SHAKUNTALA DEVI

Figuring
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SHAKUNTALA DevV1is a prodigy, as she has \
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frequently demonstrated on television and

in lecture halls all over the world. If you
want to know the cube root of 188132517, or
what day of the week it was on 23rd January
1907, or the eleventh power of your
telephone number, she can give the answer
in seconds.
Miss Devi cannot teach us all how to
perform such feats, but she can show us oe

some of the methods she uses. Anyone who

studies this book with care will find that with
practice, and the occasional use of pencil
and paper, they will be able to tackle
mathematical problems they would have
thought impossible. But even more
important, they will have come to share Miss
Devi’s pleasure in numbers and to
understand that mathematics can and should
be fun. Even those boring multiplication
tables which were the bane of the school day
conceal a pattern and elegance which the
most mathematically illiterate of us can
enjoy with Miss Devi’s help.
The purpose of this book is to make us
lose our fear of numbers, to see that they
have character, quirks and peculiarities, and
can be manipulated in patterns that give
enjoyment and satisfaction. With the help of
a light-hearted approach, anda series of
ingenious tricks, puzzles and riddles,
Shakuntala Devi shows us that we can be as
free and at ease in the world of numbers as
we are in the world of letters, and that we
can get just as much pleasure out of it.
Figuring
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SHAKUNTALA DEVI

LGU INE
THE JOY OF NUMBERS

ANDRE DEUTSCH
 First published 1977 by
André Deutsch Limited
105 Great Russell Street London WC1
First published October 1977
Second Impression December JOF 7.
Copyright © 1977 by Shakuntala Devi
All rights reserved
Printed in Great Britain by
Ebenezer Baylis and Son Limited
The Trinity Press, Worcester, and London
ISBN 0 233 96591 2
 CONTENTS

Introduction
Some Terms Defined 11
The Digits 15
Multiplication 31
Addition 48
Division 52
Subtraction 60
GCM and LCM 62
Squares and Square Roots 68
eR
OM
OSCubes and Cube Roots
Pek
OND
COS]
SO 77
Percentages, Discounts and Interest
Decimals 94
Fractions 99
The Calendar 104
Some Special Numbers 112
Tricks and Puzzles
CO
SF
NH
WoO
-—-_
nan
pet
mk 131
Conclusion 157
Whatever there is in all the three worlds, which are
possessed of moving and non-moving beings, can-
not exist as apart from the ‘Ganita’ (calculation)
Mahavira (aD 850)
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 INTRODUCTION

At three I fell in love with numbers. It was sheer ecstasy for me

to do sums and get the right answers. Numbers were toys with
which I could play. In them I found emotional security; two
plus two always made, and would always make, four — no matter
how the world changed.
My interest grew with age. I took immense delight in working
out huge problems mentally — sometimes even faster than elec-
tronic calculating machines and computers.
I travelled round the world giving demonstrations of my
talents. In every country I performed for students, professors,
teachers, bankers, accountants, and even laymen who knew very
little, or nothing at all, about mathematics. These performances
were a great success and everywhere I was offered encouragement
and appreciation.
All along I had cherished a desire to show those who think
mathematics boring and dull just how beautiful it can be. This
book is what took shape.
It is written in the knowledge that there is a range and rich-
ness to numbers: they can come alive, cease to be symbols
written on a blackboard, and lead the reader into a world of
intellectual adventure where calculations are thrilling, not
tedious.
To understand the methods I describe you need nothing more
than a basic knowledge of arithmetic. There are no formulae,
technical terms, algebra, geometry,
or logarithms here — if you
9
10 Introduction

can carry out the basic functions of adding, subtracting, multi-

plying, and dividing you can follow all of it. At first glance some
of the steps may seem complicated but if you take them slowly
you should be able to acquire the skill to solve a wide variety of
problems without mistakes — and to do this mentally, or with a
minimum use of pencil and paper. But above all I would wish
this book to give people an appreciation of the enchantment of
numbers.
 I

SOME TERMS DEFINED

In this book we are not going to be concerned with logarithms

or the Calculus, not even with algebra, except in the most
elementary way. So those who found that these aspects of mathe-
matics gave themalife-long terror of the whole subject can relax.
We are going to be dealing with ordinary numbers which should
hold no terrors for anyone.
We will be encountering some mathematical terms and con-
ventions, but most of them are in everyday use. I shall be using
them because they are the simplest and clearest means of stating
mathematical problems or explanations. But they do all have
precise meanings and, even if you are confident that you under-
stand them, it would be as well to read this short chapter so
that we can both be sure we are talking about the same
things.

A Digit is an individual numeral; there are ten of them: 1, 2, 3,

4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 0.

A Fraction in everyday language means a part of a whole. In

mathematics it normally has a slightly more precise meaning -
a part of a whole expressed by putting one figure over another and
dividing them byaline, as in 4 or }. The figure on top is called
II
12 Figuring
the numerator (it tells you how many parts you’ve got) and the
one below is called the denominator (it tells you what proportion
of a whole each part is). They can also be written as 1/2 or 1/4
where the oblique stroke divides numerator and denominator.

Decimals are simply a different way of expressing the same

thing. Instead of the denominator being variable, as in fractions,
in decimals it is always ten, or rather tens, because the system
can be extended infinitely to hundredths, thousandths, ten-
thousandths, etc of a whole. Thus -1 is the same as 1/10 and
-01 is the same as 1/100 and -11 is the same as 11/100.

Percentage is yet another way of expressing the same thing.

This time the denominator is always 100 — so 4% is the same as
04 or 4/100. Percentages can be combined with decimals or
fractions if it is necessary to express parts smaller than one-
hundredth. Thus, one-five-hundredth can be expressed either
as -2% or as $%.

Multiplication is of course to multiply one number by another.

The number that is multiplied is called the multiplicand, the
number by which it is to be multiplied is called the multiplier and
the result is called the product of the two numbers. Thus 2
(multiplier) x 4 (multiplicand) = 8 (product). A multiple of a
number is simply a number which is made up by multiplying the
original number a given number of times. Thus, 2, 4, 6, 8, etc
are all multiples of 2.

Division is the reverse of multiplication, the division of one

number by another. The number to be divided is called the
dividend and the number by which it is to be divided is called
the divisor. If the divisor does not go into the dividend an exact
number of times, then the figure left over is the remainder. For
 Some Terms Defined 13
example 9 (dividend) ~ 2 (divisor) = 4 with 1 left over as a
remainder. If there is no remainder then the result and the
divisor are factors of the dividend. For instance, 2 and 3 are
factors of 6. The factors of a number can also be broken down
into their smallest parts, thus the factors of 12 are 2 evans;
or as it is usually put, 2 x 2 x 3.

Addition and subtraction are so basic that all we need note is

that in addition the result is known as the sum of the numbers
that have been added up; and in subtraction the result is known
as the remainder, ie, what is left over after one number has been
taken from another.

Roots and powers. If a number is multiplied by itself, the pro-

duct is the square of that number — the square of 2 is 4 and two-
squared is written 2*. If the square is again multiplied by the
original number, ie 2? x 2, then the result is the cube of the
number, which is written 2°. The process can of course be
continued ad infinitum - and is called raising a number to its
fourth or fifth or 6785th power. The root of a number is the
original number which was squared or cubed or raised to the
power of something in order to produce that number. For
example the square root of 9 is 3 because 3 x 3 = 9. The cube
root of 27 is also 3 because 3 x 9 = 27, and the fourth root of
81 is also 3 because 3 x 27 = 81. The way this is written is +/9
in the case of a square root and *4/27 or 44/81 in the case of
cube, fourth or further roots. The sixth root of 64 is 2; so 2 can
be written mathematically as °./64, just as 64 can be written 2°,

We will be encountering a few more technical terms as we go

along, but these are the basic ones which you will need right
through the book. It’s important that, however elementary they
seem, you fully grasp what they mean. As I said above they do
14 Figuring
have precise meanings — for example the difference between the
product of 4 and 4 (4 x 4= 16) and the sum of 4 and 4
(4 + 4 = 8) is obviously very important; so it is worth just re-
checking to make sure that they are all absolutely clear in your
head before going any further.
\
 2

THE DIGITS

The ten digits, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 0, are the ‘alphabet’ of

arithmetic. Arranged according to the conventions of mathe-
matics and in conjunction with symbols for addition, subtraction,
etc, the digits make up ‘sentences’ — problems, equations and their
solutions. Just as the letters of the alphabet have their own pecu-
liarities and rules (i before e except after c, etc), so the digits
each have a particular character in arithmetic. Some of their
oddities can be put to good use, others are merely interesting or
amusing for their own sake.
In this chapter we are going to look at the digits individually
and especially at their multiplication tables. The older of us, at
least, will remember sitting in school learning by heart ‘one eight
is eight, two eights are sixteen, three eights are twenty-four, . . .’.
I hope to show you that even in these rather dreary tables there
is interest and surprise. For, as well as regular steps which we
had to learn by rote, each table contains intriguing ‘secret steps’
which vary with the different digits. The discovery of these
secret steps depends on a technique which is going to crop up
throughout this book, and one which I would like to explain at the
outset. It very simply consists of adding together the digits in
any number made up of two or more digits. For example, with
the number 232 the sum of the digits is 2-++ 3 +2 =7. If the
15
16 Figuring
sum of the digits comes to a two-digit number (for example
456, 4+5-+6=15) then normally you repeat the process
(1 +5 = 6).
The secret steps in the multiplication tables are made by
applying this technique to the products given by the straight
steps. For instance in the 4times table 3 k 4 = 12 (straight
step); 1 + 2 = 3 (secret step); or in the 9-times table 11 x 9 =
99;594+9=18,14+8=9.
So, with that technique in mind, let us look at the digits one
at a time.

NUMBER 1

The first thing about the number 1 is of course that whatever

figure you multiply it by, or divide by it, remains unchanged.
The first nine places in the 1-times table therefore have no
secret steps, or at least they are the same as the normal ones, but
after that it becomes more interesting:

1x1l=10 1+40=1
llxl=11 1+1=2
Zxl=12 1+4+2=3
13% 143. . Loe 4
4xl=144 1+4+4=5
15 b= 15.) 1,455=6
14xl=16 1+6=7

...and so on. No matter how far you go you will find that the
secret steps always give you the digits from 1 to 9 repeating
themselves in sequence. For example:
 The Digits 17
Straight steps Secret steps
4x1=154 14+5+4=10,1+0=1
I5x1=155 1454+5=11,14+1=2
156x1=156 1+5+46=12,14+2=3
I7x1=157) 14+54+7=13,1+3=4
I8x1=158 14+5+4+8=14,14+4=5
I9x1=159 14+549=15,1+5=6
10x 1=160 1+6+0 =a}
l6lx1l=161 1+6+1 =§

In this case it is fairly obvious why the secret steps work, but
none the less it is a curiosity that may not have occurred to you
before.
Another curiosity about the number |is its talent for creating
palindromes (numbers that read the same backwards as forwards):

L-xil = 1
11 x 1l = 121
111 x 111 = 12321
1111 x 1111 = 1234321
11111 x 11111 = 123454321
W111 x 111111 == = :12345654321
1111111 x 1111111 = 1234567654321
11111111 x 11111111 = 123456787654321
111111111 x 111111111 = 12345678987654321

At that point it stops, but the same thing works briefly with the
number 11:

Lidell = 121
lixllbxll = 1331
11 x 11 x 11 x 11 = 14641
18 Figuring
Finally the fact that 1 is, so to speak, immune to multiplication
means that whatever power you raise it to it remains unchanged:
1564786 — ], By the same token, ,»/1 = 1.

NUMBER2_ *

The number 2 has one very obvious characteristic, to multiply

any number by 2 is the same as adding it to itself. As for the
multiplication table and its secret steps:

Bree? 2
2 Dre th 4
2x 3.=, 6 6
7 des 8 8
ees altel Se Oat
9oe See eG
Dp hh 1 4S
Beas 16s thi627
GAGE.18le 1-589
Dee My 22 Te
Been) Pa ad
Dre eats oP tdteefh
Pe 13h 2568
2d 14.98) 1 2s 10]
Pen Seay as
x16 o Bae
Bch 34 aged ng
2.18 seroma 6 nd
And so on.
 The Digits 19
As you can check for yourself, the secret steps go on working
ad infinitum, always giving you the same sequence of the four
even digits followed by the five odd ones.
There is an amusing little party trick that can be played with
the number 2. The problem is to express all ten digits, in each
case using the number 2 five times and no other number. You
are allowed to use the symbols for addition, subtraction, multi-
plication and division and the conventional method of writing
fractions. Here is how it is done:

2+2-—2-2/2=1
2+2+2-2-2=2
2+2—242/2=3
2x2x2-—-2-2=4
2+242-2/2=5
24+24+2+2-2=6
22 -2—2-2=7
2x2x2+2-2=8
2xX2xX2+2/2=—9
2 — 2/2 — 2/2 =0

Finally, here is another oddity associated with 2:

123456789
+ 123456789
+ 987654321
+ 987654321
+2

2222222222
20 Figuring
NUMBER 3

The number three has two distinctions. First of all it is the first
triangle number — that is a number the units of which can be
laid out to form a triangle, like this 9%. Triangle numbers have
importance and peculiarities of their own which we shall
encounter later on.
Three is also a prime number, a number that cannot be evenly
divided except by itself and by 1. 1 and 2 are of course prime
numbers, the next after 3 is 5, then 7, 11, 13, 17, 19 and 23; after
that they gradually become increasingly rare. There are a couple
of strange things about the first few prime numbers, for
example: ,

153 = 18 + 53 + 38
And 3 and 5 can also both be expressed as the difference between
two squares:

3= 22-12
5 = 32-22
The secret steps in the 3-times table are very simple:

Straight steps Secret steps

3xl= 3 3
32s 6 6
3x3= 9 9

3x4=12 1423
3x5=15 14+5=6
3x6=18 1+8=9
 The Digits 21
3x7=21 241=3
3x8=24 24+4=6
3x9=27 247=9
3x 10=30 340=3
pellas3h) 33= G
Tx 126) 4b 9
Again the pattern of the secret steps recurs whatever stage you
carry the table up to — try it and check for yourself.

NUMBER 4

With number 4 the secret steps in the multiplication tables

become a little more intricate:

Straight steps Secret steps

4xl= 4 - 4
4x2= 8 8
4x3=12 14+2= 3
4x4=16 TG a7
4x5=20 2+0= 2
4x6=24 2+4=6
4xX7=2B 24+8=10 (140 1
4x 8=32 34+2=5
4x9=36 3+6= 9
4x 10=40 41+0=4
4x 1l=44 414= 8
4x12=48 44+8=12 14+2=3
4x 13=52 5+2= 7
4x144=56 5+6=l11 1+4+1=2
4x 15=60 6+0= 6
4xl6=64 64+4=10 1+0=1
 22 Figuring
At first the sums of the digits look like a jumble of figures, but
. choose at random any sequence of numbers and multiply them
by 4 and you will see the pattern emerge of two interlinked
columns of digits in descending order. For example:
\
®

2160 x 4= 8640 8+6+4+0=18 14+8= 9

2161 x 4= 8644 8+6+4+4=22 2+2=4
2162 x 4= 8648 8+6+4+8=26 2+6= 8
2163 x 4=8652 8+6+5+4+2=21 2+1=3
2164 x 4= 8656 8+6+5+6=25 2+5= 7
2165 x 4=8660 8+6+6+0=20 2+0=2
2166 x 4= 8664 8+6+6+4=24 2+4= 6
2167 x 4 = 8668 8+6+6+8=28 2+8=10 1+0=1
2168 x 4= 8672 8+6+7+4+2=23 2+3= 5

NUMBER 5

Perhaps the most important thing about 5is that it is half of 10;
as we will see, this fact is a key to many shortcuts in calculation.
In the meantime the secret steps in the 5-times table are very
similar to those in the 4-times, the sequences simply go upwards
instead of downwards:

Straight steps Secret steps

Siecle5
5x2=10 1+0=1
5ixSine 15 1+5=
5x 4=20 2+0=2
5ixed lan 25 2+5=
5 x 6=30 3+0=3
5x7=35 345=
 The Digits 23
5x 8=40 4+0=4
5x9=45 4+5= 9
+x 10=50 5+0=5
5x 11=55 5+5=10 1+0= 1
5 x12 = 60 6+0=6
5.x 13 = 65 6+5=11 I+1l= 2
5 x 14=70 7+0=7
a 15 75 7+5=12 14+3= 3
5x 16= 80. 8+0=8
5x 17=85 8+5=13 1+3= 4
5 x 18 = 90 9+0=9
5x 19=95 9+5=14 1+4= 5
And so on.

NUMBER6

This is the second triangle number; and the first perfect number —
a perfect number is one which is equal to the sum of all its
divisors. Thus, 1 +2+3=6.
The secret steps in the 6-times table are very similar to those
in the 3-times, only the order is slightly different.

