is Globalization testing. Globalization testing is used to check
the developed software for multiple languages or not. Here, the words globalization means
enlightening the application or software for various languages.

Globalization testing is used to make sure that the application will support multiple languages and
multiple features.

In present scenarios, we can see the enhancement in several technologies as the applications are
prepared to be used globally.

Conclusion

In the tutorial, we have discussed various types of software testing. But there is still a list of more
than 100+ categories of testing. However, each kind of testing is not used in all types of projects.

We have discussed the most commonly used types of Software Testing like black-box testing,
white box testing, functional testing, non-functional testing, regression testing, Adhoc testing,
etc.

Also, there are alternate classifications or processes used in diverse organizations, but the general
concept is similar all over the place.

These testing types, processes, and execution approaches keep changing when the project,
requirements, and scope change.

Automation of testing Pros and cons

Pros of Automated Testing:

Automated Testing has the following advantages:
1. Automated testing improves the coverage of testing as automated execution of test cases is
faster than manual execution.
2. Automated testing reduces the dependability of testing on the availability of the test
engineers.
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3. Automated testing provides round the clock coverage as automated tests can be run all time
in 24*7 environment.
4. Automated testing takes far less resources in execution as compared to manual testing.
5. It helps to train the test engineers to increase their knowledge by producing a repository of
different tests.
6. It helps in testing which is not possible without automation such as reliability testing, stress
testing, load and performance testing.
7. It includes all other activities like selecting the right product build, generating the right test
data and analyzing the results.
8. It acts as test data generator and produces maximum test data to cover a large number of
input and expected output for result comparison.
9. Automated testing has less chances of error hence more reliable.
10. As with automated testing test engineers have free time and can focus on other creative
tasks.
Cons of Automated Testing :Automated Testing has the following disadvantages:
1. Automated testing is very much expensive than the manual testing.
2. It also becomes inconvenient and burdensome as to decide who would automate and who
would train.
3. It has limited to some organisations as many organisations not prefer test automation.
4. Automated testing would also require additionally trained and skilled people.
5. Automated testing only removes the mechanical execution of testing process, but creation
of test cases still required testing professionals.
Selenium
Introduction
Selenium is one of the most widely used open source Web UI (User Interface) automation testing
suite.It was originally developed by Jason Huggins in 2004 as an internal tool at Thought Works.
Selenium supports automation across different browsers, platforms and programming languages.

Selenium can be easily deployed on platforms such as Windows, Linux, Solaris and Macintosh.
Moreover, it supports OS (Operating System) for mobile applications like iOS, windows mobile
and android.

Selenium supports a variety of programming languages through the use of drivers specific to each
Language.

Languages supported by Selenium include C#, Java, Perl, PHP, Python and Ruby.

Currently, Selenium Web driver is most popular with Java and C#. Selenium test scripts can be
coded in any of the supported programming languages and can be run directly in most modern web
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browsers. Browsers supported by Selenium include Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Google
Chrome and Safari.

Selenium can be used to automate functional tests and can be integrated with automation test tools
such as Maven, Jenkins, & Docker to achieve continuous testing. It can also be integrated with
tools such as TestNG, & JUnit for managing test cases and generating reports.

Selenium Features

o Selenium is an open source and portable Web testing Framework.

o Selenium IDE provides a playback and record feature for authoring tests without the need
to learn a test scripting language.
o It can be considered as the leading cloud-based testing platform which helps testers to
record their actions and export them as a reusable script with a simple-to-understand and
easy-to-use interface.
o Selenium supports various operating systems, browsers and programming languages.
Following is the list:
o Programming Languages: C#, Java, Python, PHP, Ruby, Perl, and JavaScript
o Operating Systems: Android, iOS, Windows, Linux, Mac, Solaris.
o Browsers: Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, Edge, Opera, Safari,
etc.
o It also supports parallel test execution which reduces time and increases the efficiency of
tests.
o Selenium can be integrated with frameworks like Ant and Maven for source code
compilation.
o Selenium can also be integrated with testing frameworks like TestNG for application
testing and generating rseports.
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o Selenium requires fewer resources as compared to other automation test tools.

o WebDriver API has been indulged in selenium whichis one of the most important
modifications done to selenium.
o Selenium web driver does not require server installation, test scripts interact directly with
the browser.
o Selenium commands are categorized in terms of different classes which make it easier to
understand and implement.

JavaScript testing
JavaScript testing is a crucial part of the software development process that helps ensure the quality
and reliability of code. The following are the key components of JavaScript testing:

Test frameworks: A test framework provides a structure for writing and organizing tests. Some
popular JavaScript test frameworks include Jest, Mocha, and Jasmine.
Assertion libraries: An assertion library provides a set of functions that allow developers to write
assertions about the expected behavior of the code. For example, an assertion might check that a
certain function returns the expected result.
Test suites: A test suite is a collection of related tests that are grouped together. The purpose of a
test suite is to test a specific aspect of the code in isolation.

Test cases: A test case is a single test that verifies a specific aspect of the code. For example, a
test case might check that a function behaves correctly when given a certain input.

Test runners: A test runner is a tool that runs the tests and provides feedback on the results. Test
runners typically provide a report on which tests passed and which tests failed.

Continuous Integration (CI): CI is a software development practice where developers integrate

code into a shared repository frequently. By using CI, developers can catch issues early and avoid
integration problems.

The goal of JavaScript testing is to catch bugs and defects early in the development cycle, before
they become bigger problems and impact the quality of the software. Testing also helps to ensure
that the code behaves as expected, even when changes are made in the future.

There are different types of tests that can be performed in JavaScript, including unit tests,
integration tests, and end-to-end tests. The choice of which tests to write depends on the specific
requirements and goals of the project.

Testing backend integration points

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The term backend generally refers to server-side deployment. Here the process is entirely
happening in the backend which is not shown to the user only the expected results will be
shown to the user. In every web application, there will be a backend language to accomplish
the task.
For Example, while uploading the details of the students in the database, the database will
store all the details. When there is a need to display the details of the students, it will simply
fetch all the details and display them. Here, it will show only the result, not the process and
how it fetches the details.

