PHYSICS PROJECT WORK

TOPIC:- MICROSCOPE &

TELESCOPE

AISSCE
Session 2018-19
Supervised By- Presented By-
Mr. Sandeep Singh Kajal Kumari
PGT Physics Class- XII A
A. F. S. Gorakhpur Roll No:-
 This is to certify that Kajal Kumari student of

Class XII-A of AIR FORCE SCHOOL, Gorakhpur has

completed her project under my guidance.

She has taken proper care and showed

interest & sincerity in the completion of this

project.

I certify that this project is up to my

expectations & as per the guidelines issued by

the CBSE.

Internal Examiner External Examiner Principal

I express my deepest sense of gratitude to
Mr. SANDEEP SINGH (PGT PHYSICS) whose
constant support, guidance and inspiration
has helped me to complete this project.
I am grateful to Principal Dr. SHAZIA
KHAN for providing the information and
issue a book of Informatics Practices for
carrying out the work
I am also thankful to all teachers and my
friends who helped me to complete work

Kajal Kumari
Class: XII-A
School: Air Force
School, GKP
Roll No.:
 S. No Contents Page No.

1 Introduction 05

Microscopes
2 06

MICROSCOPE MAGNIFICATION
3 09

Telescopes
4 13

Reflecting Telescopes
5 18

6 Bibliography 21

INDEX
 INTRODUCTION

Microscopes and telescopes are major instruments that have contributed

hugely to our current understanding of the micro- and macroscopic worlds.
The invention of these devices led to numerous discoveries in disciplines
such as physics, astronomy, and biology, to name a few. In this section, we
explain the basic physics that make these instruments work.
 MICROSCOPES
Although the eye is marvelous in its ability to see objects large and small, it
obviously is limited in the smallest details it can detect. The desire to see
beyond what is possible with the naked eye led to the use of optical
instruments. We have seen that a simple convex lens can create a
magnified image, but it is hard to get large magnification with such a lens. A
magnification greater than 5× is difficult without distorting the image. To
get higher magnification, we can combine the simple magnifying glass with
one or more additional lenses. In this section, we examine microscopes that
enlarge the details that we cannot see with the naked eye.
Microscopes were first developed in the early 1600s by eyeglass makers in
The Netherlands and Denmark. The simplest compound microscope is
constructed from two convex lenses (Figure 2.8.12.8.1). The objective lens
is a convex lens of short focal length (i.e., high power) with typical
magnification from 5× to 100×. The eyepiece, also referred to as the ocular,
is a convex lens of longer focal length.
The purpose of a microscope is to create magnified images of small objects,
and both lenses contribute to the final magnification. Also, the final
enlarged image is produced sufficiently far from the observer to be easily
viewed, since the eye cannot focus on objects or images that are too close
(i.e., closer than the near point of the eye).

Figure -1: A compound microscope is composed of two lenses: an objective and an eyepiece. The
objective forms the first image, which is larger than the object. This first image is inside the focal
length of the eyepiece and serves as the object for the eyepiece. The eyepiece forms final image that
is further magnified.
To see how the microscope in Figure 1 forms an image, consider its two
lenses in succession. The object is just beyond the focal length fobj of the
objective lens, producing a real, inverted image that is larger than the
object. This first image serves as the object for the second lens, or eyepiece.
The eyepiece is positioned so that the first image is within its focal
length feye, so that it can further magnify the image. In a sense, it acts as a
magnifying glass that magnifies the intermediate image produced by the
objective. The image produced by the eyepiece is a magnified virtual image.
The final image remains inverted but is farther from the observer than the
object, making it easy to view.
The eye views the virtual image created by the eyepiece, which serves as
the object for the lens in the eye. The virtual image formed by the eyepiece
is well outside the focal length of the eye, so the eye forms a real image on
the retina.
The magnification of the microscope is the product of the linear
magnification Mobj by the objective and the angular magnification Meye by
the eyepiece. These are given by

------------------(Equation – 1)

------------------(Equation – 2)
Here, fobj and feye are the focal lengths of the objective and the eyepiece,
respectively. We assume that the final image is formed at the near point of
the eye, providing the largest magnification. Note that the angular
magnification of the eyepiece is the same as obtained earlier for the
simple magnifying glass. This should not be surprising, because the
eyepiece is essentially a magnifying glass, and the same physics applies
here. The net magnification Mnet of the compound microscope is the
product of the linear magnification of the objective (Equation -1) and the
angular magnification of the eyepiece (Equation - 2):

------------------(Equation – 3)

MICROSCOPE
MAGNIFICATION
Calculate the magnification of an object placed 6.20 mm from a compound
microscope that has a 6.00 mm-focal length objective and a 50.0 mm-focal
length eyepiece. The objective and eyepiece are separated by 23.0 cm.
Strategy
This situation is similar to that shown in Figure -1. To find the overall
magnification, we must know the linear magnification of the objective and
the angular magnification of the eyepiece. We can use Equation - 3, but we
need to use the thin-lens equation to find the image distance diobj of the
objective.
Solution
Solving the thin-lens equation for diobj gives

------------------(Equation – 4)

------------------(Equation – 5)
------------------(Equation – 6)
 ------------------(Equation – 7)

Inserting this result into Equation 3 along with the known values

Gives

Significance
Both the objective and the eyepiece contribute to the overall magnification,
which is large and negative, consistent with Figure 1, where the image is
seen to be large and inverted. In this case, the image is virtual and inverted,
which cannot happen for a single element.
 Figure 2: A compound microscope with the image created at infinity.