Straight steps Secret steps

6x1= 6 6
p= 2 123
6x3=18 1i4- Baki9
6x4=24 Mey AceiG
6x 5=30 Zee Dat
6x 6=36 34+6=9
6x7=42 4p 2216
GER E548 4S IE 2G
24 Figuring
6x 9= 54 5+4=9
6 x 10= 60 6+0=6
6 x 11 = 66 6+6=12 1+2=3
Osx<al2: 72 7+2=9

And so on. \

NUMBER7

This is the next prime number after 5. The secret steps in the
7-times table almost duplicate those in the 2-times, except that
they go up instead of down at each step.

Straight steps Secret steps

LXV ssy 7 7
ike Leek e 14+4=5

TK Ae 28 2+8=10 14+0=1
Ties 235 3+5=8
TX bi 42 4+2=6
TT VAD 4+9=13 1+3=4
7X 856 5+6=l11 P12
71X9= 63 6+3=9
7X 10= 70 7+0=7
7 XAl = 77 7+7=14 1+4=5
7 xXi2s 84 8+4=12 1+2=3
7 343 e291 9+1=10 1+0=1
7x 14= 98 9+8=17 14+7=8
7 xtlbe=105 1+0+5=6
7x 16=112 14+1+4+2=4
7x17=119 14+14+9=11 1+1=2
7 x 18 = 126 14+2+6=9
 The Digits 25
7X 19 = 133 1+3+3=7
7 x 20 = 140 1L4+440=5
And so on.

There is a curious relationship between 7 and the number

142857. Watch:

7X%2°=7x2.-=14
1X B=7 x4 = 28
Cee OS 56
Pelee 016 he 112
xR =S 1 x 32S fae
pez 7 x 64 = 448
7X27 RSS 896
1 CPP = 71 256 = 1792
Pee ef 512 = 3584

142857142857142(784)

However far you take the calculation, the sequence 142857 will
repeat itself, though the final digits on the right-hand side which
I have bracketed will be ‘wrong’ because they would be affected
by the next stage in the addition if you took the calculation on
further.
This number 142857 has itself some strange properties;
multiply it by any number between 1 and 6 and see what happens:

142857 x 1= 142857
142857 x 2= 285714
142857 x 3= 428571
142857 « 4= 571428
142857 x 5= 714285
142857 x 6= 857142
26 Figuring
The same digits recur in each answer, and if the products are
each written in the form ofa circle, you will see that the order of
the digits remains the same. If you then go on to multiply the
same number by 7, the answer is 999999. We will come back to
some further characteristics of this number in Chapter 14.

NUMBER 8

This time the secret steps in the multiplication table are the
reverse of those in the 1-times table:

Straight steps Secret steps

oh 8 8
Sx2= 16 6+1=7
$563an 24 2+4=6
8% 41732 342=5
8 x 5 =, 40 4+0=4
§x6= 48 4+8=12 1+4+2=3
& a7 ahbO 5 Ged) deed be 2
8 xi8. 964 6+4=10 140=1
8.9: 72 7+2=9
&§x10= 80 8+0=8
Sexehliee 88 8+8=16 1+6=7
S cil2i== 96 9+6=15 1+5=6
8 x 13 = 104 14+0+4=5
8x 14 = 112 1+14+2=4
8 x15 = 120 14+2+4+0=3
8x16=128 14+24+8=11 1+1=2
8x17=136 14+3+6=10 1+0=1

So it continues.
 The Digits 27
If this is unexpected, then look at some other peculiarities of
the number 8:

888
88

and:

88 =9 x9+47
888 = 98 x 9+ 6
8888 = 987 x 9 +5
88888 = 9876 x 9 + 4
888888 = 98765 x 9 + 3
8888888 = 987654 x 9+ 2
88888888 = 9876543 x 9+ 1

and, lastly:

12345679 x 8 = 98765432

NUMBER 9

With 9 we come to the most intriguing of the digits, indeed

of all numbers. First look at the steps in the multiplication
table:
28 Figuring
Straight steps Secret steps
9x d= 9 9
92.018 14+8=9
Ox 727 2+7=9
9x4= 36 . 3 +b=9
9x5= 45 4+5=9
9x6= 54 5+4=9
9x 7 =x 63 6+3=9
9308= 72 74+2=9
9x 9-81 8+1=9
9'< 10-5 90 9+0=9
Ox 1b=99 994+9=18 %$%148=9
9x 12 = 108 1+0+4+8=9
It is an absolute rule that whatever number you multiply by 9,
the sum of the digits in the product will always be 9. Moreover,
not only are there no steps in the hidden part of the 9-times
table but, for its first ten places, it has another feature:

1x9=09 90 = 9 x 10
2x 9=18 81=9x9
59 = 27 12 =9X8
4x 9= 36 63=9x7
5x9=45 54=9x6

The product in the second half of the table is the reverse of that
in the first half.
Now, take any number. Say, 87594. Reverse the order of the
digits, which gives you 49578. Subtract the lesser from the
greater:
87594
—49578

38016
 The Digits 29
Now add up the sum of the digits in the remainder: 3 -+ 8 +
0+1+6=18, 1+ 8 =9. The answer will always be 9.
Again, take any number. Say, 64783. Calculate the sum of its
digits: 6 + 4+ 7 + 8 + 3 = 28 (you can stop there or go on
as usual to calculate 2 + 8 = 10, and again, only if you wish,
1+0=1).
Now take the sum of the digits away from the original number,
and add up the sum of the digits of the remainder. Wherever
you choose to stop, and whatever the number you originally
select, the answer will be 9.

64783
—28

64755 64+4474+545=27 247=9

64783
—10

i Oe ey 38 oy 7 9
64783
et
64782 64+4474+842=27 24+7=9

Take the nine digits in order and remove the 8: 12345679.

Then multiply by 9:

12345679 x 9 = 111111111

Now try multiplying by the multiples of 9:

30 ©Figuring
12345679 x 18 = 222222222
12345679 x 27 = 333333333
12345679 x 36 = 444444444
12345679 x 45 = 555555555
12345679 x 54 = 666666666
12345679 x 63 = 777777777
12345679 x 72 = 888888888
12345679 x 81 = 999999999
There is a little mathematical riddle that can be played using 9.
What is the largest number that can be written using three digits?
The answer is 9®”, or 9 raised to the ninth power of 9. The ninth
power of 9 is 387420489. No one knows the precise number that
is represented by 9287420489; but it begins 428124773... and
ends ...89. The complete number will contain 369 million
digits, would occupy over five hundred miles of paper and take
years to read.

ZERO

I have a particular affection for zero because it was some of my

countrymen who first gave it the status of a number. Though the
symbol for a void or nothingness is thought to have been invented
by the Babylonians, it was Hindu mathematicians who first con-
ceived of 0 as a number, the next in the progression 4-3-2-1.
Now, of course, the zero is a central part of our mathematics,
the key to our decimal system of counting. And it signifies
something very different from simply ‘nothing’ — just think of the
enormous difference between -001, -01, -1, 1, 10, and 100 to
remind yourself of the importance of the presence and position
of a 0 in a number.
The other power of 0 is its ability to destroy another number -
zero times anything is zero.
 3

MULTIPLICATION

Now that we have defined the principal terms we are going to

use and have had a look at the digits individually, we can move on
to look at some actual calculations and the ways in which they can
be simplified and speeded up. I do want to stress at this point
that I am not suggesting any magical method by which you can
do everything in your head. Do not be ashamed of using paper
and pencil, especially when you are learning and practising the
different methods I am going to explain. At first you may find you
need to scribble down the figures at each intermediate stage in
the calculation; with practice you will probably find that it
becomes less necessary. But the point is not to be able to do
without paper; it is to grasp the methods and understand how
they work.
Everyone can do simple multiplication in their head. All
mothers are familiar with questions like 4 sausages each for
5 children, or the weekly cost of 2 pints of milk a day at 9 pennies
a pint. Problems usually arise when both the figures get into
two or three digits — and this is, in many cases, because of the
rigid methods we were taught at school. If for example you
multiply 456 by 76 by the method usually taught in schools,
you end up with a calculation that looks like this:

31
32 Figuring
456
76

31920
2736

34656

You have had to do two separate operations of multiplication and

one of addition, and you have had to remember to ‘carry’ num-
bers from one column to the next. Many people simply remember
the method and do not think about how or why it works.
The first essential thing about multiplication is not to auto-
matically adopt any one method; but to look at the figures
involved and decide which of the several methods I am going to
explain will be quickest and work best.

METHOD I

The key to this method is the one shortcut in arithmetic that

I imagine we all know: that to multiply any number by 10 you
simply add a zero; to multiply by 100, add two zeros; by 1000,
three zeros; and so on. This basic technique can be widely
extended.
To take a simple example, if you were asked to multiply 36 by 5
you would, if you simply followed the method you learned at
school, write down both numbers, multiply 6 by 5, put down the 0
and carry the 3, multiply 3 by 5 and add the 3 you carried,
getting the correct result of 180. But a moment’s thought will
show you that 5 is half of 10, so if you multiply by 10, by the
simple expedient of adding 0, and then divide by 2 you will get
 Multiplication 33
_ the answer much quicker. Alternatively, you can first halve 36,
giving you 18, and then add the 0 to get 180.
Here are some extensions of this method.

To multiply by 15 remember that 15 is one and a half times 10.

So to multiply 48 by 15 first multiply by 10

10 x 48 = 480

Then, to multiply by 5, simply halve that figure

480 — 2 = 240

Add the two products together to get the answer

480 + 240 = 720

To multiply by 74 all you have to remember is that 7} is

threequarters of 10. For example 64 x 73:

64 x 10 = 640

The easiest way of finding threequarters of 640 is to divide by 4

and multiply by 3, thus:

640 + 4 = 160
160 x 3 = 480
It’s easy to see that this method can work just as well for 75 or
750, and there is no difficulty if the multiplicand is a decimal
figure. For example to take a problem in decimal currency,
suppose you are asked to multiply 187-60 by 75. Instead of adding
a zero just move the decimal point
34 Figuring
87-60 x 100 = 8760
8760 + 4 = 2190
2190 x 3 = 6570

To multiply. by 9 just remember that 9 is one less than 10, so

all that is necessary is to add a zero and then subtract the original
multiplicand. Take 9 x 84.

10 x 84 = 840
840 — 84 = 756

This can be extended; if asked to multiply by 18 all that is

necessary is to multiply by 9 and double the product. For
example, 448 x 18:

448 x 10 = 4480
4480 — 448 = 4032
4032 x 2 = 8064

Alternatively you can start from the fact that 18 is 20 less 2 in

which case the sequence is:

448 x 2 = 896
896 x 10 = 8960
8960 — 896 = 8064

This method can be used for all numbers which are multiples of 9.
For example, if asked to multiply 765 by 54 you will realize that
54 is equivalent to 6 x 9, the calculation then goes:

765 x 6 = 4590
4590 x 10 = 45900
45900 — 4590 = 41310
 Multiplication 35
Multiplying by 11 is easily done if you remember that 11 is
10 + 1. Therefore to multiply any number by 11 all that is
necessary is to add a 0 and then add on the original number.
For example, to multiply 5342 by 11:

5342 x 10 = 53420
53420 + 5342 = 58762

In the case of 11 there is an even shorter method that can be

used if the multiplicand is a three-digit number in which the
sum of the last two digits is not more than 9. For example if
asked to multiply 653 by 11, you check that 5 and 3total less
than 9, and since they do, you proceed as follows:
First multiply the last two digits, 53, by 11

33 X 1] = 583

To this add the first, hundreds, digit multiplied by 11

600 x 11 = 6600
6600 + 583 = 7183

Another case where this method can be used is with 124. Here
you have a choice, you can either work on the basis that 124 is
10 plus a quarter of 10, in which case 872 x 124:

872 x 10 = 8720
8720 + 4 = 2180
8720 + 2180 = 10900

Alternatively, you can work from the basis that 12} is one-eighth
of 100, in which case 872 x 124:
36 Figuring
872 x 100 = 87200
87200 + 8 = 10900

It’s best to check if the multiplicand is divisible by 8 before

adopting the second way. In fact this process of checking pretty
well does the calculation for you. If you have to multiply 168
by 124, a moment’s thought shows that 8 goes into 168 exactly
21 times. All you then have to do is add two zeros to get the
correct product — 2100.
But if the multiplicand had been, say, 146, then clearly the
first method is the one to use.
Here are some other relationships that can be exploited to use
this basic method:
1124 is 100 plus one-eighth of 100
125 is 100 plus one-quarter of 100; or 125 is one-eighth of
1000
45 is 50 minus 5, 50 is half of 100 and 5 is one-tenth of 50
25 is a quarter of 100
35 is 25 plus 10
99 is 100 minus 1
90 is 100 minus one-tenth of 100
and so on. If you experiment you will find many more of these
useful relationships, all of which can be used to take advantage of
the basic shortcut offered by the fact that to multiply by 10 all
you do is add a zero. After some practice you will find that you
can spot almost without thinking a case where this first method
is going to help.

METHOD II

The next method I am going to describe can be used when the

multiplier is a relatively small number, but one for which our
 Multiplication 37
first method is unsuitable because there is no simple relationship
to 10 which can be spotted and exploited.
We have in fact already made use of this second method
without my drawing attention to it. When, for instance, you
multiply by 20 by the simple and obvious means of multiplying
by 2 and then adding a 0, what you are doing is taking out the
factors of 20, 2 and 10, and multiplying by them each in turn.
This method can be extended to any number which can be broken
down into factors. For example if you are asked to multiply a
number by 32 you can break 32 down into its factors, 8 and 4,
and proceed as follows (here, to start with anyway, I suggest
the use of paper and pencil):

To multiply 928 by 32

29696

Even if you have to write the calculation out as above it is a

great deal quicker than the conventional method, which would
not only involve two sequences of multiplication but also one of
addition.
In practice this method is best used where the multiplier is
relatively small and its factors therefore easily and quickly ex-
tracted; if you remember the multiplication tables up to 12 you
will be able to judge at a glance whether or not this is a suitable
method in the case of a two-digit multiplier.
38 Figuring
METHOD III

This third method is one that should be used where there is no

easily discernible means of using the first two, and where the
number of digits involved makes them ingpracticable.
I am going to start by explaining the method with relatively
small numbers so that you can grasp the essentials.
For our first example let us take 13 x 19. First, add the unit
digit of one number to the other number, thus:

9+ 13 =22

You then think of that sum as so many tens, in this case 22 tens.
Now multiply the two unit digits together:

3x9=277

Finally add the product to the tens figure you already have:

27 + 22 (tens) = 247

Here is another example, 17 x 14:

4+ 17 = 21 (tens)
TxA = 28
28 + 21 (tens) = 238

There are particular short cuts for multiplying together two-

figure numbers with the same tens or the same units figure.
When the tens figure is common, you add to one number the
units figure of the other, multiply this sum by the common tens
figure and add, to this product, considered as tens, the product
of the two units digits. For example, 49 x 42:
 Multiplication 39
49+2=51
51 x 4 =
204

Add to this product (2040, when considered as tens) the product

of the units (9 x 2 = 18) to get the final product of 2058.
Another example, 58 x 53:

58 +3 = 61
61 xX 5 = 305 (tens)
8x3=24
3050 + 24 = 3074

If the common tens figure is 9 there is an even simpler method.

Subtract each of the numbers from 100. Multiply the remainders
together — this gives you the last two figures of the final product.
To arrive at the first two digits take away from one of the numbers
the figure by which the other was short of 100: For example,
93 x 96:
10 9327
100 — 96 = 4

4 x 7 = 28, your two last digits. 93 — 4 or 96 — 7 gives you 89,

your first two digits. The product is therefore 8928.
If the units figures of two two-figure numbers are the same
you can multiply them by adding the product of the two tens ;
figures (considered as hundreds) to the sum of the tens figures
multiplied by the common units digit, and the square of the
common units digit. For example, 96 x 46:

9 x 4 = 36 (hundreds)
13 X 6 = 78 (tens)
9+ 4 = 13,13 x 6 = 78(tens)
6 xX 6 = 36
3600 + 780 + 36 = 4416
40 Figuring
Or, to multiply 62 by 42:

6 x 4 = 24 (hundreds)
10 x 2 = 20 (tens)
6+4= 10,10 x 2 = 20 (tens)
2xX2=4
2400 + 200 + 4 = 2604

If the common final digit is 5 it is even simpler — to the product

of the two tens figures considered as hundreds add half the sum
of the two tens figures, still considered as hundreds. Then add 25
to arrive at the final product. For example, 45 x 85:

4 x 8 = 32 (hundreds)
ae = 6 (hundreds)
3200 + 600 = 3800

Add 25 to obtain the final product of 3825.