What is Backend Testing?

Backend Testing is a testing method that checks the database or server-side of the web
application. The main purpose of backend testing is to check the application layer and the
database layer. It will find an error or bug in the database or server-side.
For implementing backend testing, the backend test engineer should also have some
knowledge about that particular server-side or database language. It is also known
as Database Testing.
Importance of Backend Testing: Backend testing is a must because anything wrong or
error happens at the server-side, it will not further proceed with that task or the output will
get differed or sometimes it will also cause problems such as data loss, deadlock, etc.,

Types of Backend Testing

The following are the different types of backend testing:

1. Structural Testing
2. Functional Testing
3. Non-Functional Testing
Let’s discuss each of these types of backend testing.
1. Structural Testing
Structural testing is the process of validating all the elements that are present inside the
data repository and are primarily used for data storage. It involves checking the objects of
front-end developments with the database mapping objects.
Types of Structural Testing: The following are the different types of structural testing:
a) Schema Testing: In this Schema Testing, the tester will check for the correctly mapped
objects. This is also known as mapping testing. It ensures whether the objects of the front-
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end and the objects of the back-end are correctly matched or mapped. It will mainly focus
on schema objects such as a table, view, indexes, clusters, etc., In this testing, the tester
will find the issues of mapped objects like table, view, etc.,
b) Table and Column Testing: In this, it ensures that the table and column properties are
correctly mapped.
● It ensures whether the table and the column names are correctly mapped on both the
front-end side and server-side.
● It validates the datatype of the column is correctly mentioned.
● It ensures the correct naming of the column values of the database.
● It detects the unused tables and columns.
● It validates whether the users are able to give the correct input as per the requirement.
For example, if we mention the wrong datatype for the column on the server-side which is
different from the front-end then it will raise an error.
c) Key and Indexes Testing: In this, it validates the key and indexes of the columns.
● It ensures whether the mentioned key constraints are correctly provided. For example,
Primary Key for the column is correctly mentioned as per the given requirement.
● It ensures the correct references of Foreign Key with the parent table.
● It checks the length and size of the indexes.
● It ensures the creation of clustered and non-clustered indexes for the table as per the
requirement.
● It validates the naming conventions of the Keys.
d) Trigger Testing: It ensures that the executed triggers are fulfilling the required conditions
of the DML transactions.
● It validates whether the triggers make the data updates correctly when we have executed
them.
● It checks the coding conventions are followed correctly during the coding phase of the
triggers.
● It ensures that the trigger functionalities of update, delete, and insert.
e) Stored Procedures Testing: In this, the tester checks for the correctness of the stored
procedure results.
● It checks whether the stored procedure contains the valid conditions for looping and
conditional statements as per the requirement.
● It validates the exception and error handling in the stored procedure.
● It detects the unused stored procedure.
● It validates the cursor operations.
● It validates whether the TRIM operations are correctly applied or not.
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● It ensures that the required triggers are implicitly invoked by executing the stored
procedures.
f) Database Server Validation Testing: It validates the database configuration details as
per the requirements.
● It validates that the transactions of the data are made as per the requirements.
● It validates the user’s authentication and authorization.
For Example, If wrong user authentication is given, it will raise an error.

2. Functional Testing

Functional Testing is the process of validating that the transactions and operations made
by the end-users meet the requirements.
Types of Functional Testing: The following are the different types of functional testing:
a) Black Box Testing:
● Black Box Testing is the process of checking the functionalities of the integration of
the database.
● This testing is carried out at the early stage of development and hence It is very helpful
to reduce errors.
● It consists of various techniques such as boundary analysis, equivalent partitioning, and
cause-effect graphing.
● These techniques are helpful in checking the functionality of the database.
● The best example is the User login page. If the entered username and password are
correct, It will allow the user and redirect to the next page.
b) White Box Testing:
● White Box Testing is the process of validating the internal structure of the database.
● Here, the specified details are hidden from the user.
● The database triggers, functions, views, queries, and cursors will be checked in this
testing.
● It validates the database schema, database table, etc.,
● Here the coding errors in the triggers can be easily found.
● Errors in the queries can also be handled in this white box testing and hence internal
errors are easily eliminated.
3. Non-Functional Testing
Non-functional testing is the process of performing load testing, stress testing, and
checking minimum system requirements are required to meet the requirements. It will also
detect risks, and errors and optimize the performance of the database.
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a) Load Testing:
● Load testing involves testing the performance and scalability of the database.
● It determines how the software behaves when it is been used by many users
simultaneously.
● It focuses on good load management.
● For example, if the web application is accessed by multiple users at the same time and
it does not create any traffic problems then the load testing is successfully completed.
b) Stress Testing:
● Stress Testing is also known as endurance testing. Stress testing is a testing process that
is performed to identify the breakpoint of the system.
● In this testing, an application is loaded till the stage the system fails.
● This point is known as a breakpoint of the database system.
● It evaluates and analyzes the software after the breakage of system failure. In case of
error detection, It will display the error messages.
● For example, if users enter the wrong login information then it will throw an error
message.

Backend Testing Process

1. Set up the Test Environment: When the coding process is done for the application, set
up the test environment by choosing a proper testing tool for back-end testing. It includes
choosing the right team to test the entire back-end environment with a proper schedule.
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Record all the testing processes in the documents or update them in software to keep track
of all the processes.
2. Generate the Test Cases: Once the tool and the team are ready for the testing process,
generate the test cases as per the business requirements. The automation tool itself will
analyze the code and generate all possible test cases for developed code. If the process is
manual then the tester will have to write the possible test cases in the testing tool to ensure
the correctness of the code.
3. Execution of Test Cases: Once the test cases are generated, the tester or Quality Analyst
needs to execute those test cases in the developed code. If the tool is automated, it will
generate and execute the test cases by itself. Otherwise, the tester needs to write and
execute those test cases. It will highlight whether the execution of test cases is executed
successfully or not.
4. Analyzing the Test Cases: After the execution of test cases, it highlights the result of
all the test cases whether it has been executed successfully or not. If an error occurs in the
test cases, it will highlight where the particular error is formed or raised, and in some cases,
the automation tool will give hints regarding the issues to solve the error. The tester or
Quality Analyst should analyze the code again and fix the issues if an error occurred.
5. Submission of Test Reports: This is the last stage in the testing process. Here, all the
details such as who is responsible for testing, the tool used in the testing process, number
of test cases generated, number of test cases executed successfully or not, time is taken to
execute each test case, number of times test cases failed, number of times errors occurred.
These details are either documented or updated in the software. The report will be
submitted to the respective team.