We now calculate the magnifying power of a microscope when the image is

at infinity, as shown in Figure 2, because this makes for the most relaxed
viewing. The magnifying power of the microscope is the product of linear
magnification mobj of the objective and the angular magnification Meye of the
eyepiece. We know that

------------------(Equation – 11)

and from the thin-lens equation we obtain

------------------(Equation – 12)

------------------(Equation – 13)

------------------(Equation – 14)

If the final image is at infinity, then the image created by the objective must
be located at the focal point of the eyepiece. This may be seen by
considering the thin-lens equation with di=∞di=∞ or by recalling that rays
that pass through the focal point exit the lens parallel to each other, which
is equivalent to focusing at infinity. For many microscopes, the distance
between the image-side focal point of the objective and the object-side
focal point of the eyepiece is standardized at L=16cmL=16cm. This distance
is called the tube length of the microscope. From Figure 2, we see that
------------------(Equation – 15)

Inserting this into Equation 14 gives

 ------------------(Equation – 16)

We now need to calculate the angular magnification of the eyepiece with

the image at infinity. To do so, we take the ratio of the
angle θimage subtended by the image to the angle θobject subtended by the
object at the near point of the eye (this is the closest that the unaided eye
can view the object, and thus this is the position where the object will form
the largest image on the retina of the unaided eye). Using Figure 2 and
working in the small-angle approximation, we have

------------------(Equation – 15)

and
------------------(Equation – 16)

where hiobj is the height of the image formed by the objective, which is the
object of the eyepiece. Thus, the angular magnification of the eyepiece is

------------------(Equation – 17)

------------------(Equation – 18)

------------------(Equation – 19)

The net magnifying power of the compound microscope with the image at
infinity is therefore
------------------(Equation – 20)
The focal distances must be in centimeters. The minus sign indicates that
the final image is inverted. Note that the only variables in the equation are
the focal distances of the eyepiece and the objective, which makes this
equation particularly useful.

TELESCOPES
Telescopes are meant for viewing distant objects and produce an image
that is larger than the image produced in the unaided eye. Telescopes
gather far more light than the eye, allowing dim objects to be observed
with greater magnification and better resolution. Telescopes were invented
around 1600, and Galileo was the first to use them to study the heavens,
with monumental consequences. He observed the moons of Jupiter, the
craters and mountains on the moon, the details of sunspots, and the fact
that the Milky Way is composed of a vast number of individual stars.
Figure 3: (a) Galileo made telescopes with a convex objective and a concave eyepiece. These
produce an upright image and are used in spyglasses. (b) Most simple refracting telescopes have two
convex lenses. The objective forms a real, inverted image at (or just within) the focal plane of the
eyepiece. This image serves as the object for the eyepiece. The eyepiece forms a virtual, inverted
image that is magnified.

Figure 3 (a) shows a refracting telescope made of two lenses. The first lens,
called the objective, forms a real image within the focal length of the
second lens, which is called the eyepiece. The image of the objective lens
serves as the object for the eyepiece, which forms a magnified virtual image
that is observed by the eye. This design is what Galileo used to observe the
heavens.

Although the arrangement of the lenses in a refracting telescope looks

similar to that in a microscope, there are important differences. In a
telescope, the real object is far away and the intermediate image is smaller
than the object. In a microscope, the real object is very close and the
intermediate image is larger than the object. In both the telescope and the
microscope, the eyepiece magnifies the intermediate image; in the
telescope, however, this is the only magnification.

The most common two-lens telescope is shown in Figure 3 (b). The object is
so far from the telescope that it is essentially at infinity compared with the
focal lengths of the lenses (dobjo≈∞∞), so the incoming rays are essentially
parallel and focus on the focal plane. Thus, the first image is produced at

------------------(Equation – 21)
as shown in the figure, and is not large compared with what you might see
by looking directly at the object. However, the eyepiece of the telescope
eyepiece (like the microscope eyepiece) allows you to get nearer than your
near point to this first image and so magnifies it (because you are near to it,
it subtends a larger angle from your eye and so forms a larger image on
your retina). As for a simple magnifier, the angular magnification of a
telescope is the ratio of the angle subtended by the image (θimage in figure 3
(b) to the angle subtended by the real object (θobject in figure 3 (b).

Figure 4: The focal plane of the objective lens of a telescope is very near to the focal plane of the
eyepiece. The angle θimage subtended by the image viewed through the eyepiece is larger than the
angle θobject subtended by the object when viewed with the unaided eye.