If the sum of the tens is an odd number take it to the nearest
whole number below, and add 75, not 25, to obtain the final
product. For example, 95 x 25:

9 x 2 = 18 (hundreds)
— — 5-5 (hundreds)
1300 + 500 + 75 (25 plus -5 of 100)
= 375
All of the methods I have described so far can be done mentally
when you have hadalittle practise — I,will now describe others
which can be used more generally, but which require pencil and
paper. Even with these methods most of the calculations can be
 Multiplication 41
done mentally, you use the paper to keep note of your inter-
mediate results. In each case you do a sequence of diagonal or
vertical multiplications— the pattern of these is shown in diagrams
to the right of the examples.
For example, to multiply 63 by 48 write down the numbers

eee
3 x 8 = 24, so put 4 in the units column and carry the 2, you
will add this to the sum of the products of the ‘diagonals’ —
8 and 6, and 4 and 3. Your mental calculation runs thus:

6x 8= 4834 x 3=12;484+ 124+2=62.

You write 2 in the tens column and carry 6 — this you add to the
product of the two tens digits — 6 and 4.
The mental calculation 6 x 4 = 24; 24+ 6 = 30 gives the
final figures — all you have had to write down is the problem
itself and the answer:

63
48

3024

Set out three-digit figures to be multiplied together in the

same way:

stinsteest caeemia ly
42 Figuring
Again multiply the units digits and write down the units figure
of the answer, 4, and carry the tens digit, 2. Now multiply 3 by 4
and add the 2 you are carrying to make 14. Add this to the pro-
duct of 5 x 6 = 30, to make a total of 44. You now have two
figures of your final answer and are still cazrying only one figure —
4 — in your head. The figures you have written read

436
254

44

Your next mental steps are to add the 4 you are carrying to the
products of 4 x 4, 6 x 2, and 3 x 5, and the calculation will
run: 4x 4=16; 16+4=20; 6x 2=12; 12 +20 = 32;
3% 5 15: 15 4-32 = 47,
Set down the 7 and carry the 4.
Now multiply the left-hand set of diagonals — 4 and 5, and
3 and 2 and add the carried 4: 4 x 5 = 20; 20+ 4= 24;
3x2=6;6+ 24 =30.
Set down the 0, carry the 3, and add it to the product of the
first hundreds digits, 4 and 2:4 x 2=8;8+3=11.
Now write 11 next to the 0:

436
254

110744

Again, all you have had to write are problem and answer.
If the multiplier has only two figures you can still use this
method by replacing the missing hundreds figure with a 0. For
example set out 476 x 26 like this:
 Multiplication 43
476
026

6 x 6 = 36; put down the 6, carry 3, and proceed as before.

7 x 6 = 42; plus 3 carried = 45; plus 2 x 6(= 12) =.57;
Put down the 7 and carry the 5.
4 x 6 = 24; plus the 5 carried = 29:6 x 0 = 02% 714
29 + 14 = 43. Set down 3 and carry 4.
4x2=8;8+4=12;7x0=0; 12 +0 = 12 - so you
write 2 and carry 1. The figures you have now written read:

476
026
—_———-

2376

4 x 0 =0, but you are still carrying 1 so the final answer reads
12376.

We can now extend the method to deal with four-figure

numbers. For instance to multiply 9246 by 2541 set down the
problem in the same way as before:

ise
2543 e688 | kbar Andenea
®@ @

Ot @ ee @ee@

ke e ve @®@ @e0

First the units: 3 x 6 = 18, write down the 8 carry the 1. Next
the first pair of diagonals: 4 x 3 = 12;12+1=13;4x6=
24; 24 + 13 = 37. }
44 Figuring
Write down the 7 and carry the 3:

9246
2543
ee \
78

Now 2 x 3, 4 x 4, and 5 x 6:

2x3. 6 6+ 3(carried)= 9
566 = '30 30 +9 = 39
4x4=16 16 + 39 = 55

Set down 5 and carry 5:

9246
2543

578

Now the four sets of diagonals:

9x3=27 27+ 5 (carried) = 32

2% 6 = 12 12 + 32 = 44
2x4=8 8 + 44 = 52
5x 4=20 20 + 52 = 72

Set down 2 and carry 7:

9246
2543

2578
 Multiplication 45
By the same procedures as before:

9xX4=36 3647 (carried) = 43

42 8 43+8=51
2x 3S=10 51+ 10=61

gives us another digit of the solution, and 6 to carry.

9x 5=45 45 +- 6 (carried) = 51
2x2=4 51+4=55

gives another, 5, with 5 to carry:

9246
2543
—_—_—_—.

512578

and we get the final two digits by multiplying 9 x 2 and adding

the 5 we are carrying: 18 + 5 = 23

9246
2543

23512578

This same method of adding the products of groups of diagonal

multiplications can be used for larger numbers, buta little more
paperwork will make it simpler. For instance to multiply 637432
by 513124 start by setting the numbers out in the usual way:

637432
513124
46 Figuring
then proceed as follows:

(4x 2)= | 8
(4x 3)+(2x2)=124+4= 16
(4x4) +(2 x 1)+(3 x 2)=16 +246 24
(4x7) 4(2x3)+3X1I)+4(4x2)=
284+64+348= 45
(4x3) 4(22xI)+(2x7)+E8x3)+4x I=
124241449+4= 4l
(4x6) 4(5X2)+(2x 3)+(1x3) 4+(7 xI+
(3 x 4)=244+10+64347+4+12= 62
(2x 6) (5X3) +X 44+8xD)+(7x3)=
124154443+421=— : 55
(1x 6) +(5 x4) +(x+3 X3)=
64+204+7+4+9= 42
(3 x 6) (5X7) +3 X1)4+184354+3= 56
(1x 6) +(5 x 3)=64+15= 21
(6x5) = 30
327081657568

All the computing goes on in your head, the addition at the end
involves only two digits in each column and the amount of
paperwork is limited to the figures on the right-hand side of the
page.

CHECKING BY CASTING OUT THE NINES

No one is immune from error, and quick ways of checking long

computations are always useful. The method I describe here is
not infallible, but if the answer you have obtained checks out
 Multiplication 47
as correct when you have used it, the chances of your being wrong
are very slim indeed. This is the way it is done:
Add up the digits in each factor (the numbers you are
multiplying together) and in the product.
Divide each of the sums of digits by 9.
Set down the remainder in each case — this is known as the
check number.
Multiply the check number of the multiplicand by the check
number of the multiplier, and add up the digits in the product.
If this gives you the same number as the check number of the
original product you can assume that that product was correct.
For example to check that 8216 x 4215 = 34630440:

8+2+1+4+6=17, casting out the nines leaves 8 as check

number.
4+2-+1-+5 = 12, casting out the nines leaves 3 as check
number.
3+4+6+3+0+4+4-+0 = 24, cast
outing
thenines
leaves 6 as check number.
3 x 8 = 24,2 + 4 = 6, which was the check number of the
original product.
 4

ADDITION

Addition can be thought of as an extension of counting. It is

involved in almost all calculations — it is simple, but mistakes are
easy to make when long lists of numbers are being added together,
or when numbers are carried from one column to the next.
One way of avoiding mistakes in long additions — of twenty or
thirty numbers say - is to break the list up into smaller groups
and then add the totals of all the groups together. Remember, too,
that it is easier to add round numbers like 40 or 150 than numbers
ending in 7, 8, or 9. If you round these awkward numbers up by
adding 3, 2, or 1 the calculation is not much longer, and is easier.
Instead of
49 + 52 = 101

think of it as

50 (that is 49 + 1) +52 = 102-1

= 101
Carrying errors very often occur when you are adding in your
head, and have to keep both the digits of the final answer and
those you are carrying to add to the next column in your mind
at the same time. One way of avoiding this sort of confusion is
to reverse the ordinary method of working and add from left to
48
 Addition 49
right instead of from right to left. If the numbers are small no
carrying is involved and the final total is arrived at by way of
partial totals. For instance to add 353 to 2134 first add 300
(giving the partial total of 2434), then 50 (giving 2484) and then 3
to arrive at the final total of 2487. Or, to add 5128 to 2356,
increase 5128 by steps of 2000, 300, 50, and 6 to arrive at the
partial totals of 7128, 7428, 7478 and the final total of 7484.
You can also work from left to right when adding up columns
of numbers. For example if you are adding

215
426
513
112
328

first add the figures in the hundreds column and hold the total,
1500, in your head. Now add the total of the tens column, 70,
to it. To this total of 1570 add the sum of the units column, 24,
to arrive at the final total of 1594.
Even when you use pencil and paper carrying errors can occur.
Here is a method of working which makes them much less likely:

9256384
5678256
8143132
1829527
6415948

9191027
2213222

31323247
50 6Figuring
Add each column of figures separately. Put the units figure of the
total directly below the column you have just added, the tens
figure one line down and one place to the left. Repeat this process
for each column and add the two rows of figures together to
obtain the final result. \
Another method of avoiding carrying also involves adding each
column separately. The column totals are set out in a staggered
line, the units figure of the second column below the tens figure
of the first, the units figure of the third column below the tens
figure of the second and so on. The column totals are then added
to give the final answer. Here is an example:

962853 19
524861 22
212346 24
401258 13
864321 15
28

2965639

(You can of course work from left to right if you wish and set
each column total one place further right rather than one place
further left.)

962853 28
524861 15
212346 13
401258 24
864321 22
19

2965639
 Addition 51
There are even tricks you can play with addition. Ask a friend
to write down any five-figure number - say he writes 21564.
You, apparently at random, choose figures to write below his.
You put down 78435 — these are in fact the digits which, added
to those they stand below, will total 9. You now ask your friend
to add a further five-figure number, and you again write below
his digits those that would make them up to 9. Your friend adds
a final fifth line of five figures and you instantly draw a line and
add all five numbers together — the total will always be the last
number your friend wrote with 2 subtracted from the last digit
and 2 inserted before the first one.

21564
78435
12564
87435
42145

242143

CHECKING BY CASTING OUT THE NINES

Additions, like multiplications, can be checked (though not

infallibly checked) by casting out the nines.
First add up the digits of each number in the sum, and of the
answer you had arrived at. Divide each of these numbers by 9
and set down the remainder. Total the remainders of the num-
bers you were adding together, and again cast out the nines. If
the remainder you are left with is the same as the remainder when
the sum of the digits of your answer was divided by 9 you may
assume that answer was correct.
 5

DIVISION

Division is the reverse of multiplication — just as subtraction is

the reverse of addition. To multiply 3 by 4 is to add four threes
together, and find the total - 12. Dividing 12 by 3 could be said
to be subtracting threes until you had nothing left - and you
would of course do it four times. But division seems more
intractable to most people, and particularly difficult to handle
mentally. In this chapter I will show how division by particular
numbers can be handled in particular ways, and, at the end of the
chapter, how you can check to see whether a number is or is not
divisible by any number from 2 to 11 (or, of course, any multiple
of such a number). But first some special cases.
To divide a number by 5 you take advantage of the fact
that 5 is half of 10, multiply the dividend (the number being
divided) by 2 and divide by 10 by moving the decimal point one
place to the left. For example:

165 divided by 5 = _ == 33

To divide by 15 multiply the dividend by 2 and divide by

30. For example
105 divided by 15 = _ =]
52
 Division 53
If you simplify in this way — by doubling divisor and dividend -
and are left at the end of the calculation with a remainder you
must remember that this, too, will be doubled. Some divisions
can be simplified by halving both divisor and dividend - divisions
by 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, and 24 become divisions by 7, 8, 9, 10,
11, and 12 —- but this time you must remember to double the
remainder. Here are some examples:

392 divided by 14 = a = 28

464 divided by 16 = se = 29

882 divided by 18 = & = 49

4960 divided by 20 = - — 248

946 divided by 22 = ee= 43

1176 divided by 24 = ee — 49

DIVIDING BY FACTORS

If a number can be broken down into factors, it may be simpler

to divide by these, successively, than to do a singlecalculation.
A mental division by 8, and then by 4, is simpler than a division
by 32. For example to divide 1088 by 32 first divide by 8:
54 Figuring
1088 eer
oo 3 36

and then divide the answer, 136, by 4 to get the final result - 34.
Numbers easy to handle in this way are‘the products in the
basic multiplication tables — multiples of 11 for instance go
particularly smoothly:

To divide 2695 by 55, first divide by 5:

2695
———
5 == 539. >

and then by 11:

539 rAg
ere
11 i

to get the answer.

To divide by numbers that are powers of 2 (4, 8, 16, and so on),

you merely have to go on halving the dividend. 16 for instance is
2‘ so halving the dividend four times is the same as dividing by 16.

To divide 8192 by 16 -
halve once to get 4096
and again to get 2048
and a third time to get 1024
and finally a fourth time to get the answer 512

This technique makes dividing by high powers of 2 easy — for

instance to divide 32768 by 128 - which is 2’:
 Division 55
32768 halved = 16384
16384 halved = 8192
8192 halved = 4096
4096 halved = 2048
2048 halved = 1024
1024 halved = 512
and 512 halved = 256 — which is the required answer.

The methods I have described so far work only with some

numbers — thinking about what sort of numbers are involved
in a calculation is often the first step to finding a quick way to
do it. The more skilled you get at mental multiplication and
division the more steps in a normal division sum you will be
able to do in your head. For instance in the sum set out below
only the remainders are noted down — partial products are arrived
at, and the subtractions done mentally:

31)13113(423
71
93

00

DIVIDING BY FRACTIONS MENTALLY

It is easier to divide by whole numbers than fractions — if both

divisor and dividend are multiplied by the same factor the
answer to the problem will be the same. (Any remainder, how-
ever, will be a multiple or fraction of the correct value.) If, for
instance, you are dividing by 74 it is simpler to multiply both
numbers in the calculation by 4 - dividing four times your
original dividend by 30. For example to divide 360 by 74:
56 Figuring
360 x 4 = 1440
7k x 4 = 30
1440
lee
30
\

By the same principle when dividing by 123 multiply the dividend

by 8 and divide by 100, when dividing by 374 multiply by 8 and
divide by 300, and when dividing by 624 multiply by 8 and divide
by 500.
To divide by 14 double the dividend and the divisor and divide
by 3 (but remember to halve any remainder).
To divide a number by 24 double the dividend and the divisor
and divide by 5 — and go about dividing by 34 in the same way.

CHECKING WHETHER A NUMBER IS

EXACTLY DIVISIBLE

There are tests that can be made to show whether a number is

exactly divisible by another number (or multiple of it). Here are
some of them:

If a number is divisible by two it will end in an even number

or a 0.

If a number is divisible by three the sum of its digits will be

divisible by 3 (for example 372 = 3 + 2 + 7 = 12). A corollary
of this is that any number made by rearranging the digits of a
number divisible by 3 will also be divisible by 3.

If a number is divisible by four the last two digits are divisible

by 4 (or are zeros).
 Division 57
If a number is divisible by five the last digit will be 5
or 0.

If a number is divisible by six the last digit will be even and the
sum of the digits divisible by 3.

There is no quick test for finding out if a number is divisible by

seven.

If a number is divisible by eight the last three digits are divisible

by 8.

If a number is divisible by nine the sum of its digits are divisible

by 9.

If a number is divisible by ten it ends with a 0.

If a number is divisible by eleven the difference between the

sum of the digits in the even places and the sum of the digits in
the odd places is 11 or 0. For example, 58432 is shown to be
divisible by 11 because

§+442=11
8+3=11
11—11=0

and 25806 is shown to be divisible by 11 because:

2+8+6= 16
5+0=5
16-—5=11
58 Figuring
CHECKING BY CASTING OUT THE NINES

Divisions, like additions and multiplications, can be checked by

casting out the nines — although, again, the method is not
infallible. N
You obtain check numbers, as before, by adding up the digits
in the numbers in the calculation — in this case the divisor,
dividend, and quotient — and dividing them by 9. The check
number is the remainder left after each division.
Multiply the check number of the divisor by the check number
of the quotient. If the check number of this product is the same
as the check number of the dividend the division may be
assumed to be correct. For example to check: —

2426376
ore nt

2+4124+64+3-+7-+ 6 =30, casting out the nines leaves 3

5+3+2-+1=11, casting out the nines leaves 2
4+5+6=15, casting out the nines leaves 6

6 x 2 = 12 (check number divisor x check number quotient).

Casting out the nines leaves 3 - which is the same as the check
number of the dividend.
When there is a remainder the sum of the digits in the re-
mainder are added to the product of the check numbers of the
quotient and the divisor, and the operation is completed in the
usual way. For example to check:
ci = 346 remainder 39.
4281
1+4+8+1+2+46-+5 = 27, casting out the nines leaves 0
4+2+8-+1= 15, casting out the nines leaves 6
 Division 59
3 +4-+ 6 = 13, casting out the nines leaves 4
3 + 9 = 12, casting out the nines leaves 3
6 x 4= 24, 24+ 3 = 27, adding these digits and casting out
the nines leaves 0 — which is the check number of the dividend.
 6

SUBTRACTION

Subtraction is the opposite of addition, but many people find

adding easier. If the number being subtracted is a multiple of 10
however the sum is easy, and you can simplify subtractions by
adding to both the number being subtracted, and the number
being subtracted from the figure which will bring the former up
to round figures. It is a particularly useful trick when subtracting
sums of money in decimal currencies. For example to subtract
46 from 58 add 4 to both numbers — the problem then becomes
the easy one of

62 — 50 = 12

Or, to deduct £1-72 from £3-64, add 8 pence to each sum:

£3-72 — £1-80 = £1-92.