Backend Testing Validation

The following are some of the factors for backend testing validation:
● Performance Check: It validates the performance of each individual test and the
system behavior.
● Sequence Testing: Backend testing validates that the tests are distributed according to
the priority.
● Database Server Validations: In this, ensures that the data fed through for the tests is
correct or not.
● Functions Testing: In this, the test validates the consistency in transactions of the
database.
● Key and Indexes: In this, the test ensures that the accurate constraint and the rules of
constraints and indexes are followed properly.
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● Data Integrity Testing: It is a technique in which data is verified in the database

whether it is accurate and functions as per requirements.
● Database Tables: It ensures that the created table and the queries for the output are
providing the expected result.
● Database Triggers: Backend Testing validates the correctness of the functionality of
triggers.
● Stored Procedures: Backend testing validates the functions, return statements, calling
the other events, etc., are correctly mentioned as per the requirements,
● Schema: Backend testing validates that the data is organized in a correct way as per the
business requirement and confirms the outcome.

Tools For Backend Testing

The following are some of the tools for backend testing:

1. LoadRunner:
● It is a stress testing tool.
● It is an automated performance and testing automation tool for analyzing system
behavior and the performance of the system while generating the actual load.
2. Empirix-TEST Suite:
● It is acquired by Oracle from Empirix. It is a load testing tool.
● It validates the scalability along with the functionality of the application under heavy
test.
● Acquisition with the Empirix -Test suite may be proven effective to deliver the
application with improved quality.
3. Stored Procedure Testing Tools – LINQ:
● It is a powerful tool that allows the user to show the projects.
● It tracks all the ORM calls and database queries from the ORM.
● It enables to see the performance of the data access code and easily determine
performance.
4. Unit Testing Tools – SQL Unit, DBFit, NDbUnit:
● SQL UNIT: SQLUnit is a Unit Testing Framework for Regression and Unit Testing of
database stored procedures.
● DBFit: It is a part of FitNesse and manages stored procedures and custom procedures.
Accomplishes database testing either through Java or .NET and runs from the command
line.
● NDbUnit: It performs the database unit test for the system either before or after
execution or compiled the other parts of the system.
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5. Data Factory Tools:

● These tools work as data managers and data generators for backend database testing.
● It is used to validate the queries with a huge set of data.
● It allows performing both stress and load testing.
6. SQLMap:
● It is an open-source tool.
● It is used for performing Penetration Testing to automate the process of detection.
● Powerful detection of errors will lead to efficient testing and result in the expected
behavior of the requirements.
7.phpMyadmin:
● This is the software tool and it is written in PHP.
● It is developed to handle the databases and we can execute test queries to ensure the
correctness of the result as a whole and even for a separate table.
8. Automatic Efficient Test Generator (AETG):
● It mechanically generates the possible tests from user-defined requirements.
● It is based on algorithms that use ideas from statistical experimental design theory to
reduce the number of tests needed for a specific level of test coverage of the input test
space.
9. Hammer DB:
● It is an open-source tool for load testing.
● It validates the activity replay functionality for the oracle database.
● It is based on industry standards like TPC-C and TPC-H Benchmarks.
10. SQL Test:
● SQL Test uses an open-source tSQLt framework, views, stored procedures, and
functions.
● This tool stores database object in a separate schema and if changes occur there is no
need for clearing the process.
● It allows running the unit test cases for the SQL server database.

Advantages of Backend Testing

The following are some of the benefits of backend testing:

● Errors are easily detectable at the earlier stage.
● It avoids deadlock creation on the server-side.
● Web load management is easily achieved.
● The functionality of the database is maintained properly.
● It reduces data loss.
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● Enhances the functioning of the system.

● It ensures the security and protection of the system.
● While doing the backend testing, the errors in the UI parts can also be detected and
replaced.
● Coverage of all possible test cases.

Disadvantages of Backend Testing

The following are some of the disadvantages of backend testing:

● Good domain knowledge is required.
● Providing test cases for testing requires special attention.
● Investment in Organizational costs is higher.
● It takes more time to test.
● If more testing becomes fails then It will lead to a crash on the server-side in some
cases.
● Errors or Unexpected results from one test case scenario will affect the other system
results also.

Test-driven development

Test Driven Development (TDD) is software development approach in which test cases
are developed to specify and validate what the code will do. In simple terms, test cases
for each functionality are created and tested first and if the test fails then the new code
is written in order to pass the test and making code simple and bug-free.
Test-Driven Development starts with designing and developing tests for every small
functionality of an application. TDD framework instructs developers to write new code
only if an automated test has failed. This avoids duplication of code. The TDD full form
is Test-driven development.
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The simple concept of TDD is to write and correct the failed tests before writing new code (before
development). This helps to avoid duplication of code as we write a small amount of code at a time
in order to pass tests. (Tests are nothing but requirement conditions that we need to test to fulfill
them).

Test-Driven development is a process of developing and running automated test before actual
development of the application. Hence, TDD sometimes also called as Test First Development.

How to perform TDD Test

Following steps define how to perform TDD test,

1. Add a test.
2. Run all tests and see if any new test fails.
3. Write some code.
4. Run tests and Refactor code.
5. Repeat
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TDD Vs. Traditional Testing

Below is the main difference between Test driven development and traditional testing:

TDD approach is primarily a specification technique. It ensures that your source code
is thoroughly tested at confirmatory level.