------------------(Equation – 22)

------------------(Equation – 23)

where the minus sign is introduced because the height is negative if we

measure both angles in the counterclockwise direction. Inserting these
expressions into Equation gives
 ------------------(Equation – 24)

Thus, to obtain the greatest angular magnification, it is best to have an

objective with a long focal length and an eyepiece with a short focal length.
The greater the angular magnification M, the larger an object will appear
when viewed through a telescope, making more details visible. Limits to
observable details are imposed by many factors, including lens quality and
atmospheric disturbance. Typical eyepieces have focal lengths of 2.5 cm or
1.25 cm. If the objective of the telescope has a focal length of 1 meter, then
these eyepieces result in magnifications of 40× and 80×, respectively. Thus,
the angular magnifications make the image appear 40 times or 80 times
closer than the real object.
The minus sign in the magnification indicates the image is inverted, which is
unimportant for observing the stars but is a real problem for other
applications, such as telescopes on ships or telescopic gun sights. If an
upright image is needed, Galileo’s arrangement in figure 3 (a) can be used.
But a more common arrangement is to use a third convex lens as an
eyepiece, increasing the distance between the first two and inverting the
image once again, as seen in Figure 5.
Figure 5: This arrangement of three lenses in a telescope produces an upright final image. The first
two lenses are far enough apart that the second lens inverts the image of the first. The third lens acts
as a magnifier and keeps the image upright and in a location that is easy to view.

The largest refracting telescope in the world is the 40-inch diameter Yerkes
telescope located at Lake Geneva, Wisconsin (Figure 6), and operated by
the University of Chicago.
It is very difficult and expensive to build large refracting telescopes. You
need large defect-free lenses, which in itself is a technically demanding
task. A refracting telescope basically looks like a tube with a support
structure to rotate it in different directions. A refracting telescope suffers
from several problems. The aberration of lenses causes the image to be
blurred. Also, as the lenses become thicker for larger lenses, more light is
absorbed, making faint stars more difficult to observe. Large lenses are also
very heavy and deform under their own weight. Some of these problems
with refracting telescopes are addressed by avoiding refraction for
collecting light and instead using a curved mirror in its place, as devised by
Isaac Newton. These telescopes are called reflecting telescopes.
Figure .6: In 1897, the Yerkes Observatory in Wisconsin (USA) built a large refracting telescope with
an objective lens that is 40 inches in diameter and has a tube length of 62 feet. (credit: Yerkes
Observatory, University of Chicago).

REFLECTING TELESCOPES
Isaac Newton designed the first reflecting telescope around 1670 to solve
the problem of chromatic aberration that happens in all refracting
telescopes. In chromatic aberration, light of different colors refracts by
slightly different amounts in the lens. As a result, a rainbow appears around
the image and the image appears blurred. In the reflecting telescope, light
rays from a distant source fall upon the surface of a concave mirror fixed at
the bottom end of the tube. The use of a mirror instead of a lens eliminates
chromatic aberration. The concave mirror focuses the rays on its focal
plane. The design problem is how to observe the focused image. Newton
used a design in which the focused light from the concave mirror was
reflected to one side of the tube into an eyepiece Figure 1 (a). This
arrangement is common in many amateur telescopes and is called
the Newtonian design.
Some telescopes reflect the light back toward the middle of the concave
mirror using a convex mirror. In this arrangement, the light-gathering
concave mirror has a hole in the middle Figure 1 (b). The light then is
incident on an eyepiece lens. This arrangement of the objective and
eyepiece is called the Cassgrain design. Most big telescopes, including the
Hubble space telescope, are of this design. Other arrangements are also
possible. In some telescopes, a light detector is placed right at the spot
where light is focused by the curved mirror.

Figure 7: Reflecting telescopes: (a) In the Newtonian design, the eyepiece is located at the side of
the telescope; (b) in the Cassegrain design, the eyepiece is located past a hole in the primary mirror.

Most astronomical research telescopes are now of the reflecting type. One
of the earliest large telescopes of this kind is the Hale 200-inch (or 5-meter)
telescope built on Mount Palomar in southern California, which has a 200
inch-diameter mirror. One of the largest telescopes in the world is the 10-
meter Keck telescope at the Keck Observatory on the summit of the
dormant Mauna Kea volcano in Hawaii. The Keck Observatory operates two
10-meter telescopes. Each is not a single mirror, but is instead made up of
36 hexagonal mirrors. Furthermore, the two telescopes on the Keck can
work together, which increases their power to an effective 85-meter mirror.
The Hubble telescope (Figure 8) is another large reflecting telescope with a
2.4 meter-diameter primary mirror. The Hubble was put into orbit around
Earth in 1990.
Figure .8:The Hubble space telescope as seen from the Space Shuttle Discovery. (credit:
modification of work by NASA)

The angular magnification MM of a reflecting telescope is also given

by Equation 2.8.162.8.16. For a spherical mirror, the focal length is half the
radius of curvature, so making a large objective mirror not only helps the
telescope collect more light, but also increases the magnification of the
image.
 Bibliography

In completing the project I took help of my teacher Mr. Sandeep Singh & the following
references

www.wikipedia.org

www.icbse.com
www.ncert.nic.in
www.scribd.com
APC Physics Lab
Manual for Class-XII