When you are dealing with three-figure numbers you will bring
the number being subtracted up to the nearest hundred:
246 — 182 becomes 264 — 200 and the answer, 64, obvious.
And with four-figure numbers you add to both numbers the
number which will bring the number being subtracted up to the
nearest thousand. When 2348 — 1821 becomes 2527 — 2000,
there is no problem in seeing that 527 is the answer.
60
 Subtraction 61

CHECKING ERRORS IN SUBTRACTION

The simplest check is to add your answer to the number being

subtracted —- the sum will be the same as the number being
subtracted from, if you have made no mistakes. You can also use
the method of casting out the nines, which I have described
already — in this case the procedure is to add up the digits of each
number in the subtraction, divide by 9, and note the check num-
bers — the remainders — arrived at. Having cast out the nines in
this way subtract the check number of the number being sub-
tracted, from the check number of the number being subtracted
from, if the figure arrived at is the same as the check number of
your answer you can assume that your original subtraction was
carried out correctly. But again remember that casting out the
nines is not infallible.
 /

GCM and LCM

I have already explained how numbers can be broken down into

factors —- numbers which, multiplied together, give the original
number as a product.
The Greatest Common Measure, or Highest Common Factor,
is the greatest number that is a factor common to two numbers —
it can be defined as ‘the greatest number that is contained an
exact number of times in each of two or more numbers’ and
abbreviated to GCM or HCF.
The usual way of finding the GCM of two numbers is to break
both of them down into their factors, pick out the factor or
factors they have in common, and multiply these together.

For instance to find the GCM of 72 and 126:

V2 BE ROL D3 3
12%6=7x2x3x3

The common factors are 2, 3, and 3, and the GCM, the product
of these factors multiplied together, 18.

Or to find the GCM of 7293 and 442:

62
 GCM and LCM 63
7293 =3 x 11 x17 x 13
442 =2 x 13 x 17

The GCM is therefore 13 x 17, or 221.

As larger numbers are harder to split into factors another method

can be used. This involves dividing the larger number by the
smaller, and then dividing the smaller number by the remainder
from the first division. The remainder of the first division is then
divided itself by the remainder from the second, and so on, until
no remainder is left. The last divisor is the GCM of the two
numbers you started with. Here are two examples:

Find the GCM of 4781 and 6147.

4781)6147(1
4781
1366)4781(3
4098
683)1366(2
1366
The required GCM is 683.
64 Figuring
Find the GCM of 13536 and 23148.

13536)23148(1
13536
Sa e \

9612)13536(1
9612
3924)9612(2
7848
1764)3924(2
3528
396)1764(4
1584
180)396(2
360
36)180(5
180
——

The required GCM is 36.

LEAST COMMON MULTIPLE

con-
The Least Common Multiple is the smallest number which
The usual
tains an exact number of each of two or more numbers.
ple (LCM ) of two
method of finding the Least Common Multi
factors —
or more numbers is to break them down into their prime
factors.
factors which cannot themselves be split into smaller
 GCM and LCM 65
_ From the prime factors of all the numbers choose the highest
powers of each factor that occurs. Multiply these together, and
the product will be the required LCM.

For example, to find the LCM of 78, 84, and 90:

78 =2 x 13 x 3
84=2x2x7xX3=2!x7x3
M=2x3x3xX5=2x
33x 5

Therefore the LCM is 22 x 32 x 13 x 7 x 5 = 16380.

To find the prime factors set it out in this way (the problem is to
find the prime factors and LCM of 192, 204, 272):

Zg2 a es. 212

2) 96, 102, 136

2) 48, 51, 68

Zant, wate 34

Siig BSS A?

Vhs del aw 17

aie awt|

Each number is divided by factors common to at least two of

them. When no more divisions are possible, multiply together
all the numbers you have divided by, and the numbers in the
bottom row, to obtain the least common multiple.
8
66 Figuring
BX2ZX2X2xK3
X17 x4 = 3264

When the numbers involved are very large it will be quicker to

use the GCM of the numbers as the first divisor:
\
Find the LCM of 7535 and 11645.
The GCM of 7535 and 11645 is found to be 685. Dividing by
the GCM, we obtain:

685)7535, 11645

11 17

Therefore the LCM is

685 <x 11 x 17 = 128095

Find the LCM of 4781 and 6147.

The GCM of 4781 and 6147 is found to be 683.

4781 x 6147
es 43029

The lowest common multiple of two numbers is the same as the

product of the two numbers divided by their highest common
factor. (Conversely the GCM and the LCM multiplied together
gives the product of the two numbers.)
When the LCM ofa list of numbers is wanted find the LCM
of the first two numbers, then the LCM of the third number and
the LCM of the first two, and so on:

Find the LCM of 385, 231, 165, and 105.

 GCM and LCM 67
The GCM of 385 and 231 is 77. Therefore the LCM of 385
and 231 is

385 x 231
= 1155
77

The GCM of 165 and 1155 is 165. Therefore the LCM of 165
and 1155 is

165 x 1155
= 1155
165 :

Now the GCM of 1155 and 105 is 105. Therefore the LCM of
1155 and 105 is

1155 x 105
== 115
105 ;
 8

SQUARES and SQUARE

ROOTS°

The square of a number is that number, multiplied by itself. It

is also — and this explains why it is called a square — the number
of units in a square grid having sides of a given number of units.
Think of building up squares by laying down marbles — the
. , 000
first square will have one: 0, the second 96, the third 000
000 and
so on. One, four, and nine, are thus the squares.
So 4 squared is 4 x 4. It is written with a figure * (4%) and is _
known as the second power of four. Four squared equals 16,
and 4 is therefore the square root of 16 - which is written
thus: +/16.
The sequence of squares and the sequence of odd numbers
have what at first sight seems a mysterious relationship:

l= l=/]?
1+3= 4=2'
14+345= 9=3?
14+34+54+7=l1=#
14+3454-74+9=23=5
1434547494 11=36=6'
14-34+54749+14+13=9=7
And so on.
68
 Squares and Square Roots 69
. But if you think of the square of marbles the reason for it becomes
clear:
eee
an 7eG
ololololololololo
O O/OJO}O} O]O/O}O
OO ojojolojojojo
O OO O|OjC/ojojo
0000 CO]C/ojojo
O000 0 Ojojojo
OO0000 00/0
OO0000C0O0 0
OOOO OOOO
To make up the second square one must add 3 marbles to the
1 square. To make up the third square one must add 5, and so on.
This diagram also makes it clear why another relationship
holds: any triangle number added to the next highest triangle
number always gives a square number. (Triangle numbers, as
their name suggests, are those that can be made from units in a
triangular display: 3, 6, 10, and so on.)

Gathde GD
ihe Gis) 9)
O QO CID
OO OOO Ley
The triangular numbers have another special relationship to
the square numbers: multiply any triangle number by 8 and add 1
and you have a square number. The sequence runs:
7o Figuring
Trianglel=1 (8x1) +1=9 =3?
Triangle2=3 (8x3) +1=2 =5?
Triangle3 =6 (8 x6) +1=49 =7?
Triangle4 = 10 (8 x 10) +1=81 =9?
Trianglee5=15 (8 x 15)4+1e121=112

Note that the odd sequence of numbers 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, etc shows up

once again.
Mathematicians have been fascinated by the connections
between square and triangle numbers, and between ordinary
numbers and numbers of special shape for centuries. They are
still trying to find new connections between them.
Numbers ending in 5 can be squared mentally very easily:
ignoring the 5 multiply the figures left by the number which
follows it numerically, insert 25 after the product of this multi-
plication and you have the square of the original number. For
example: 652 = 6 x 7 = 42, with 25 at the end; 4225; and
1452 = 14 x 15, which is 210, with 25 on the end; 21025.
Numbers made up only of threes have a special pattern of
squares:

332.=3,1089
3342. ==.1 10839
3333? = 11108889
333332 = 1111088889
3333332 = 111110888889

and so on.
Squares for other numbers can be found quickly by using the
methods described in the chapter on multiplication.
 Squares and Square Roots 71
FINDING SQUARE ROOTS

This is the conventional method of finding square roots:

First divide the number up into groups by putting a mark over
every second figure — starting with the units digit, going on to the
hundreds digit and so on. For instance if the problem is to find
the square root of 233289 set it out like this:

233289
Now find the largest number the square of which is less than 23:

: 233289(483
16
88)732
704
963)2889
2889

this is 4 — which gives you the first figure of the answer. Insert
this to the right of the number, and subtract 4? (16) from 23.
Now bring down the next group of figures — 32 — and put it after
the remainder just obtained to make 732.
The first part of the divisor of 732 (obtained by doubling 4,
that part of the root you have already obtained) is 8. The final
digit of the divisor, and the second of the root itself, is arrived
at by trial. It will be the largest number that, inserted after the 8,
and then used to multiply the number thus obtained, will give a
product of less than 732. It turns out in this case to be 8 - for
8 x 88 = 704, and 732 — 704 = 28.
72 Figuring
Now go through the same process again:
Bring down the next group of numbers, 89, to make
2889. .
Arrive at a divisor by doubling 48 (the part of the root already
arrived at). This gives you 96.
Find by trial the next number of the square root (in this case
the final one), which will also be the last digit of the divisor. It
turns out to be 3, and you now have the complete root, 483,
which can be checked by multiplying it by itself.

Square roots by factors. Square roots can also be found by

breaking numbers down into factors which are the squares of
known numbers (4, 9, 16, 25, and so on). Multiplying together
the square roots of the factors will then give the square root of
the number.
For instance the number 20736 is found to have the factors
4x4x4x4x 9x 9. The square root is then 2 x 2 xX 2 X
2 x 3 x 3, which equals 144.
Both these methods are time consuming however — and there
are shortcuts which, givenalittle practice, allow you to arrive at
square roots mentally. First you must learn the table of squares
of numbers from | to 9 by heart:

number square
1 1
2 4
3 9
4 16
5 25
6 36
7 49
8 64
9 81
 Squares and Square Roots 73
You will see from this table that any square ending in 1 will have
a root ending in 1 or 9. A square ending in4 will have a root end-
ing in 2 or 8. A square ending in 9 will have a root ending in
3 or 7. A square ending in 6 a root ending in 4 or 6, and a square
ending in 5 a root ending in 5. So any number that is a perfect
square will end in 1, 4, 9, 6, or 5, and, with the exception of 5,
the final number of the square will indicate two possible values
for the last digit of the square root.
This table is the basis of a quick method of finding square
roots. To find the root of a four-figure number first break the
number into two groups of two digits. For example 6241 breaks
into 62 and 41.
Now consider the group with the thousands and the hundreds
digits. We know that the square root we are looking for will have
two digits — to find the first we think were 62 stands in relation
to the memorised table of squares. It is less than 64 but more
than 49, so the highest possible first digit of the root is 7. We must
now find the units digit of the square root. We know from our
table that it must be 9 or 1 — for only they give squares ending
in 1. To decide which take the number already arrived at as
the first number of the root — in this case 7, multiply it by itself
plus 1. If the product is more than the first two figures of the
number for which you are finding the root take the lower of
the two possible digits figures - in this case 1, to arrive at the
square root, if it is Jess take the higher of the two possible figures
-7 xX (7+ 1) =7 x 8 = 56, which is less than 62. The square
root of 6241 is therefore 79. Here is another example.
To find the square root of 4096.
40 lies between 36 and 49, so the first figure of the square
root is 6. The second figure could be 4 or 6. 6 x 7 = 42, which
is more than 40 so we take the lower of the possible units digits.
The square root is therefore 64.
When the square has five or six figures we know the square
74 Figuring
root will have three. To find the square roots of numbers up to
40000 you must remember more squares — those up to 20:

number square
11 121,
12 144
13 169
14 196
15 225
16 256
17 289
18 324
19 361
20 400

With this table memorised you can set about finding the square
root of longer numbers which are perfect squares. Let us take an
example.
To find the square root of 15129.
First divide the number into two groups of digits by taking
out the last two figures. This gives:

151 29

From the table you know that 151 falls between the squares of
12 and 13 - which are 144 and 169. The first two figures of the
root you are extracting will therefore be 12 — the square root of
the lower figure. To find the final figure you use the method
already described: the number from which you are extracting the
square root ends in a 9, the digit you are looking for must
therefore be a 3 or a 7. To find which add 1 to 12 (the first figures
of the root which you have already arrived at) and multiply the
sum by 12. The product, 156, is greater than 151 so you take the
 Squares and Square Roots 75
lower of the two possible digits. You now have the complete
square root of 15129, it is 123.
Here is another example.
To find the square root of 30276.
Divide the number into two groups of digits as before:

302 76

From the table we know that 302 falls between the squares of
17 and 18. The first two digits of the square root are therefore 17.
The number ends in 6 so the final figure must be 4 or 6.
17 x 18 = 306, this is greater than 302, so you take the lower
of the two possible digits to arrive at the square root of 174. If
the number from which the square root is to be extracted is
higher than 40000 you use aslightly different method.
For example, to extract the square root of 537289. First break
it up into groups of two figures, starting from the right:

53 72 89
To find the hundreds figure of the square root go to the first
memorised table. 53 stands between the squares of 7 and 8. The
lower of these numbers is our first figure, 7.
To find the tens figure we must find the difference between 53
and the square of 7, that is between 53 and 49.

53-49 =4
We now put 4 before the left-hand digit of the second group of
figures in the number from which we are extracting the square.
This gives 47. We divide this number by twice the figure already
arrived at as the first in the square root — 7 — plus 1. This gives
us 15
76 Figuring

= = 3, with remainder 2

(note that you are obtaining the quotient which will give the least
remainder above or below — the remainderyis the number that
must be added to or subtracted from the dividend to bring it to
the nearest multiple of the divisor).
The quotient thus obtained is the tens digit of the square root
we are extracting, so the first two digits of the root are 73.
We know that the units digit must be 7 or 3, for the number
ends in a 9. As the quotient obtained, 3, was greater than the
remainder, 2, we take the smaller of the two possible figures and
arrive at the complete square root of 733.
When the quotient is smaller than the remainder take the larger
of the two possible figures as the units digit.
 9

CUBES and CUBE ROOTS

You will remember that square numbers could be illustrated by

rectangular arrays of marbles. Cubes can be illustrated with
square building blocks. You build a cube by adding layers of
blocks to a square until there are as many layers of blocks as there
are blocks in one side of the square.
A square made up of only 1 block is also 1 block deep. A square
with a side of 2 blocks long will be made into a cube by adding
another layer — there are 4 blocks in each layer and 8 in the
whole cube.

2X*2x2=8

A square with sides 3 blocks long contains 9 blocks, and a cube

with sides of 3 blocks three times as many:

3M3% 327

Going on up, enlarging the cube by one unit each time, we find
the fourth cube contains 64 blocks, the fifth 125, and so on.
A cubic number is one obtained by multiplying a whole number
by itself, and then by itself again. The cube root is the original
number - the whole number you started with. Cubes are, as I
77
78 Figuring
said earlier, written with a superior 3. So 64 can be written as 4°.
4 on the other hand can also be written as *4/64, that is to say
the cube root of 64.
Another way of indicating the cube root of a number is by
what is called a fractional index: \

64%

or, in words, 64 raised to the power of 1 over 3.

The cubic numbers, like the square numbers, have a special
relation to the odd numbers:

yeaeq) ae
2=8 =3+45
383=27 =749+411
4864 =134154+17419
58 = 125 = 21 + 23 + 254 274 29
6? = 216 = 31 + 33 + 35 +37 +39 + 41
73 = 343 = 43 + 45 4.474 49 4+51 +53 455
and so on.

And cubic numbers, like square numbers, have a special

relationship to triangular numbers: it is an odd one. If the cubic
numbers are added up in order (13, 13 + 28, 15 + 23 + 33,
and so on) the sums arrived at are the squares of the sequence of
triangular numbers.
 Cubes and Cube Roots 79
Be Je >
1 = triangle number 1
ee
3 = triangle number 2
13+ 28+ 3%§= 36= 63
6 = triangle number 3
18 + 23 + 33+ 48 = 100 = 102
10 = triangle number 4
1? 28 S38 e i4* + SB 225 = 152
15 = triangle number 5
13 + 28 + 38 + 48+ 534 6§= 441 —212
21 = triangle number 6
13 + 23 + 334+ 48+ 534 63+ 73 = 784 = 282
28 = triangle number 7
13 + 28 + 38 + 43 + 58 + 63 + 73 + 83 = 1296 = 362
36 = triangle number 8
and so on.