● With traditional testing, a successful test finds one or more defects. It is same as
TDD. When a test fails, you have made progress because you know that you need
to resolve the problem.
● TDD ensures that your system actually meets requirements defined for it. It helps
to build your confidence about your system.
● In TDD more focus is on production code that verifies whether testing will work
properly. In traditional testing, more focus is on test case design. Whether the
test will show the proper/improper execution of the application in order to fulfill
requirements.
● In TDD, you achieve 100% coverage test. Every single line of code is tested,
unlike traditional testing.
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● The combination of both traditional testing and TDD leads to the importance of
testing the system rather than perfection of the system.
● In Agile Modeling (AM), you should “test with a purpose”. You should know
why you are testing something and what level its need to be tested.

What is acceptance TDD and Developer TDD

There are two levels of TDD

1. Acceptance TDD (ATDD): With ATDD you write a single acceptance test. This test
fulfills the requirement of the specification or satisfies the behavior of the system. After
that write just enough production/functionality code to fulfill that acceptance test.
Acceptance test focuses on the overall behavior of the system. ATDD also was known
as Behavioral Driven Development (BDD).
2. Developer TDD: With Developer TDD you write single developer test i.e. unit test and
then just enough production code to fulfill that test. The unit test focuses on every small
functionality of the system. Developer TDD is simply called as TDD.The main goal of
ATDD and TDD is to specify detailed, executable requirements for your solution on a just
in time (JIT) basis. JIT means taking only those requirements in consideration that are
needed in the system. So increase efficiency.
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REPL-driven development
REPL-driven development (Read-Eval-Print Loop) is an interactive programming approach that
allows developers to execute code snippets and see their results immediately. This enables
developers to test their code quickly and iteratively, and helps them to understand the behavior of
their code as they work.
In a REPL environment, developers can type in code snippets, and the environment will
immediately evaluate the code and return the results. This allows developers to test small bits of
code and quickly see the results, without having to create a full-fledged application.

REPL-driven development is commonly used in dynamic programming languages such as Python,

JavaScript, and Ruby. Some popular REPL environments include the Python REPL, Node.js
REPL, and IRB (Interactive Ruby).

Benefits of REPL-driven development include:

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Increased efficiency: The immediate feedback provided by a REPL environment allows developers
to test and modify their code quickly, without having to run a full-fledged application.
Improved understanding: By being able to see the results of code snippets immediately, developers
can better understand how the code works and identify any issues early on.

Increased collaboration: REPL-driven development makes it easy for developers to share code
snippets and collaborate on projects, as they can demonstrate the behavior of the code quickly and
easily.
Overall, REPL-driven development is a useful tool for developers looking to improve their
workflow and increase their understanding of their code. By providing an interactive environment
for testing and exploring code, REPL-driven development can help developers to be more
productive and efficient.

Deployment of the system:

In DevOps, deployment systems are responsible for automating the release of software updates
and applications from development to production. Some popular deployment systems include:

Jenkins: an open-source automation server that provides plugins to support building, deploying,
and automating any project.

Ansible: an open-source platform that provides a simple way to automate software provisioning,
configuration management, and application deployment.

Docker: a platform that enables developers to create, deploy, and run applications in containers.

Kubernetes: an open-source system for automating deployment, scaling, and management of

containerized applications.

AWS Code Deploy: a fully managed deployment service that automates software deployments to
a variety of compute services such as Amazon EC2, AWS Fargate, and on-premises servers.

Azure DevOps: a Microsoft product that provides an end-to-end DevOps solution for developing,
delivering, and deploying applications on multiple platforms.

Virtualization stacks
In DevOps, virtualization refers to the creation of virtual machines, containers, or environments
that allow multiple operating systems to run on a single physical machine. The following are some
of the commonly used virtualization stacks in DevOps:

Docker: An open-source platform for automating the deployment, scaling, and management of
containerized applications.

Kubernetes: An open-source platform for automating the deployment, scaling, and management
of containerized applications, commonly used in conjunction with Docker.
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VirtualBox: An open-source virtualization software that allows multiple operating systems to run
on a single physical machine.
VMware: A commercial virtualization software that provides a comprehensive suite of tools for
virtualization, cloud computing, and network and security management.

Hyper-V: Microsoft's hypervisor technology that enables virtualization on Windows-based

systems.

These virtualization stacks play a crucial role in DevOps by allowing developers to build, test, and
deploy applications in isolated, consistent environments, while reducing the costs and complexities
associated with physical infrastructure.

code execution at the client

In DevOps, code execution at the client refers to the process of executing code or scripts on client
devices or machines. This can be accomplished in several ways, including:
Client-side scripting languages: JavaScript, HTML, and CSS are commonly used client-side
scripting languages that run in a web browser and allow developers to create dynamic, interactive
web pages.
Remote execution tools: Tools such as SSH, Telnet, or Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP) allow
developers to remotely execute commands and scripts on client devices.

Configuration management tools: Tools such as Ansible, Puppet, or Chef use agent-based or
agentless architectures to manage and configure client devices, allowing developers to execute
code and scripts remotely.

Mobile apps: Mobile applications can also run code on client devices, allowing developers to
create dynamic, interactive experiences for users.

These methods are used in DevOps to automate various tasks, such as application deployment,
software updates, or system configuration, on client devices. By executing code on the client side,
DevOps teams can improve the speed, reliability, and security of their software delivery process.

Puppet master and agents:

Puppet Architecture

Puppet uses master-slave or client-server architecture. Puppet client and server interconnected by
SSL, which is a secure socket layer. It is a model-driven system.
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Here, the client is referred to as a Puppet agent/slave/node, and the server is referred to as a Puppet
master.

Let's see the components of Puppet architecture:

Puppet Master

Puppet master handles all the configuration related process in the form of puppet codes. It is a
Linux based system in which puppet master software is installed. The puppet ma ster must be in
Linux. It uses the puppet agent to apply the configuration to nodes.

This is the place where SSL certificates are checked and marked.

Puppet Slave or Agent

Puppet agents are the real working systems and used by the Client. It is installed on the client
machine and maintained and managed by the puppet master. They have a puppet agent service
running inside them.

The agent machine can be configured on any operating system such as Windows, Linux, Solaris,
or Mac OS.