EXTRACTING CUBE ROOTS

The most common conventional way of extracting cube roots

is by factors — here, for example, is how you extract the cube root
of 474552 by this method:
80 Figuring
2)474552

2)237276
2)118638
3)59139
3)19773
3)6591
13)2197
13)169
13)13
1

The figure 474552 may thus be expressed as:

ore ts"

= 34/28 x 33 x 133 =2x3

474552 x 13=78

But there are simpler methods for extracting the roots of numbers
which are exact cubes — I will show first how it can be done for
numbers of up to six digits.
Again there is a table to remember, this time of the cubes of
the numbers from | to 10:
 Cubes and Cube Roots 81

number cubes
1 1
8
27
64
125
216
343
512
729
OND 1000
—UT
LY
SW
SM

The first thing to notice about this table is that the numbers
from 0 to 9 all occur. If a number is cubic one can therefore
determine the units figure of the cube root immediately. If a
cubic number ends in 1, 4, 5, 6, 9, or 0 its cube root will end in the
same number. If it ends in 2 the cube root will end in 8, and if it
ends in 8 the cube root will end in 2. Similarly if the number
ends in 7 the units digit of the cube root will be 3, and if it ends
in 3 the units digit of the cube root will be 7.
You will also need this table when you come to determine
the tens digit.
If a cube has four, five, or six digits the root will contain two.
To extract the root first divide the number into two groups by
counting back three places from the units digit. For instance if
you are extracting the cube root of 50653 divide it thus:

50 653

Find the first digit of the cube root by referring back mentally
to the table of cubes. 50 falls between 27 and 64 - that is between
33 and 43: the tens figure of the cube root you are finding will
be the root of the lower number - in this case 3.
82 Figuring
Now you must find the units digit, and you know from the
table that as the cubic number ends in 3 its cube root will end
in 7.
The cube root you are seeking is therefore 37. Here is another
example.
\
To find the cube root of 681472.
First divide the number into groups:

681 472

681 falls between the cubes of 8 and 9. The tens unit is therefore
8. The whole number ends in 2, the cube root therefore ends
in 8. The cube root is 88.
To extract the cube root of longer cubic numbers — those with
seven, eight or nine digits - is almost as simple once you have
learnt yet another table:

Xx x
1 1
2 7
3 9
4 5
5 2
6 8
7 6
8 2
9 4
10 10

A number with seven, eight, or nine digits will have a cube root
with three digits. To find the root we again begin by dividing
the cubic number into groups. Moving from right to left make a
 Cubes and Cube Roots 83
break every three digits. For example to find the cube root of
92345408 first divide it thus:

92 345 408

To find the hundreds unit of the cube root think back to the
table of cubes from 1 to 10. 92 falls between the cubes of 4 and 5,
so 4 is hundreds unit of the root we are extracting. The units
digit — the terminal figure of the cube root — must, we know, be 2,
for the last digit of the cubic number is 8.
Now we must find the tens digit. To do this first add up the
odd digits of the original number —the first, third, fifth, seventh,
and (if it is there) ninth figures in the number, reading from
right to left. Subtract from this number the sum of the even
figures in the number (the second, fourth, sixth, and eighth
aigits) added up in the same way. If the total of the even figures is
greater than that of the odd figures add 11 to the latter before
subtracting.
In the example this gives us:

8+4+442=18

(the sum of the odd digits) from which we subtract

04+54+349=17

(the sum of the even digits) to get a remainder of 1.

Now refer back to the table with columns X and Y. Find in
the X column the number just obtained as a remainder and note
the number opposite it in the Y column. Add together the two
digits of the final root which you already have (the hundreds
and the units digits) and subtract from the sum the figure you
have just obtained from the Y column of the table.
84 Figuring
In the example the remainder was 1, this stands opposite 1 in
the table, so we subtract that figure from the sum of 4 and 2

A teDebio seb ale 5

which gives us the tens unit of the ibchagbt: The complete
root is 452.
If the sum of the hundreds and units digits is less than the
figure obtained from column Y of the table add 11 to that sum
before making the subtraction. Here is another example.
Find the cube root of 665338617.
Divide the number into groups:

665 338 617

The hundreds digit of the root is 8 as 665 stand between the

cubes of 8 and 9.
The units digit is 3 as the number ends in 7.
The sum of the digits in the odd places is

7+6+34+5+6=27

which is subtracted from the sum of the digits in the even places

27-(1+8+3
+6) =27-—18=9

In the table, 9 in the X column stands opposite 4 in the Y

column. The sum of the digits already arrived at (8 + 3 = 11)
minus the digit from the Y column, gives us the tens unit of the
cube root (11 — 4 = 7).
The cube root is therefore 873.
 Cubes and Cube Roots 85
EXTRACTING FIFTH ROOTS

When a number has been raised to the fifth power the root is
surprisingly easy to find.
If the fifth power has between six and ten digits the root will
have two.
The units digit of all fifth roots is the same as the units digit of
the fifth power of the number, so all you have to find is the tens
digit. To do this divide the number at the fifth place, reading
from right to left. For example if the number you are finding the
fifth root of is 33554432 divide it thus:

3352954432

For the next step you need another table — that of fifth powers of
numbers from | to 10:

number Jifth power

1 1
2 32
3 243
4 1024
5 3125
6 7776
7 16807
8 32768
9 59049
10 100000

When you have committed this to memory you can quickly

determine where the left-hand group fits in the table. In the
example 335 comes between 35 and 4°, the fifth root of 33554432
is therefore 32; here as with square and cube roots the root of
86 Figuring
the lower of the pair of powers that bracket the value of the first
group in the table gives you the first figure of the root you are
seeking. Here is another example.
Find the fifth root of 1073741824.
First divide at the fifth place:

10737 41824

10737 comes between the fifth powers of 6 and 7 in the table, the
fifth root is therefore 6 followed by the final digit of the original
number: 64.

By similar methods other roots can be found..Seventh, ninth,

thirteenth, twenty-first and twenty-sixth roots are like fifth roots
in that the power and the root have the same terminal digit —
you can extract the root therefore by constructing and memorising
tables of powers from 1 to 10. Other roots — fourth, sixth, and so
on, can be extracted by the same methods as those described here
for square, cube, and fifth roots; try working some of these out
for yourself.
 10

PERCENTAGES, DISCOUNTS
and INTEREST

Percentages — fractions expressed as parts per 100 - are par-

ticularly useful in money sums: rates of interest and discounts
are both calculated in this way. There are a number of shortcuts
that can be used to simplify percentage sums and make them
easier to do mentally.
For instance the problem may be to discount £400 by 30 per
cent. The normal calculation runs as follows:

400 x 30
== 120
100

Deduct 120 (30 per cent of 400) from 400 to arrive at the answer:

400 — 120 = £280

A quicker method, that can be done mentally, is to deduct 30 per

cent from 100 — which gives you 70. 70 per cent of £100 is £70,
so 70 per cent of £400 is four times as much — £280.
Even if you are not working with round figures, and the
amount to be discounted has pence as well as whole pounds (or
cents as well as dollars, or paise as well as rupees — the basic
calculations are of course the same for any decimal currency)
87
88 Figuring
the method of arriving directly at the discounted price, rather
than finding the amount of the discount and deducting it, works.
For instance to find the discounted price of a sewing machine
that is offered at a discount of 30 per cent on the marked price of
£185-60 you must calculate 70 per cent of that sum. This
involves multiplying by 70 and dividing by 100 - or, (having
divided both by 10) multiplying by 7 and dividing by 10.
To divide by 10 shift the decimal point one place to the left;
you can then arrive at the answer by a simple multiplication by 7:

18-56 x 7 = 129-92

which gives the answer of £129-92 directly.

Similarly, to find £496-20 less 20 per cent, multiply 49-62
by 8 to arrive at the answer of £396-96.
To find what remains when a sum is discounted by 10 per cent
move the decimal point one place to the left in the original
amount and subtract the amount thus arrived at from the original
sum: for example to discount £28-50 by 10 per cent deduct
£2-85 to arrive at the discounted price of £25-65.
A 90 per cent discount leaves 10 per cent of the original price —
a simple shift of the decimal point one place to the left gives the
answer.

When more complicated percentages are being worked out it is

often simpler to break the figures down. For instance to find 323
per cent add 25 per cent to 5 per cent to 23 per cent. By this
method you would arrive at 324 per cent of £280 in the following
way:
 Percentages, Discounts and Interest 89
25 per cent of 280 = 70
10 per cent = 28 so
5 per cent of 280 == 14
23 per cent of 280 (half of 5 per cent) ss 7

324 per cent of 280 9]

Similarly to calculate 674 per cent of £460:

50 per cent of 460 = 230

10 per cent of 460 = 46
5 per cent of 460 (half of 10 per cent) see 3
24 per cent of 460 (half of 5 per cent) 11-50

674 per cent of 460 310-50

The break down can be done in various ways — the sum above,
for instance, could be done like this:

50 per cent of 460 == 1230

124 per cent of 460 (quarter of 50 percent) = 57:50
5 per cent of 460 (tenth of 50 per cent) ees

674 per cent of 460 == 2310-50

Here are two more examples - if the fractions are carefully chosen
quite complicated percentages turn into simple additions of
parts, or parts of parts.

25 per cent of 298 = 74-50

124 per cent of 298 (half of 25 per cent) es 37°25
5 per cent of 298 (fifth of 25 per cent) == = 14-90

424 per cent of 298 == 126-65

go Figuring
To find 524 per cent of £368:

50 per cent of 368 = 184

23 per cent of 368 (twentieth of 50 per cent) = 9-20
\
524 per cent of 368 193-20

The general principle can be applied to any percentage sum -

you will find ways of doing most of them in your head. But
mistakes in money sums are likely to be costly so check the result
by reversing the calculation - having found what 424 per cent
of a given sum is, find what sum your answer would be 424 per
cent of.

SIMPLE INTEREST

Interest paid on a loan or a deposit is also expressed as a per-

centage. This states the amount due each year — the amount to
be paid by the borrower to the lender. When less than a whole
year is involved, the amount due is a fraction of the yearly sum.
Ordinary interest is arrived at by assuming there are 360 days in
the year and writing the fraction as the number of days for which
interest is due over 360. Exact interest is determined on a 365-day
year, and is used where large sums are involved and generally
by banks and financial institutions.
The usual way of doing interest sums is this: multiply the
number of days of the interest period over 360 or 365 by the
amount of the loan by the interest rate over 100. For instance
the ordinary interest on £326 for a period of 60 days at 6 per
cent would be worked out as follows:

60 x 326 x 6
360 x 100
 Percentages, Discounts and Interest 91
_ Cancelling out simplifies the sum to

326
T00 ~ 3-26

This is the interest due.

The 6 per cent and 60 days, and the 360 days of the ordinary
interest year cancel out neatly. This fact can, in less obvious
interest calculations, help you to arrive at methods of doing them
mentally. For instance to find the ordinary interest on £398 for
70 days at 6 per cent (the calculations are to nearest whole
penny):

Interest for 60 days at 6 per cent == 3-99

Interest for 10 days (sixth of 60 days) = -66

Interest for 70 days = 4-64

Or to find the ordinary interest on £426 for 36 days at 6 per

cent:

Interest for 30 days (half of 60 days) = 2-13

Interest for 6 days (tenth of 60 days) = -42

Interest for 36 days =e.2t0

Knowing that ordinary interest of 6 per cent for 60 days is

always one-hundredth of the principal makes all interest sums of
this kind straightforward. When the rate of interest is other
than 6 per cent the method can sometimes be adapted.
For instance to find the interest due on £284 for 54 days at
44 per cent:
92 Figuring
Interest for 60 days at 6 per cent = 2-84
Interest for 60 days at 44 per cent = 2-13
(2-84 less a quarter)
Interest for 6 days at 44 percent = -21

Interest due for 54 days is therefore Sue less 21 pence — that

is £1-92.

COMPOUND INTEREST

If the interest due on a loan is not paid, but allowed to accumu-

late, the sum invested will be larger at the end. of each interest
period. When the interest and the original sum are ‘compounded’
in this way the amount due at the end of each interest period
rises — for interest is not only paid on the original sum, but on
the interest already earned as well. Interest calculated in this
way is called compound interest. Compound interest, like simple
interest, is calculated by multiplying the principal by the period
by the interest rate. In the case of compound interest, however,
the operation must be repeated for each interest period.
If £3000 is lent for a year at 4 per cent simple interest, payable
quarterly the interest due at the end of each period will be £30,
and the total interest earned over the year £120. Over two years
it will earn twice that — £240. Now let us see what happens if the
loan is for £3000, but at 4 per cent compound interest, computed
quarterly, and what is earned over the same period of two years.
 Percentages, Discounts and Interest 93
Principal 3000-00
Interest for lst quarter at 1 per cent 30-00

Principal at the beginning of 2nd quarter 3030-00

Interest for the period of 2nd quarter 30:30

Principal at the beginning of 3rd quarter 3060-30

Interest for the period of 3rd quarter 30-61

Principal at the beginning of 4th quarter 3090-91

Interest for the period of 4th quarter 30-90

Principal at the beginning of 5th quarter 2131-81

Interest for the period of 5th quarter 31-21

Principal at the beginning of 6th quarter 3153-02

Interest for the period of 6th quarter 31-53

Principal at the beginning of 7th quarter 3184-55

Interest for the period of 7th quarter 31-84

Principal at the beginning of 8th quarter 3216-39

Interest at the end of 8th quarter 32-16

TOTAL principal at the end of two years 3248-55

The total interest earned is £3248-55 — £3000, that is £248-55.

The difference between simple and compound interest in this
case is therefore £8-55.
There is no straightforward method of calculating compound
interest mentally, alas, although the shortcuts I have already
described for working with percentages will often make the
calculation quicker.
 Il

DECIMALS
\

Decimals, as I explained in Chapter One, are one way of express-

ing parts of whole numbers. To the left of the decimal point the
value of each place is ten times greater than the value of the
place to its right. To the right of the decimal point each place is
one-tenth of the value of the place to its left.

<SS
S
~<
2 =
2 §
oes
ss
wy
Sos s= 8 =
= § 8 “a = = bay

aS
FSSSSS
uate ce
Me,
te
se hg Ta eS
ReVSRhal
ws Vs 2 cea
ay Sg aae
VS bLee
Seeee
SS Se
Set « >
Ss S$ Ss
&
§
fs
8 &§
=S §$ Ss8 S'S
§SRe
SS ee RSSS AS SS 8

16:3 would be read as 16 and 3 tenths

16-38 would be read as 16 and 38 hundredths
16-384 would be read as 16 and 384 thousandths
16-3846 would be read as 16 and 3846 ten thousandths
16-38468 would be read as 16 and 38468 hundred thousandths
16:384681 would be read as 16 and 384681 millionths

To shift the decimal point one place to the left is to divide by 10.
94
 Decimals 95
To shift it one place to the right is to multiply by 10. This is at
~ once very simple and a potential source of errors — a confusion
of one place about where the decimal point should go will give
you an answer too small or too great by a factor of 10. The rules
though are simple.

In adding and subtracting see that the decimal points stand

directly below one another. The decimal point in the answer
will come in the same place:

39-3
9-0633
1-5161
3-03
46°8

99-6994

In subtracting you may have to add zeros to make up the number

being subtracted from to the same number of places as the
number being subtracted ~ or vice versa:

9-36 from 41-0853421 becomes

41-0853421
9-3600000

31-7253421

or 9-364857 from 12-62 becomes

12-620000
9-364857

3-255143
96 Figuring
In multiplying carry out the calculation first and then find the
place to insert the decimal point by counting as many places in
from the right in the product as there are places in the multiplier
and multiplicand together.

9.4562 *
x 7:0956

67-09941272

There are four decimal places in the multiplier, and in the

multiplicand, and eight therefore in the product. When multi-
plying very small decimal fractions the zeros after the decimal
point can be ignored until the final process of inserting the point
in the product:

-000056
x 0923

First of all multiply 56 by 923 to obtain the product 51688. In

the multiplicand there are five digits following the decimal point,
and in the multiplier four digits. Therefore the product is
000051688.
The same principle applies when multiplying more than two
numbers together: to multiply 3-15 by -315 by 31-5 first find the
product of 315 x 315 x 315, which is 31255875 and count off
six decimal places from the right — the total number of places in
the three numbers being multiplied together.