Config Repository

Config repository is the storage area where all the servers and nodes related configurations are
stored, and we can pull these configurations as per requirements.
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Facts

Facts are the key-value data pair. It contains information about the node or the master machine. It
represents a puppet client states such as operating system, network interface, IP address, uptime,
and whether the client machine is virtual or not.

These facts are used for determining the present state of any agent. Changes on any target machine
are made based on facts. Puppet's facts are predefined and customized.

Catalog

The entire configuration and manifest files that are written in Puppet are changed into a compiled
format. This compiled format is known as a catalog, and then we can apply this catalog to the
target machine.

The above image performs the following functions:

o First of all, an agent node sends facts to the master or server and requests for a catalog.
o The master or server compiles and returns the catalog of a node with the help of some information
accessed by the master.
o Then the agent applies the catalog to the node by checking every resource mentioned in the catalog.
If it identifies resources that are not in their desired state, then makes the necessary adjustments to
fix them. Or, it determines in no-op mode, the adjustments would be required to reconcile the
catalog.
o And finally, the agent sends a report back to the master.

Puppet Master-Slave Communication

Puppet master-slave communicates via a secure encrypted channel through the SSL (Secure Socket
Layer). Let's see the below diagram to understand the communication between the master and
slave with this channel:
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The above diagram depicts the following:

o Puppet slave requests for Puppet Master Certificate.

o Puppet master sends the Master Certificate to the puppet slave in response to the client request.
o Puppet master requests to the Puppet slave for the slave certificate.
o Puppet slave sends the requested slave certificate to the puppet master.
o Puppet slave sends a request for data to the puppet master.
o Finally, the master sends the data to the puppet slave as per the request.

Puppet Blocks
Puppet provides the flexibility to integrate Reports with third-party tools using Puppet APIs.

Four types of Puppet building blocks are

1. Resources
2. Classes
3. Manifest
4. Modules

Puppet Resources:
Puppet Resources are the building blocks of Puppet.

Resources are the inbuilt functions that run at the back end to perform the required operations in
puppet.
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Puppet Classes:
A combination of different resources can be grouped together into a single unit called class.

Puppet Manifest:
Manifest is a directory containing puppet DSL files. Those files have a .pp extension. The .pp
extension stands for puppet program. The puppet code consists of definitions or declarations of
Puppet Classes.

Puppet Modules:
Modules are a collection of files and directories such as Manifests, Class definitions. They are the
re-usable and sharable units in Puppet.

For example, the MySQL module to install and configure MySQL or the Jenkins module to
manage Jenkins, etc..

Ansible:
Ansible is simple open source IT engine which automates application deployment, intra service
orchestration, cloud provisioning and many other IT tools.
Ansible is easy to deploy because it does not use any agents or custom security infrastructure.
Ansible uses playbook to describe automation jobs, and playbook uses very simple language
i.e. YAML (It’s a human-readable data serialization language & is commonly used for
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configuration files, but could be used in many applications where data is being stored)which is
very easy for humans to understand, read and write. Hence the advantage is that even the IT
infrastructure support guys can read and understand the playbook and debug if needed (YAML –
It is in human readable form).
Ansible is designed for multi-tier deployment. Ansible does not manage one system at time, it
models IT infrastructure by describing all of your systems are interrelated. Ansible is completely
agentless which means Ansible works by connecting your nodes through ssh(by default). But if
you want other method for connection like Kerberos, Ansible gives that option to you.
After connecting to your nodes, Ansible pushes small programs called as “Ansible Modules” .
Ansible runs that modules on your nodes and removes them when finished. Ansible manages your
inventory in simple text files (These are the hosts file). Ansible uses the hosts file where one can
group the hosts and can control the actions on a specific group in the playbooks.
Sample Hosts File
This is the content of hosts file −
#File name: hosts
#Description: Inventory file for your application. Defines machine type abc
node to deploy specific artifacts
# Defines machine type def node to upload
metadata.

[abc-node]
#server1 ansible_host = <target machine for DU deployment> ansible_user = <Ansible
user> ansible_connection = ssh
server1 ansible_host = <your host name> ansible_user = <your unix user>
ansible_connection = ssh

[def-node]
#server2 ansible_host = <target machine for artifact upload>
ansible_user = <Ansible user> ansible_connection = ssh
server2 ansible_host = <host> ansible_user = <user> ansible_connection = ssh

What is Configuration Management

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Configuration management in terms of Ansible means that it maintains configuration of the

product performance by keeping a record and updating detailed information which describes an
enterprise’s hardware and software.
Such information typically includes the exact versions and updates that have been applied to
installed software packages and the locations and network addresses of hardware devices. For e.g.
If you want to install the new version of WebLogic/WebSphere server on all of the machines
present in your enterprise, it is not feasible for you to manually go and update each and every
machine.
You can install WebLogic/WebSphere in one go on all of your machines with Ansible playbooks
and inventory written in the most simple way. All you have to do is list out the IP addresses of
your nodes in the inventory and write a playbook to install WebLogic/WebSphere. Run the
playbook from your control machine & it will be installed on all your nodes.

Ansible Workflow

Ansible works by connecting to your nodes and pushing out a small program called Ansible
modules to them. Then Ansible executed these modules and removed them after finished. The
library of modules can reside on any machine, and there are no
daemons, servers, or databases required.

In the above image, the Management Node is the controlling node that controls the entire
execution of the playbook. The inventory file provides the list of hosts where the Ansible modules
need to be run. The Management Node makes an SSH connection and executes the small
modules on the host's machine and install the software.
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Ansible removes the modules once those are installed so expertly. It connects to the host machine
executes the instructions, and if it is successfully installed, then remove that code in which one
was copied on the host machine.

Terms used in Ansible

Terms Explanation

Ansible It is a machine where Ansible is installed and from which all tasks and playbooks
Server will be executed.

Modules The module is a command or set of similar commands which is executed on the
client-side.

Task A task is a section which consists of a single procedure to be completed.

Role It is a way of organizing tasks and related files to be later called in a playbook.

Fact The information fetched from the client system from the global variables with
the gather facts operation.