In division too the same technique is used as with whole

numbers. The placing of the decimal point is, however, easier if
the divisor or dividend is a whole number. This can be achieved
 Decimals 97
_ by shifting the decimal point to the right. Provided the point is
moved the same number of places in both numbers the result of
the division will be the same. For example to divide -7 by -196:
First multiply both the dividend and the divisor by 10. As
both the numbers are multiplied by the same number, the
quotient remains unaltered. :7 becomes 7 and :196 becomes 1-96.
Now carry out the division:

1-96)7-00(3-57
5-88
1-120
980
” 1400
1372

28
And so on.

More generally the best rule is to move the decimal point to

the right in the divisor as many places as are necessary to make it
a whole number. Move the decimal point the same number of
places to the right in the dividend. Insert the decimal point in
the quotient as soon as any figure is used from the decimal part
of the dividend in working out the problem.
Some fractions cannot be expressed as decimals with a finite
number of places; among these are fractions like 1/3 (-3333333
etc) and 1/7 (-142857142857142857 etc) which have single
figures or groups of figures recurring infinitely. But it is not
only in cases like this that some decimal places are ignored. When
starting a calculation you should decide what degree of accuracy
is required. It is not necessary to continue any operation beyond
4
98 Figuring
the third or fourth decimal place in most practical calculations.
To determine that a number is correct to a certain number of
decimal places you must look at the rejected figures. If the result
is to be correct to four places you must know what number stands
in the fifth place. If it is 5 or greater add one to the preceding
digit. For example in the multiplication

13-064973
x O50

327-081599055

the answer runs to nine places of decimals. This, correct to one

place of decimals is 327-1, for 8 is greater than 5 and 1 is added
to the preceding figure. Correct to two places the answer 327-08, ~
and to three places 327-082. Correct to four places it is 327-0816.
As the easiest mistake to make with calculations involving
decimals is putting the decimal point in the wrong place it is
always as well to make sure that you have a rough idea of the
magnitude of the expected answer. In an earlier example we
multiplied 3-15 by -315 by 31-5. This is, very roughly, 3 x 1/3 x
30, 1/3 of 3 is 1 and the answer should have two significant figures
in the region of 30, followed by decimal places. Having made this
rough check you can have confidence in the answer 31-255875
when you arrive at it.
 12

FRACTIONS

In the definitions at the beginning of this book I described frac-

tions. You will remember that a fraction has a numerator — which
tells how many parts you have — and a denominator — which tells
what proportion of a whole those parts are. Thus in the fraction
3/4 the 3 tells how many parts there are, and the 4 that each is a
quarter of a whole. If the numerator and denominator are both
multiplied by the same figure the resulting fraction will have the
same value as the original one — 3/4 or 6/8 or 9/12 are all the same
proportion of a whole. It is usually easiest to deal with fractions
reduced to their lowest terms, however, and if numerator and
denominator have a common factor both are divided by it to
achieve this reduction. 9/27 for instance is divided by the largest
common factor of 9 and 27, which is 9, to arrive at the lowest
terms of the fraction, 1/3.
Common fractions — fractions with a numerator and a
denominator are either proper fractions — those which have a
larger denominator than numerator, improper fractions — those in
which the numerator is greater than or the same as the denomina-
tor or mixed numbers — which consist of a proper fraction and a
whole number. Any improper fraction can also be written as a
mixed number and any mixed number as an improper fraction,
22 for instance as 11/4.
99
100 Figuring
Adding fractions. To add fractions we must find a common
denominator. That is to say we must add quarters to quarters
and eighths to eighths, not quarters to eighths. The simplest
way to find a common denominator is to multiply the denomina-
tors together. We know that a fraction ig not changed when its
numerator and denominator are divided or multiplied by the
same figure, so both numerator and denominator can, for each
item in the addition be multiplied by the product of the other
denominators. For example:

The common denominator in this problem is the product of all

the denominators in the original fractions. That is:

2x3x5x4=120

Thus the problem is represented as:

24 30 »=660 + 40 + 24+ 30
on <n tap tap __00 + 40+ 24+ 90
120 120 ' 120 120
bas Te fe
"120 660° 60

You will remember from Chapter 7 the procedures for find-

ing the least common multiple of a group of numbers. The most
convenient common denominator will be the least common
multiple of the denominators of the fractions being added or
subtracted. In the example above for instance we could have
used 60 rather than 120 as the common denominator. If we add

1
seg Tere
 Fractions 101

-the common denominator is 12, as it is the biggest denominator

and each of the other denominators are exactly divisible into it.
We change the other denominators to 12 and the problem
becomes:

Dene ce ales 8b
ab Zed
D'p'n nD 12
mele SS
rey nd emer

When subtracting fractions you go through the same process of

finding a common denominator and multiplying the numerators.
For instance to subtract 9/11 from 1/2: 2 x 11 = 22 which
is your common denominator. The problem then becomes

And addition and subtraction can of course be combined:

bo cde 1% 8
Geers
Here the common denominator is2 x 5 X 3 X 4 = 120. There-
fore the problem becomes:

oO 72 40 90 60+72+40-—0
10 ' 120° 120 120 120
_ 82 41
~ 120 60

When adding and subtracting mixed numbers it is less confusing

102 Figuring
if you deal with the whole numbers first, and then the fractions.
For example 6} + 24 + 14 + 34 becomes:

een 1 +5+ 7=12eS

13 +545
+2414 lee Male

=12 eoub Zomdw ating’ |

Sa Ges
ppeee te etl
8
== 12
8
--—
3
=1241=13
When multiplying by fractions the numerator of the product
is obtained by multiplying the numerators of the two factions
and the denominator of the product by multiplying the
denominators. The product will of course be smaller than the
two original fractions - } of } is 4. The method is very simple.
For example to find the product of 5/8 x 6/9:

To divide one fraction by another — to find for instance how

many eighths there are in a half - invert the fraction you are
dividing by — the divisor - and multiply the numerators and
denominators together, as in multiplication. For example
3/7 divided by 6/9:

In multiplications and divisions the work can be simplified if,

whenever possible you cancel — that is divide a numerator and a
 Fractions 103
-denominator by the same number. For example 3/4 x 8/9
becomes 1/1 x 2/3, or 2/3 when the 4 and the 8 and the 3 and
the 9 have been cancelled.
Cancelling can be done in more than one step: a numerator
may have different factors in common with different denomina-
tors and vice versa. It can of course only be done when all the
signs in the calculation are multiplication signs.
 13

THE CALENDAR

In this chapter I will show you how to determine what day of the
week any date fell on or will fall on. Any date, that is, since
15 October 1582 when our present calendar — the Gregorian
calendar — was instituted.
In order to do this mentally you will need to commit four
tables to memory. The first is so simple it hardly justifies the
name. Here it is:

TABLE I
¢ 14-21" 28

The second is more complicated:

TABLE II

January corresponds to 0
February corresponds to 3
March — corresponds to 3
April corresponds to 6
May corresponds to 1
June corresponds to 4
104
 The Calendar 105
july corresponds to 6
August corresponds to 2
September corresponds to 5
October corresponds to 0
November corresponds to 3
December corresponds to 5

The third is longer still:

TABLE III

1900 corresponds to 0
1904 corresponds to 5
1908 corresponds to 3
1912 corresponds to 1
1916 corresponds to 6
1920 corresponds to 4
1924 corresponds to 2
1928 corresponds to 0
1932 corresponds to 5
1936 corresponds to 3
1940 corresponds to i
1944 corresponds to 6
1948 corresponds to 4
1952 corresponds to 2
1956 corresponds to 0
1960 corresponds to 5
1964 corresponds to 3
1968 corresponds to 1
1972 corresponds to 6
And so on.

Your starting point will, of course be a date — a specific day of a

given month of a given year.
106 Figuring
At the end of your calculation you will have a figure which
will correspond to a day of the week in the following way:

TABLE IV

Sunday oo
Monday 1
Tuesday 2
Wednesday 3
Thursday 4
Friday 5
Saturday 6

Toarrive at this final figure you carry out the following operations:

1. Reduce the date of the month to a figure less than 7 by

subtracting the appropriate multiple of 7 from Table I.
2. To the figure thus obtained add the figure standing opposite
the relevant month in Table II. Again cast out the sevens.
3. If the year falls after 1900 and is a leap year add the figure
obtained after operation 2 to the figure standing opposite the year
in Table III, unless the month is January or February, in which
case add one less than the figure shown. If the year is not a leap
year add to the figure obtained after operation 2 the figure standing
opposite the previous leap year, plus the difference between that
leap year and the year in question. (If, for instance, the year in
question is 1942 add to 1 — which is the number standing opposite
1940 - the difference between 1940 and 1942, to arrive at the figure
to add to the total obtained after operation 2.)
4. Having arrived at the total of date, month, and year figures
cast out the sevens again (as in operation 1) to arrive at the figure
which will correspond to the required day of the week in Table IV.
 The Calendar 107
The operations described here will give you the day of the week
for any date in the 20th century. (Remember by the way that 1900
is not a leap year, so there is no need to reduce by one unit for
January or February.) To find what day dates between 1582 and
the beginning of the 20th century fell on you need to add a
century figure to the figure obtained for the equivalent year in
the 20th century. For the 19th century this is 2, for the 18th
century it is 4 and for the 17th century 6. Here are some
examples.

What day of the week was 9 April 1932?

First 9 is reduced by subtracting 7. The date figure is therefore 2.
In Table II the figure corresponding to April is 6. This is added
to 2.
2+6=8
Cast out the 7, and you are left with 1. From Table III you find
that 1932 stands against 5.
5+1=6
From Table IV you get the day of the week you are looking for.
The number 6 signifies Saturday; 9 April 1932 was a Saturday.

What day of the week was 23 January 1940?

Reduce 23 by casting out the sevens:
“id = 2. Z
Add the number for the month of January:
2+0=2
Add the number for the year:
2+1=3
but in this case it is leap year and the month is January so sub-
tract 1:
312
which, by reference to Table IV, we find stands for Tuesday:
23 January 1940 was a Tuesday.
108 Figuring
What day of the week was 19 October 1942?
Reduce 19 by casting out the sevens:
19— 14=5
Add the number for the month of October:

The leap year before 1942 is 1940. This has the number 1,
which you add to the difference between 1940 and 1942:
14+2=3
This is added to the result of the previous operation:
3+5=8
We cast out the sevens, to get the answer 1, which tells us that
19 October 1942 was a Monday.

Table III can be extended into the future to give days of the
week for any year in this century. We will now look at some
examples going further back — to work these out we will need the
century figures, as well as date, month and year numbers.

What day of the week was 9 August 1832?

The date figure (9 — 7) Z
The month figure ze
The figure corresponding to the same
year in the present century 5
The century figure 2

Total 11
Casting out the sevens gives 4; 9 August 1832 was a Thursday.

What day of the week was 2 October 1869?

Date figure 2
Month figure 0
 The Calendar 109
_ Year figure (the figure for the nearest
leap year, ’68, plus the difference
between 68 and ’69) 2
Century figure 2

Total 6
2 October 1869 was a Saturday.

What day of the week was 29 July aun

Date figure (29 — 28) _
Month figure for July :
Figure of ’44 6
Figure for 18th ceniury 4

Total 17
Casting out the sevens leaves 3; 29 July 1844 was a Wednesday.

What day of the week was 26 December 1613?

Date figure (26 — 21) 5
Month figure for December 5
Year figure for 713 (1 + 1) 2
Figure for 17th century 6

Total 18
Casting out the sevens leaves 4; 26 December 1613 was a
Thursday.

Once you have the tables by heart the calculations can be done
mentally at very great speed.

EXACT AGES

If you know a person’s date of birth it should be very easy to

110 Figuring
find out how old he is in years, months and days. And sometimes
it is, for the subtraction can be done like this:

What is the exact age of a person on 12 May 1973 if he was

born on 8 February 1936?
19/3 DielZ
1936 2 8

Jeo)

However, when there are more days in the date being subtracted
than in that being subtracted from, days have to be borrowed.
A month is taken from the bottom line and added to the top line.
For example:

What is the exact age of a person on 12 May 1973 if he was

born on 17 March 1942?
I9is2 55) 512
1942 3 17

17 is greater than 12 so days must be added to the top line. The

third month, March, has 31 days, so 17 is subtracted from
31 + 12, to give the number of days - 26. Before subtracting
the months 1 must be added to the bottom line.
The answer is 31 years 1 month and 26 days. Or again:

What is the exact age of a person on 24 December 1972 if

he was born on 30 August 1939?
1972 12 24
1939 8 30

da 3 225
 The Calendar 111
_ (31 is added to 24 in the top line in the days column, and 1
therefore to the months in the bottom line.)

When the number of months in the top line is smaller than the
number of months in the bottom line add 12 to the top line, and
1 to the years in the bottom line. For example:

What is the exact age of a person on 19 August 1973 if he

was born on 16 October 1942?
IFS SA
1942 10 16

30 eil03
(12 is added to the months column in the top line, and 1 to the
years in the bottom line.) Or again:

What is the exact age of a person on 23 September 1973 if

he was born on 29 November 1947?
LUBA 25
1947>.11" 29

25% 9 24
(30 is added to the days in the top line, and 1 to the months in
the bottom line, 12 is added to the months in the top line and
1 to the years in the bottom line.)
 14

SOME SPECIAL NUMBERS

\

In Chapter Two, when I was writing about the digits, I described

some of their special characteristics — the palindromes created
by the multiplication of 1, 11, 111 etc by themselves for instance,
or the pattern thrown up when one adds together the digits of
products of a series of numbers multiplied by 4.
Here I will say something more about such characteristics.
The personalities of numbers — and of families of numbers — are
such that there are still mysteries to be probed.
In writing of the number 6 in Chapter Two I said it was one
of the group of perfect numbers. Perfect numbers are those
that are equal to the sum of all their divisors that are less than
themselves. This is of course not common: 1+2+3=6,
but 1+3 is less than 9, and 1+2+3-+44-+ 6 is greater
than 12. In fact the second perfect number is 28:

14+2+44+7+144=28

and for the third you must go on to 496:

14+2+44+8+16+
31 + 62 + 124 + 248 = 496

The fourth perfect number is 8128:

112
 Some Special Numbers 113
14244484164
324 644 127+
254 + 508 + 1016 + 2032 + 4064 = 8128

There was a gap of 1400 years between the discovery of the

fourth and fifth perfect numbers. The fifth is 33550336 and the
sixth 8589869056. Even today there are only 17 perfect numbers
known — the seventeenth has 1373 digits.
Another family of numbers I have already touched on are the
triangle numbers. You will remember that it was a charac-
teristic of square numbers that they were equal to the sum of
two adjoining members of the sequence of triangle numbers.
Think of triangle numbers as being built up from rows of
marbles. The first triangle number is 1 - one row, one marble.
As each new row has one more marble than the row before it
the next triangle number is 3 — one marble in the first row, two
in the second. The number of marbles in each new row is the
‘ same as the number of rows in the triangle - and any triangle
number is the sum of a sequence of digits from one upwards.
The first triangle number is labelled T1, the second T2 and so
on. Here are the first seven of them:

Tl (1) =1
T2 (1+2) ang
Pe a's =3) =6
T (14+24 +3+4) 10
PSE 29s 445) =15
ified o e ie ee)
T7 (1424344454647 =28

It will be seen that to find T10 or T22 we must add the sequence
of digits from 1 to 10 or from 1 to 22. This is obviously laborious
and there is a quick method of finding the value of any given
T number. To understand how it works think back to the pattern
 114 Figuring
made by the marbles as we built up the triangle numbers. Here
for instance is T4:

O 3

O
O
ooo :

Turn this triangle through 45 degrees and add another to it to

form a rectangle:

SiBIGKe:
@OO0O
@®@0OO0O
@@@0O
@060
One side of the rectangle has the same number of marbles as the
sides of the triangle. The other has that number plus 1. The
number of marbles in the rectangle can be found by multiplying
the number of marbles on the short side by the number on the
long side — in the example 4 x 5. But the rectangle was made up
from two identical triangles, and the number of marbles in each
can be obtained by dividing the total number of marbles in the
rectangle by 2. This principle can be seen to work for all triangle
numbers. The T number gives the number of rows: the rectangle
will have one side with the same number of marbles as the T
number, the adjacent side will have one more. The product of the
T number and the T number plus 1, when divided by 2, gives the
value of the T number in question. For instance to find the value
of T15:
15 x 16
9 =] 20
 Some Special Numbers 115
_ And to find T20:

20 x 21
= 210
2

Or T236:

236 : 237 — 27966

~

142857 - THE REVOLVING NUMBER

I described some of the oddities of 142857 when discussing the

digit 7 in Chapter Two. Its habit of repeating itself in the total
when the powers of 2 are multiplied by 7 and added, after being
set out in a staggered formation, for instance. Here are some more.
First set out the digits in a circle:

a, 4 Ts
I 2

7 3
es
Now multiply 142857 by the numbers from | to 6:

142857 142857 142857 142857 142857 142857

agI «2 x3 x4 5 x6

142857 285714 428571 571428 714285 857142

116 Figuring
You will see that the number starts revolving — the same digits in
different combinations arrived at by starting from a different
point on the circle. Multiply 142857 by 7 and things suddenly
change: .
142857 \
x7

999999

But there are still oddities in store, for instance if you multiply
142857 by a really big number see what happens.