Inventory A file containing the data regarding the Ansible client-server.

Play It is the execution of the playbook.

Handler The task is called only if a notifier is present.

Notifier The section attributed to a task which calls a handler if the output is changed.

Tag It is a name set to a task that can be used later on to issue just that specific task
or group of jobs.

Ansible Architecture
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The Ansible orchestration engine interacts with a user who is writing the Ansible playbook to
execute the Ansible orchestration and interact along with the services of private or public cloud
and configuration management database. You can show in the below diagram, such as:

Inventory

Inventory is lists of nodes or hosts having their IP addresses, databases, servers, etc. which are
need to be managed.

API's

The Ansible API's works as the transport for the public or private cloud services.

Modules

Ansible connected the nodes and spread out the Ansible modules programs. Ansible executes the
modules and removed after finished. These modules can reside on any machine; no database or
servers are required here. You can work with the chose text editor or a terminal or version control
system to keep track of the changes in the content.

Plugins

Plugins is a piece of code that expends the core functionality of Ansible. There are many useful
plugins, and you also can write your own.
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Playbooks

Playbooks consist of your written code, and they are written in YAML format, which describes
the tasks and executes through the Ansible. Also, you can launch the tasks synchronously and
asynchronously with playbooks.

Hosts

In the Ansible architecture, hosts are the node systems, which are automated by Ansible, and any
machine such as RedHat, Linux, Windows, etc.

Networking

Ansible is used to automate different networks, and it uses the simple, secure, and powerful
agentless automation framework for IT operations and development. It uses a type of data model
which separated from the Ansible automation engine that spans the different hardware quite easily.

Cloud

A cloud is a network of remote servers on which you can store, manage, and process the data.
These servers are hosted on the internet and storing the data remotely rather than the local server.
It just launches the resources and instances on the cloud, connect them to the servers, and you have
good knowledge of operating your tasks remotely.

CMDB

CMDB is a type of repository which acts as a data warehouse for the IT installations.

Puppet Components

Following are the key components of Puppet:

o Manifests
o Module
o Resource
o Factor
o M-collective
o Catalogs
o Class
o Nodes
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Let's understand these components in detail:

Manifests

Puppet Master contains the Puppet Slave's configuration details, and these are written in Puppet's
native language.

Manifest is nothing but the files specifying the configuration details for Puppet slave. The
extension for manifest files is .pp, which means Puppet Policy. These files consist of puppet scripts
describing the configuration for the slave.

Module

The puppet module is a set of manifests and data. Here data is file, facts, or templates. The module
follows a specific directory structure. These modules allow the puppet program to split into
multiple manifests. Modules are simply self-contained bundles of data or code.

Let's understand the module by the following image:

Resource

Resources are a basic unit of system configuration modeling. These are the predefined functions
that run at the backend to perform the necessary operations in the puppet.

Each puppet resource defines certain elements of the system, such as some particular service or
package.

Factor

The factor collects facts or important information about the puppet slave. Facts are the key-value
data pair. It contains information about the node or the master machine. It represents a puppet
client states such as operating system, network interface, IP address, uptime, and whether the client
machine is virtual or not.
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These facts are used for determining the present state of any agent. Changes on any target machine
are made based on facts. Puppet's facts are predefined and customized.

M-Collective

M-collective is a framework that enables parallel execution of several jobs on multiple Slaves.
This framework performs several functions, such as:

o This is used to interact with clusters of puppet slaves; they can be in small groups or very
large deployments.
o To transmit demands, use a broadcast model. All Slaves receive all requests at the same
time, requests have filters attached, and only Slaves matching the filter can act on requests.
o This is used to call remote slaves with the help of simple command-line tools.
o This is used to write custom reports about your infrastructure.

Catalogs

The entire configuration and manifest files that are written in Puppet are changed into a compiled
format. This compiled format is known as a catalog, and then we can apply this catalog to the
target machine.

All the required states of slave resources are described in the catalog.

Class

Like other programming languages, the puppet also supports a class to organize the code in a better
way. Puppet class is a collection of various resources that are grouped into a single unit.

Nodes

The nodes are the location where the puppet slaves are installed used to manage all the clients and
servers.

Deployment tools
Chef
Chef is an open source technology developed by Opscode. Adam Jacob, co-founder of Opscode is
known as the founder of Chef. This technology uses Ruby encoding to develop basic building
blocks like recipe and cookbooks. Chef is used in infrastructure automation and helps in reducing
manual and repetitive tasks for infrastructure management.
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Chef have got its own convention for different building blocks, which are required to manage and
automate infrastructure.
Why Chef?
Chef is a configuration management technology used to automate the infrastructure provisioning.
It is developed on the basis of Ruby DSL language. It is used to streamline the task of configuration
and managing the company’s server. It has the capability to get integrated with any of the cloud
technology.
In DevOps, we use Chef to deploy and manage servers and applications in-house and on the cloud.
Features of Chef
Following are the most prominent features of Chef −
● Chef uses popular Ruby language to create a domain-specific language.
● Chef does not make assumptions on the current status of a node. It uses its mechanisms to
get the current status of machine.
● Chef is ideal for deploying and managing the cloud server, storage, and software.
Advantages of Chef
Chef offers the following advantages −
● Lower barrier for entry − As Chef uses native Ruby language for configuration, a
standard configuration language it can be easily picked up by anyone having some
development experience.
● Excellent integration with cloud − Using the knife utility, it can be easily integrated with
any of the cloud technologies. It is the best tool for an organization that wishes to distribute
its infrastructure on multi-cloud environment.
Disadvantages of Chef
Some of the major drawbacks of Chef are as follows −
● One of the huge disadvantages of Chef is the way cookbooks are controlled. It needs
constant babying so that people who are working should not mess up with others
cookbooks.
● Only Chef solo is available.
● In the current situation, it is only a good fit for AWS cloud.
● It is not very easy to learn if the person is not familiar with Ruby.
● Documentation is still lacking.
Key Building Blocks of Chef
Recipe
It can be defined as a collection of attributes which are used to manage the infrastructure. These
attributes which are present in the recipe are used to change the existing state or setting a particular
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infrastructure node. They are loaded during Chef client run and comparted with the existing
attribute of the node (machine). It then gets to the status which is defined in the node resource of
the recipe. It is the main workhorse of the cookbook.
Cookbook
A cookbook is a collection of recipes. They are the basic building blocks which get uploaded to
Chef server. When Chef run takes place, it ensures that the recipes present inside it gets a given
infrastructure to the desired state as listed in the recipe.
Resource
It is the basic component of a recipe used to manage the infrastructure with different kind of states.
There can be multiple resources in a recipe, which will help in configuring and managing the
infrastructure. For example −
● package − Manages the packages on a node
● service − Manages the services on a node
● user − Manages the users on the node
● group − Manages groups
● template − Manages the files with embedded Ruby template
● cookbook_file − Transfers the files from the files subdirectory in the cookbook to a location
on the node
● file − Manages the contents of a file on the node
● directory − Manages the directories on the node
● execute − Executes a command on the node
● cron − Edits an existing cron file on the node