142857
x 32284662474
4612090027048218

No resemblance to 142857 at first sight perhaps, but divide the

product up into groups of 6, 6, and 4 and see what happens:

048218
090027
4612
ee

142857

The revolving number appears again! Sometimes 142857 hides

deeper than that. For instance in this multiplication the product
seems immune from 142857 extraction:

142857
xX 45013648
6430514712336
 Some Special Numbers 117
_ But divide it into 6, 6, and 1 in the same way as you did last time
and you arrive at the following sum:

712336
430514
6

1142856

Treat this total in the same way:

142856
1
—

142857

And you winkle 142857 out.

You can find oddities just by looking at the digits themselves.
For instance if you divide them into two groups, 142 and 857,
the second figure of the first group, multiplied by the third figure
of the first group gives the first figure of the second group:

4x2=8

The sum of the first two figures of the first group gives the
second figure of the second group:

14+4=5
And the sum of all the three figures of the first group gives the
third figure of the second group:

14+442=7
 118 Figuring
To show the next property of 142857 you have to draw up a
table of the products of the number when multiplied by 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, and 6. Horizontally and vertically the digits all add up to 27:

= 27
I oe
27
I 27
I 27
CO
Mm
mR
AQ]
AB 27

Zh 2d hl ey 27

And if you can’t remember the number there is always an easy

way to find it, for 1/7, expressed as a decimal is: -142857 142857
142857 142857 and so on to infinity.

THE NUMBER 526315789473684210

This deceptively straightforward number is, also circular, in the

sense that when it is multiplied by any number from 2 to 200
the product can always be read off from a circle made up of the
figures of the multiplicand.
If the multiplier is 18 or less the break comes after the digit
which is the same as the multiplier, or, where the multiplier has
two figures, the same as the last figure of the multiplier. When
the cut has been made and the two parts joined adda zero to get
the final answer.
As all the digits in the number, except 9 and 0, occur twice
you must know which of the pair to make the break after. The
rule is this: look at the figures following the two you are choosing
between. If the number you are multiplying by is between 2 and
 Some Special Numbers 119
_ 9 make the break before the lower figure, if it lies between 11 and
18 make the break before the higher one. For example:

To multiply 526315789473684210 by 6.

The break must come between 6 and 3 or 6 and 8. The

multiplier lies between 2 and 9 so we make the break between
6 and 3.
We write out the answer by taking the letters that follow 6:
315789473684210, carrying on from the beginning of the number
and joining on 526, and adding 0 to get the answer:

3157894736842105260

Or to multiply 526315789473684210 by 14.

The break can be made between 4 and 7 or 4 and 2. 14 lies
between 11 and 18 so we choose the higher number, and the
answer can be read straight off:

7368421052631578940

To multiply by numbers between 19 and 200 isa little more

complicated. If they are the numbers we have already dealt with
multiplied by 10 — that is 20, 30, 40 and so on up to 180 — there
is no problem, for we can carry out the procedure set out above
and add 0 to the product. Similarly to multiply by 200 carry on
the operation as if multiplying by 2 and add two zeros to the
answer.
19, 38, 57, 76 and 95 give products in which all the digits are
nines except the last two and (in all cases except 19) the first:

526315789473684210
x 19
9999999999999999990
120 Figuring
526315789473684210
x 38
19999999999999999980
526315789473684210
x VW
29999999999999999970
526315789473684210
x 76
39999999999999999960

526315789473684210
x 95
49999999999999999950

These five numbers are special cases. The rule for numbers
between 21 and 29 is this: add 1 to the second digit of the
multiplier. Multiply the special number by making the break
before the lower of the two possible figures. When you reach the
last digit reduce it by 1. Insert 1 at the beginning and 0 at the
end of the number to arrive at the final product. For example:

526315789473684210 x 27

Increase the second digit of the multiplier by 1: 7+ 1= 8.

Now make a cut between 8 and 4 in our special number and
write down the figures

421052631578947368
Reduce the last digit by one. You have:

421052631578947367
Annexe a zero to this number and attach the 1 at the beginning
to get the product,
 Some Special Numbers 121
14210526315789473670

To multiply the special number by numbers between 31 and 37

use the same method as that set out above, but make the break
before the higher of the two possible figures. For example:

526315789473684210 x 34

Increase the second digit of the multiplier by 1 to make 5. Make

the break between 5 and 7 to get the number 789473684210526314.
Reduce the last digit by 1, put a 1 at the beginning and a 0 at
the end to arrive at the final product:

17894736842 105263130

For multipliers between 39 and 48 the method is the same as

for numbers between 21 and 29, but instead of 1 at the beginning
of the product write 2, instead of deducting 1 from the last figure
of the number deduct 2, and instead of adding 1 to the second
digit of the multiplier add 2. For example:

526315789473684210 x 46

Add 2 to the second figure of the multiplier: 6 + 2 = 8. Make

a cut at the lower succeeding figure. You get:

421052631578947368

Reduce the last figure by two units. You get:

421052631578947366

Annexe a zero to this number and attach the number 2 at the

beginning of the number to obtain the product:
122 Figuring
24210526315789473660

When the product lies between 49 and 56 the method is the

same as for the multipliers between 39 and 48, but the cut is
made before the higher of the two possible figures.
When the multiplier is between 58 and 67 the method is as for
those between 39 and 48, but where 2 was added in those cal-
culations 3 is added. The cut is made at the lower figure.
For multipliers between 68 and 75 the method is as for 58 to 67,
but the break is made at the higher figure.
For multipliers between 77 and 85 insert 4 not 3, and cut at
the lower figure and for multipliers between 86 and 94 do the
same but cut at the higher one. For multipliers 96 to 104 insert
5 not 4, and cut at the lower figure. For other numbers similar
methods apply — you can find them by trial and error, right up
to 200. You will find though that 114, 133, 152, 171, and 190
give products made up of a series of nines with two varying digits
and a zero or zeros.

THE NUMBER 1089

This, as I mentioned earlier (Chapter 8) has some peculiar

traits. For instance look at the pattern that is formed when it is
multiplied by the numbers | to 9:

1089 x 1= 1089 9801 = 1089 x 9

1089 x 2= 2178 8712 = 1089 x 8
1089 x 3= 3267 7623 = 1089 x 7
1089 x 4= 4356 6534 = 1089 x 6
1089 x 5 = 5445

Or try this trick: write 1089 on a piece of paper and put it in

 Some Special Numbers 123
_ your pocket. Now ask someone to think of a three-digit number,
the first and last digits of which differ by at least 2. Let us sup-
pose he chose 517. Now ask him to reverse the digits and subtract
the higher number from the lesser (715 — 517 = 198). Finally
ask him to add this number to itself reversed (198 + 891 = 1089).
No matter what number he starts with you will always have the
final answer — 1089 - in your pocket!

THE NUMBER 12345679

This number too appeared earlier (Chapter 2). Now we will

look at some of its other peculiarities. Multiplying it by 3, and
multiples of 3, gives a curious set of patterns:

12345679 x 3 = 37037037
12345679 x 6 = 74074074
12345679 x 9 = 111111111
12345679 x 12 = 148148148
12345679 x 15 = 185185185
12345679 x 18 = 222222222
and so on.

Multiplying by 999999999 gives a number which is a mirror

image of itself:

12345679 x 999999999 = 12345678987654321

Incidentally, this product is a perfect square:

111111111? = 12345678987654321
124 Figuring
PRIME NUMBERS
A positive integer, a whole number, greater than one, that cannot
be expressed as a product of two positive integers, neither of
which is 1, is. known as a prime number. Any positive integer
greater than | that is not a prime number ‘an be expressed as a
product of two or more prime numbers. For example, 4 = 2 x 2;
6=3 x2; 8=4 2 and so on,
The first few prime numbers 2, 3, 5, 7, 11 etc, are easy to spot.
Until 1952 the highest prime number known was 2227 — 1,
which written out in full is
170141183460469231731687303715884105727
Then five higher primes were found by computer the largest
being 22281 — 1. More recently a computer in Sweden has been
used to prove that 28271 — 1] is also a prime number.
Two numbers that were thought to be primes on the other
hand have lately been shown to have factors. They are
1757051 (1291 x 1361) and 222221 (619 x 359)

STRANGE ADDITION

6
oi
1Z 20°28
1525 od5e 45
18 30 42 54 66
PACED OMe re Pe
MN
NY 24 40 56 72 88 104
onnN
SW 120
\o 24 py4h Ode Sho-99 E17) 5135; ¥153
In the table above the horizontal lines are arithmetical pro-
gressions. The difference between each number and the one to
 Some Special Numbers 125
_ its right is twice the figure that stands at the beginning of the
row. (Row 7 for example can be worked out by adding 14, first
to 7 and then to each successive total.)
But how would you find the sum of all the numbers in any
row? There is no need to add them - it is the same as the cube of
the number which stands at the beginning of the row. For
instance the total of the numbers in row 6 is 6 x 6 X 6 = 216.

AND SOME STRANGE FRACTIONS

Here are two fractions, with one as numerator and with two
different uneven multiples of 9 as denominator:

1 1 1 1
gga ME gy a
Now let us take the first fraction and reduce it to decimals, by
dividing the numerator by the denominator:

1/27 = -037037037037 to infinity

and take just two significant figures of the first three places of
decimals: 37. Now watch the pattern this number forms when
multiplied by 3 and its multiples:
37%3 =Iil
37-X6 =222
37 X 9 = 333
37K 12 = 44
37 X 15 = 555
37 x 18 = 666
37 x 21=777
37 x 24 = 888
37 X 27 = 999
126 Figuring
Now take the second fraction and reduce it to decimals:

1/153 <2 *0065359477124183

Take all the significant figures, multiply by 17, and multiples of 17

and watch the pattern formed:

65359477124183 x 17 = 1111111111111111
65359477124183 x 34 = 2222222222222222
65359477124183 x 51 = 3333333333333333
65359477124183 x 68 = 4444444444444444
65359477124183 x 85 = 5555555555555555
65359477124183 x 102 = 6666666666666666
65359477124183 x 119 = 7777777777777777
65359477124183 x 136 = 8888888888888888
65359477124183 x 153 = 9999999999999999

REVERSALS
oy gL 78 sl= 9x9
24 p27 T2= 24x3
47 +2 = 49 %4= 47x2
497 + 2 = 499 994
= 497 x 2

CASTING OUT THE NINES

In other chapters I have described ways of checking answers by

casting out the nines. Casting out the nines — by repeatedly
subtracting 9 until a remainder of less than 9 is left, or, which
amounts to the same thing, dividing by 9 and noting the
 Some Special Numbers 127
remainder — can be done in an oddly simple way. The remainder
when a number has been divided by 9 is the same as the sum of
the digits (or, when that sum gives a number with two digits the
sum of those digits). As the remainder — not the number of nines —
is what you are after you can arrive at it directly. Here are two
examples:

Cast the nines from 67 and find the remainder.

67 9)67(7 6+7=13
—~9 63 34+1=4

58 4
—9

49
~9

40
—9

31
—9

Cast out the nines from 44 and find the remainder.

128 Figuring
44 9)44(4 4t4inn§
~9 36
35 8°
~9
26
a9
17
~9
8

Ph

Pi is the number which expresses the ratio of the circumference

of a circle to its diameter. While it has been proved (by
Lindemann, in 1882) that it cannot be a repeating decimal (in
mathematical terms that it is a transcendental number and not
the root ofa finite algebraic equation with integral coefficients),
it has been calculated to a degree of accuracy that would once
have seemed impossible. The story of the accuracy to which the
value of Pi is known is an interesting one.
In the Bible, the value of Pi given is 3. Archimedes declared
the value of Pi to be less than 3 1/7 but greater than 3 10/71.
The value generally used today, 3-1416, was known at the time
of Ptolemy (A.D. 150). In the 16th century F. Vieta calculated
Pi to ten places of decimals. At the end of the 16th century,
Ludolph van Ceulen calculated thirty-five decimal places. In
his will he requested that these thirty-five numbers be engraved
on his tombstone. This was done, and this number is still known
in Germany as the ‘Ludolphian’ number, in his honour.
 Some Special Numbers 129
Now computers have come to the aid of the mathematicians.
‘In 1949 a group using the rather primitive computer Eniac took
70 hours to calculate Pi to 2037 decimal places, while recently
Daniel Shanks and John Wrench Jnr have published Pi to
100000 places, arrived at in 8 hours and 43 minutes, using an
IBM 7090 system. They used the following formula:

1 1 1
T = 24 an tan-1—
3+ 8 tan tan“!
—
57 + 4 tan i 738

It took them 3 hours and 7 minutes to compute: 8 tan-! 1/57;

2 hours and 20 minutes to compute: 4 tan-! 1/239; 2 hours and
34 minutes to compute: 24 tan-! 1/8; and 42 minutes for con-
version (binary to decimal).
Mnemonics are often used to help remember the digits of Pi.
In the sentence ‘May I have a large container of coffee 2 the value
of Pi to seven places of decimals is contained. The number of
letters in each word corresponds to the successive integers in the
decimal expansion of Pi.
Sir James Jeans came out with the following sentence, in which
the value of Pi is contained to fourteen decimal places:

‘How I want a drink, alcoholic of course, after

the heavy chapters involving quantum mechanics.’
Pe beets Gee 046130 209 79

Adam C. Orn of Chicago published in the literary digest of

Chicago of 20 January 1906, the following poem that contains
Pi to thirty decimal places:

Now I - even I, would celebrate

In Rhymes unapt the great
Immortal Syracusan rivaled never more,
130 Figuring
Who in his wonderous lore
Passed on before,
Left men his guidance
How to circles mensurate.

31415926535897543238452643383279

It is also said that this French poem contains Pi to thirty

places of decimals:

Que j’aime a faire apprendre

Un nombre utile aux sages
Immortal Archiméde Artiste Engénieur
Qui de ton jugement peut priser la valeur
Pour moi ton probleme
A les pareils avantages.

However, there are two mistakes in the last line. Where ‘A les’
represents the digits 1 and 3, the correct digits are 3 and 2.
 IS
TRICKS and PUZZLES
Creative mathematics is divided from play only very vaguely.
It is said that Leibnitz spent a considerable amount of time study-
ing solitaire, and Einstein’s bookshelves were stacked with books
on mathematical games, so this section of tricks and puzzles may
lead you to think more like a mathematician than some of the
methods for solving standard problems:in earlier chapters. Much
of science is after all finding mathematical solutions or descrip-
tions for puzzles posed by nature.

Who Sits by Who

It was a boarding school. In the hostel dining-room the tables

seated ten and on the first day of school, ten boys stood around
one table and argued about who should sit next to whom.
One of the boys suggested that they should sit according to the
alphabetical order of their names. Another proposed that the
seating should be planned according to their heights. And yet
another suggested that they should have a raffle and pick out the
names against the numbers of the seats. The argument continued.
Then the head boy of the class came out with a splendid
proposal: ‘Let us all sit today according to the position we are
standing around the table. Tomorrow we will change the position.
The day after tomorrow we again change the position. This way
each day we will sit in a different order. And when we are back
in the same position as we are sitting in today, we shall celebrate
it with a special dinner, and I shall stand the expenses.’ This
proposition seemed very reasonable to all of them and they agreed.
But the day never came when the head boy had to throw the
131
132 Figuring
special dinner party, even when they had all graduated and were
ready to leave school! There are too many different ways 10 boys
could sit around a table. The possible number of combinations
is given by the calculation:

1x2x3x4x5x6x7x8X9x
10 = 3628800

If instead of 10 there were 13 boys, the possible combinations

would have been:

EMZ XSi AXIS 65:7 KS: KOKO KK 12 ee

6227020800

If there were only two boys, the combination could have been
yust?) 1 2 2.
If there were 3 boys: 1 x2 x3=6.
If there were 4 boys: 1 x2 x3 x 4= 24.
If there were 5 boys: 1X 2x3x4x5= 120.
And if there were 15 boys, the maximum number of com-
binations would be: 1X2xX3x4x5xX6x7x8x9x
10 x 11 x 12 x 13 x 14 x 15 = 1307674365000.
If you consider 25 boys, the number of combinations would be:
Let DiS thie 6 RT Be D910 T2013 xe
L456 16a 1018 O19 X20 eZ 5!22 423% 240K
25 = 1551121004333098598400U000.
It would be eternity before a party of 25 people could exhaust
all the combinations.