Chef - Architecture

● Chef works on a three-tier client server model wherein the working units such as cookbooks
are developed on the Chef workstation. From the command line utilities such as knife, they
are uploaded to the Chef server and all the nodes which are present in the architecture are
registered with the Chef server.
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● In order to get the working Chef infrastructure in place, we need to set up multiple things
in sequence.
● In the above setup, we have the following components.
● Chef Workstation
● This is the location where all the configurations are developed. Chef workstation is installed
on the local machine. Detailed configuration structure is discussed in the later chapters of
this tutorial.
● Chef Server
● This works as a centralized working unit of Chef setup, where all the configuration files are
uploaded post development. There are different kinds of Chef server, some are hosted Chef
server whereas some are built-in premise.
● Chef Nodes
● They are the actual machines which are going to be managed by the Chef server. All the
nodes can have different kinds of setup as per requirement. Chef client is the key component
of all the nodes, which helps in setting up the communication between the Chef server and
Chef node. The other components of Chef node is Ohai, which helps in getting the current
state of any node at a given point of time.

Salt Stack

Salt Stack is an open-source configuration management software and remote execution engine.
Salt is a command-line tool. While written in Python, SaltStack configuration management is
language agnostic and simple. Salt platform uses the push model for executing commands via the
SSH protocol. The default configuration system is YAML and Jinja templates. Salt is primarily
competing with Puppet, Chef and Ansible.
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Salt provides many features when compared to other competing tools. Some of these important
features are listed below.
● Fault tolerance − Salt minions can connect to multiple masters at one time by configuring
the master configuration parameter as a YAML list of all the available masters. Any master
can direct commands to the Salt infrastructure.
● Flexible − The entire management approach of Salt is very flexible. It can be implemented
to follow the most popular systems management models such as Agent and Server, Agent-
only, Server-only or all of the above in the same environment.
● Scalable Configuration Management − SaltStack is designed to handle ten thousand
minions per master.
● Parallel Execution model − Salt can enable commands to execute remote systems in a
parallel manner.
● Python API − Salt provides a simple programming interface and it was designed to be
modular and easily extensible, to make it easy to mold to diverse applications.
● Easy to Setup − Salt is easy to setup and provides a single remote execution architecture
that can manage the diverse requirements of any number of servers.
● Language Agnostic − Salt state configuration files, templating engine or file type supports
any type of language.

Benefits of SaltStack
Being simple as well as a feature-rich system, Salt provides many benefits and they can be
summarized as below −
● Robust − Salt is powerful and robust configuration management framework and works
around tens of thousands of systems.
● Authentication − Salt manages simple SSH key pairs for authentication.
● Secure − Salt manages secure data using an encrypted protocol.
● Fast − Salt is very fast, lightweight communication bus to provide the foundation for a
remote execution engine.
● Virtual Machine Automation − The Salt Virt Cloud Controller capability is used for
automation.
● Infrastructure as data, not code − Salt provides a simple deployment, model driven
configuration management and command execution framework.

Introduction to ZeroMQ
Salt is based on the ZeroMQ library and it is an embeddable networking library. It is lightweight
and a fast messaging library. The basic implementation is in C/C++ and native implementations
for several languages including Java and .Net is available.
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ZeroMQ is a broker-less peer-peer message processing. ZeroMQ allows you to design a complex
communication system easily.
ZeroMQ comes with the following five basic patterns −
● Synchronous Request/Response − Used for sending a request and receiving subsequent
replies for each one sent.
● Asynchronous Request/Response − Requestor initiates the conversation by sending a
Request message and waits for a Response message. Provider waits for the incoming
Request messages and replies with the Response messages.
● Publish/Subscribe − Used for distributing data from a single process (e.g. publisher) to
multiple recipients (e.g. subscribers).
● Push/Pull − Used for distributing data to connected nodes.
● Exclusive Pair − Used for connecting two peers together, forming a pair.

ZeroMQ is a highly flexible networking tool for exchanging messages among clusters, cloud and
other multi system environments. ZeroMQ is the default transport library presented in
SaltStack.

SaltStack – Architecture

The architecture of SaltStack is designed to work with any number of servers, from local network
systems to other deployments across different data centers. Architecture is a simple server/client
model with the needed functionality built into a single set of daemons.
Take a look at the following illustration. It shows the different components of SaltStack
architecture.
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● SaltMaster − SaltMaster is the master daemon. A SaltMaster is used to send commands

and configurations to the Salt slaves. A single master can manage multiple masters.
● SaltMinions − SaltMinion is the slave daemon. A Salt minion receives commands and
configuration from the SaltMaster.
● Execution − Modules and Adhoc commands executed from the command line against one
or more minions. It performs Real-time Monitoring.
● Formulas − Formulas are pre-written Salt States. They are as open-ended as Salt States
themselves and can be used for tasks such as installing a package, configuring and starting
a service, setting up users or permissions and many other common tasks.
● Grains − Grains is an interface that provides information specific to a minion. The
information available through the grains interface is static. Grains get loaded when the Salt
minion starts. This means that the information in grains is unchanging. Therefore, grains
information could be about the running kernel or the operating system. It is case insensitive.
● Pillar − A pillar is an interface that generates and stores highly sensitive data specific to a
particular minion, such as cryptographic keys and passwords. It stores data in a key/value
pair and the data is managed in a similar way as the Salt State Tree.
● Top File − Matches Salt states and pillar data to Salt minions.
● Runners − It is a module located inside the SaltMaster and performs tasks such as job
status, connection status, read data from external APIs, query connected salt minions and
more.
● Returners − Returns data from Salt minions to another system.
● Reactor − It is responsible for triggering reactions when events occur in your SaltStack
environment.
● SaltCloud − Salt Cloud provides a powerful interface to interact with cloud hosts.
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● SaltSSH − Run Salt commands over SSH on systems without using Salt minion.
Docker
Docker is a container management service. The keywords of Docker are develop,
ship and run anywhere. The whole idea of Docker is for developers to easily develop applications,
ship them into containers which can then be deployed anywhere.
The initial release of Docker was in March 2013 and since then, it has become the buzzword for
modern world development, especially in the face of Agile-based projects.
Features of Docker
● Docker has the ability to reduce the size of development by providing a smaller footprint
of the operating system via containers.
● With containers, it becomes easier for teams across different units, such as development,
QA and Operations to work seamlessly across applications.
● You can deploy Docker containers anywhere, on any physical and virtual machines and
even on the cloud.
● Since Docker containers are pretty lightweight, they are very easily scalable.
Components of Docker
Docker has the following components
● Docker for Mac − It allows one to run Docker containers on the Mac OS.
● Docker for Linux − It allows one to run Docker containers on the Linux OS.
● Docker for Windows − It allows one to run Docker containers on the Windows OS.
● Docker Engine − It is used for building Docker images and creating Docker containers.
● Docker Hub − This is the registry which is used to host various Docker images.
● Docker Compose − This is used to define applications using multiple Docker containers.

Docker architecture
● Docker uses a client-server architecture. The Docker client talks to the Docker daemon,
which does the heavy lifting of building, running, and distributing your Docker containers.
The Docker client and daemon can run on the same system, or you can connect a Docker
client to a remote Docker daemon. The Docker client and daemon communicate using a
REST API, over UNIX sockets or a network interface. Another Docker client is Docker
Compose, that lets you work with applications consisting of a set of containers.
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The Docker daemon

The Docker daemon (dockerd) listens for Docker API requests and manages Docker objects such
as images, containers, networks, and volumes. A daemon can also communicate with other
daemons to manage Docker services.

The Docker client

The Docker client (docker) is the primary way that many Docker users interact with Docker. When
you use commands such as docker run, the client sends these commands to dockerd, which carries
them out. The docker command uses the Docker API. The Docker client can communicate with
more than one daemon.

Docker Desktop
Docker Desktop is an easy-to-install application for your Mac, Windows or Linux environment
that enables you to build and share containerized applications and microservices. Docker Desktop
includes the Docker daemon (dockerd), the Docker client (docker), Docker Compose, Docker
Content Trust, Kubernetes, and Credential Helper. For more information, see Docker Desktop.

Docker registries
A Docker registry stores Docker images. Docker Hub is a public registry that anyone can use, and
Docker is configured to look for images on Docker Hub by default. You can even run your own
private registry.

When you use the docker pull or docker run commands, the required images are pulled from your
configured registry. When you use the docker push command, your image is pushed to your
configured registry.
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Docker objects
When you use Docker, you are creating and using images, containers, networks, volumes, plugins,
and other objects. This section is a brief overview of some of those objects.

Images
An image is a read-only template with instructions for creating a Docker container. Often, an
image is based on another image, with some additional customization. For example, you may build
an image which is based on the ubuntu image, but installs the Apache web server and your
application, as well as the configuration details needed to make your application run.
You might create your own images or you might only use those created by others and published
in a registry. To build your own image, you create a Dockerfile with a simple syntax for defining
the steps needed to create the image and run it. Each instruction in a Dockerfile creates a layer in
the image. When you change the Dockerfile and rebuild the image, only those layers which have
changed are rebuilt. This is part of what makes images so lightweight, small, and fast, when
compared to other virtualization technologies.

Containers
A container is a runnable instance of an image. You can create, start, stop, move, or delete a
container using the Docker API or CLI. You can connect a container to one or more networks,
attach storage to it, or even create a new image based on its current state.

By default, a container is relatively well isolated from other containers and its host machine. You
can control how isolated a container’s network, storage, or other underlying subsystems are from
other containers or from the host machine.

A container is defined by its image as well as any configuration options you provide to it when
you create or start it. When a container is removed, any changes to its state that are not stored in
persistent storage disappear.

Example docker run command

The following command runs an ubuntu container, attaches interactively to your local command-
line session, and runs /bin/bash.
$ docker run -i -t ubuntu /bin/bash
When you run this command, the following happens (assuming you are using the default registry
configuration):

1. If you do not have the ubuntu image locally, Docker pulls it from your configured registry,
as though you had run docker pull ubuntu manually.
2. Docker creates a new container, as though you had run a docker container create command
manually.
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3. Docker allocates a read-write filesystem to the container, as its final layer. This allows a
running container to create or modify files and directories in its local filesystem.

4. Docker creates a network interface to connect the container to the default network, since
you did not specify any networking options. This includes assigning an IP address to the
container. By default, containers can connect to external networks using the host machine’s
network connection.

5. Docker starts the container and executes /bin/bash. Because the container is running
interactively and attached to your terminal (due to the -i and -t flags), you can provide input
using your keyboard while the output is logged to your terminal.
6. When you type exit to terminate the /bin/bash command, the container stops but is not
removed. You can start it again or remove it.

The underlying technology

Docker is written in the Go programming language and takes advantage of several features of the
Linux kernel to deliver its functionality. Docker uses a technology called namespaces to provide
the isolated workspace called the container. When you run a container, Docker creates a set
of namespaces for that container.
These namespaces provide a layer of isolation. Each aspect of a container runs in a separate
namespace and its access is limited to that namespace.