The Boy who could only Add

Shambhu came to the city from a remote village. Though he had

never attended school he had been taught by his father how to
add and divide by two. This was all the arithmetic he had, yet,
 Tricks and Puzzles 133
he told a friend, he could rapidly multiply numbers with two
‘digits. The friend was surprised.
“Very well,’ he said, ‘what is 43 times 87?”
Shambhu came up with the answer, 3741, in a few minutes.
This is how he did it.
He took a piece of paper and wrote the number 43 on the left
and 87 on the right. He divided 43 by 2 and divided the answer
by 2 again. He continued dividing by 2 until he reached 1, ignor-
ing the remainders at each stage except the last. Then he doubled
the 87 successively until he had an equal number of figures in
each column.
Having written these two columns of numbers he cancelled
every number in the right-hand column that was opposite an
even number in the left-hand column. Then he added up the
numbers remaining in the right-hand column to get the answer.
This is how his paper looked:

43 87 87
21 174 174
10 ae 696
5 696 2784
eee ee Til
1 2784 Fas

Dividing the Elephants

The Maharaja of an Indian State invited three artists to perform

at his court. He was much impressed, and honoured them with
gold and gifts.
On the day of their departure he presented the three of them
with seventeen elephants, expressing a wish that the oldest of the
134 Figuring
artists should get one-half of the number of elephants, the
middle one one-third of the number, and the last one one-ninth.
When the artists returned home, they were absolutely puzzled:
how could they divide the elephants according to the wishes of
the Maharaja? One-half of the seventeen elephants meant that
the oldest artist gets eight and a half elephants. What good is an
elephant cut in two! They argued, and the leading citizens of the
town were called to settle the dispute. They tried in vain to carry
out the will of the Maharaja for they found themselves con-
stantly held up, by the impossibility of making any share a whole
number of elephants. They were about to give up in despair
when someone in the crowd suggested that the temple priest, a
wise, very learned man, be called in to settle, the affair.
The temple priest listened to the whole story in detail, got up
from his seat and asked to be excused. Then he went back to the
temple and returned in a few minutes with the temple elephant.
‘Now,’ he remarked, ‘the problem can be easily solved. I am
temporarily gifting this temple elephant, and pooling it in with
the other elephants.’
There were altogether eighteen elephants, with the temple
elephant thrown in.
The priest addressed the oldest artist. ‘Here, you take away half
the number of elephants,’ he said and presented him with nine
elephants.
Then he looked at the middle artist and remarked, ‘You are
entitled to one-third of the number, and here are your six
elephants.’ He gave away six elephants to him.
Now there were three elephants remaining including the
temple elephant.
Then to the youngest artist he said, ‘Your share is one-ninth of
the total number of elephants. Therefore you get two elephants.’
He gave away two elephants to him.
The remaining elephant was the temple elephant. ‘I take back
 Tricks and Puzzles 135
the temporary gift I had made.’ So saying he walked away with
his elephant, back to the temple. The will of the Maharaja was
followed to the letter.

The Lily Pond

In India water lilies grow extremely rapidly. In one ponda lily

grew so fast that each day it covered a surface double that which
it covered the day before. At the end of the thirtieth day it entirely
covered the pond, in which it grew. But how long would it take
two water lilies of the same size at the outset and at the same rate
of growth to cover the same pond?
Naturally, one is bound to think that if it takes one water lily
30 days to cover the pond, it should take two water lilies 15 days
to do the same thing — that is, half the time. But this answer is
wrong. Since one plant doubles its surface every day, it will have
half the surface left at the end of the 29th day. Therefore with
two water lilies at the outset, each will cover its half of the pond
at the end of the 29th day, and not before.

Which Vacation?

It was vacation time. Two men were travelling in a train. The

older man asked the young man seated opposite to him how old
he was. The young man replied, ‘The day before yesterday I was
19, and next year I will be 22.’ Can you guess during which
vacation and on what day of the month these men were
travelling?
It must have been the Christmas vacation, and on 1 January,
his birthday being on 31 December. On 30 December he was
still 19. By 1 January he was 20. And on 31 December in the
same year he would be 21 and the next year on 31 December he
would be 22. |
136 Figuring
As Old as the Year of Your Birth

The grandson told his grandfather that in 1932 he was as old as

the last two digits of his birth year and half as old as the century
in which he was born. The grandfathey replied that the same
applied to him too. That’s quite impossible said the grandson.
But the grandfather went ahead and proved his statement. Can
you guess how old the grandson and the grandfather were?
- The grandson was born in the twentieth century and therefore
the first two digits of his birth year are 19. The other two digits
are half of 32, 16. The grandson was born in 1916.
The grandfather was born in the nineteenth century. The first
two digits of his birth year are 18. The rest of the digits doubled
must be equal to 132. Therefore the number we want is half of
132. And that number is 66. The grandfather was born in 1866.
In 1932 he was 66.

Broken Stones

A store-keeper had a stone weighing 40 pounds which used to

weigh goods in 40-pound lots. But one day it fell and broke into
four pieces. He was about to dump them in the dustbin when a
neighbouring store-keeper stopped him and showed him five
pieces of stone he himself had, which were the broken pieces of a
stone that used to weigh 31 pounds. He explained that with
these five pieces he could weigh any whole number of pounds
from 1 to 31, and advised him to check the pieces before throwing
them away.
The store-keeper found to his surprise that with the four stones
he could weigh any whole number of pounds from 1 to 40.
What are the weights of the pieces of stone used by the store-
keeper and his neighbour?
 Tricks and Puzzles 137
The store-keeper’s 40-pound stone broke into pieces weighing
‘1, 3, 9 and 27 pounds. His neighbour’s 31-pound stone broke
into pieces weighing 1, 2, 4, 8 and 16 pounds.

Spreading Rumours

It is amazing how fast rumours can spread. Things witnessed by

just one or two people became common knowledge within a
couple of hours. The speed with which rumours travel is extra-
ordinary. It is fantastic! But when we work the thing out
mathematically, there seems to be nothing fantastic about it.
Let us examine a case and see how it works out.
Manju Guha comes from the city to visit her relatives living
in a small town. She arrives in their home in the morning at
seven o’clock. She has a very interesting piece of news from the
city which she conveys to the family with whom she is staying.
There are 4 members in the family and it takes Manju Guha
exactly 10 minutes to tell them the gossip. Now can you guess
how long it would take for this news to spread around all the
87,300 inhabitants of the town, if each person took just 10
minutes to tell it to another 4 people?

Manju Guha arrives at 7 am

At 7 am the news is known to 1
It takes her 10 minutes to convey the news to 4
By 7.10 am the matter is known to (1 + 4) 5
Each of the four hastens to tell another.
So by 7.20 am the gossip is known to 5 + (4 x 4) 21
By 7.30 am the gossip is known to 21 + (16 x 4) 85
By 7.40 am the gossip spreads to 85 + (64 x 4) 341
By 7.50 am to 341 + (256 x 4) 1365
By 8 am to 1365 + (1024 x 4) 5461
By now the rumour gathers momentum and
138 Figuring
By 8.10 am is known to 5461 + (4096 x 4) 21845
By 8.20 am the gossip spreads to 21845 + (16384 x 4) 87381

The news that was known to only one person at 7 am is known

by everyone.in town by 8.20 am, 1 hour and 20 minutes later.
Mathematically the whole calculation cart be condensed into the
following addition:
14+44+(4x44+4x4x44+(4x4x4x)+4x4*x
4x4x4+(4x4x4x4x4x4+(4x4x4x4x
4x4x4+(4x4x4x4x4x4x4xA4)
that is: 1 + 4 + 42 + 48+ 44+ 45 + 46 4 474 48
which equals:
1

16
64
256
1024
4096
16384
65536

87381

The people of this particular town, not being gossip-mongering

types, conveyed the rumour to only 4 people each. But if each
person had shared the rumour with more people, it would have
spread with even greater speed!

How Many Tickets?

Imagine a small railway line with 30 railway stations. Can you

 Tricks and Puzzles 139
guess how many different kinds of tickets, the railway has to have
" printed?
At each of the 30 stations the passengers can get tickets for
any of the other 29 stations. Therefore the number of tickets is:

30 x 29 = 870
Proving the Impossible

Can you prove 1 = 2?

Impossible you think? All you need is a very elementary
application of algebra:
Let
a=b
Then
oop = bX 6
ab
= b?
Subtract a? from either side:
ab — a? = b? — a?
or
a(b — a) = (b + a)(b — a)
Divide both sides by b — a.
Then
a=b-+a
Ifa =1,
1=1+1
Therefore
Ll=72

All Fours

Can you combine four 4s with any other mathematical symbol

except numbers and produce all the whole numbers from 1
to 18? You may use the four symbols of addition, subtraction,
140 Figuring
multiplication and division, the square root symbol, and the
decimal point. You may, if you wish, put the fours side by
side.

> 4: aR - a
4+4 \ 4
4x4 4
4+4 } 474

pate y, EET
| A 4

payee
4
eet
4
@x4)+4_, 4+44+44VW4=14
4

4+4+44 44
/4 oe
aH 4=7 4+4+4+4=16

(4x 4)-(444)=8 @x4ttan

4 4
Se _= 9 4x4+—=18
x as

Finding the Counterfeit

The gold merchant examined the nine gold coins he had pur-
chased at an auction that morning. He had been told by the
 Tricks and Puzzles 141
auctioneer that one of the coins was counterfeit, and that the
- counterfeit coin weighed a gram less than the genuine ones. He
was baffled as to how to pick it out.
His old clerk came to his assistance. ‘In just two weighings I
can spot it,” he said. And he did just that. How did he do it?
He split the nine coins in three groups of three coins each.
At the first weighing he took two groups and weighed them
against each other. If they balanced, it meant that the third group
contained the counterfeit coin. If they did not, whichever group
weighed lighter contained the bad coin. Now he knew which
group contained the counterfeit coin. In the next weighing, he
took two of the three coins from the group containing the
counterfeit coin and weighed them against each other. If they
balanced the third coin was counterfeit. Otherwise the lighter one
in the balance was counterfeit.

Transformations

Can you write 23 with only twos, 45 with fours and 1000 with
only nines?
Yes!
2242/2 44+4/4 999+ 9/9

The Millionaire and the Merchant

It was a beautiful afternoon, the Ist of June. A millionaire walked

into a pub to have a drink. He was joined bya local merchant.
In the course of conversation, the merchant made a proposition.
He offered to pay the millionaire £1000 a day for the rest of
the month, starting from that very day, and in return he ex-
pected only pence. Just one penny on that first day, double that,
2 pence, the next day, 4 pence on the third day, and so on,
doubling the amount every day for the rest of the month.
I42 Figuring
The millionaire burst into loud laughter, thinking the merchant
a fool, and agreed. They shook hands and the deal was closed.
The merchant took out a bundle of £1000 and handed it over
to the millionaire. The millionaire gave the merchant a penny
in return.
It was agreed that they would meet every day in the same
place and at the same time for the rest of the month, to carry
out their bargain. So the next day the millionaire cheerfully took
the bundle of £1000 from the merchant and handed him over
2 pence, And the next day again the merchant handed over the
bundle of £1000 to the mocking millionaire, and in return got his
4 pence. In the first ten days the millionaire received £10000
from the merchant and in return had paid him the mere pittance
of £10-23. :
But by the 17th day, the millionaire felt a little uncomfortable,
when he had to pay 65,536 pence, that is (655-36 to the merchant
in return for the £1000 he got from him, for he saw that next
day he must pay more than he received: 131072 pence, that is
£1310-72.
And when he looked to the future he got very worried indeed.
For day after day, as the merchant handed over his £1000 he got
back from the millionaire amounts many times more than that.
On the last day of the deal, the 30th day, the millionaire had to
liquidate his assets to the last penny in order to honour his
agreement with the merchant.
Can you guess the amount of loss suffered by the millionaire?
On the Ist day the millionaire pays —_1 penny
On the 2nd day he has paid 1 +2 =3
On the 3rd day he has paid3 +4 =7
On the 4th day he has paid7+8 =15
On the 5th day he has paid 15 + 16 = 31
On the 6th day he has paid 31 + 32 = 63
On the 7th day he has paid 63 +- 64 = 127
 Tricks and Puzzles 143

The whole calculation can be represented as:

142+ 224 284 244 25+ 2°= 127

On the. 8th day it is: |

1+2 + 22+ 23 + 24 + 25 4 28 4 27 = 255

and so on.
On the 18th day he begins to pay more than he receives and
on the last day, the 30th of June, the millionaire has to pay a
sum of £5368709-12. The total amount paid by the millionaire
to the merchant in the 30 days works out to

230 — | pence = 1073741823 pence = £10737418-23

whereas he had received from the merchant in the 30 days £30000.

Therefore the loss suffered by the millionaire is equivalent to:

£10737418-23 — £30000 = £10707418-23

Thousands by Eights
s
Can you combine eight 8s with any other mathematical symbol
the
except numbers to represent exactly 1000? You may use
plus, minus, division and multiplication signs.
to
In an earlier chapter of this book, I gave one solution
this problem, but there are many more both simple r and more
complex. Here are some of them:

B+ 8g x8 x 8— 8)—8 = 1000
388—8888 = 1000
3
 144 Figuring

(ee Rae ea)

8((8x 8) + (6x 8))—~8—8—8=1000

(s(8+8) —~<tet*)9— 1000

Telling and Not Telling

A girl, asked how old she was, did not wish to give out her age
directly, and yet did not want to be rude and refuse to give it
all. Therefore she said, ‘My age three years hence multiplied by
three, less three times my age three years ago, will give you my
present age.’ Can you guess her age?
Let us assume her present age is X years. Three years hence her
age will be X + 3 years. Her age three years ago was X — 3
years.
$(X ob 3) (X38)
eeX
Therefore, X = 18, which is her age. Three years hence she will
be 21 and three years back she was 15.

(3 x 21)
— (3 x 15) = 63 — 45 = 18

Guessing Birthdays

You can tell a friend the month and the date of his birth very
easily.
First of all, ask him to keep in mind two numbers, the number
of the month on which he was born and the number of the date
 Tricks and Puzzles 145
of the month. (The months, of course, are numbered 1 to 32,
from January to December.) Then you ask him to multiply the
number of the month by 5, add to this 6, and multiply it by 4,
and then add 9. Once again, ask him to multiply the number, this
time by 5, and add to it the number of the date on which he was
born.
When he finishes the calculations, ask him for the final result
and mentally subtract 165 from it. The remainder is the answer.
The last two digits of the number, give you the date of the month
and the first digit or the first two digits give the number of the
month.
For example, if the final result is 1269, when you subtract 165
you get 1104. From this number you know that he was born on
4 November. The trick behind it is, of course, the 165.
The directions you give your friend are a disguised way of
adding 165 to the number of the month, multiplied by one hun-
dred. When the number 165 is taken away from the total, the
number of the day, and one hundred times the number of the
month are left!

False Promises

Some years back the following advertisement appeared in the

popular press:

UNIQUE OPPORTUNITY! UNIQUE OPPORTUNITY!

PRESSURE COOKER ONLY {1

DELAY MEANS DISAPPOINTMENT

RUSH!!!

AND WRITE FOR THE FREE APPLICATION FORM

OFFER GOOD ONLY WHILE STOCKS LAST
146 Figuring
Housewives did indeed rush to write for free application forms.
Pressure cookers, in those days, were usually sold for £5. In
return for her letter, what each housewife received however
was not an application form — but four coupons which she was
told to sell to her friends at £1 each. She was then to send the
£4 thus collected, along with her own £1 Yo the company. On
receipt of this amount, the company sent her a pressure cooker.
And many housewives did get their pressure cookers for £1 — the
other £4 came from the purses of their friends.
At first, every housewife got her pressure cooker for only £1
and there seemed to be nothing fraudulent about the transaction.
The company kept its promise, and gave the housewives pressure
cookers for £1, and yet was not losing a penny in the bargain.
They got their full price for the goods. ;
However, it was obvious that the whole thing was a kind of a
swindle. People, somewhere must have been losing money. —
Sooner than expected came the time when coupon holders found
it impossible to dispose of the extra four coupons they had to
sell if they were to claim their cooker. The first group of house-
wives, who got their coupons direct from the company, found no
difficulty in finding buyers for them. Each of these housewives
was able to draw four new partners into the deal. And each of
these four new partners had had to dispose of their coupons to
four other partners.
Let us calculate and see how fast the number of coupon holders
increased:

first round 1
second round 4
third round 20
fourth round 100
Sifth round 500
sixth round 2500
 Tricks and Puzzles 147
seventh round 12500
eighth round 62500
ninth round 312500
tenth round 1562500

total 1953125

If everyone in a town of two million joined all would be covered

by the tenth round. But only one-fifth of them would get their
pressure cookers. The rest being left with valueless coupons.

Missing Numbers

Here is a multiplication with more than half of the digits ex-

pressed by X’s. Can you spot the missing digits?

X1X
3X2

X3X
3X2X
X2X5

1X8X30

The last digit in the product is a zero. Therefore the digit in the
third line has got to be a zero. The X at the end of the first line
must be a number that gives a number ending with zero if
multiplied by 2, and with 5 if multiplied by 3, as the number in
the fifth line ends with a 5. Only 5 will do this.
The X in the second line must be 8 - that is the only number
which, when multiplied by 15, gives a number ending with 20
148 Figuring
in the fourth line. It is clear that the first X in line 1 is a 4, because
only 4 multiplied by 8 gives a number that begins with 3 in the
fourth line. Now there will be no difficulty in spotting the
remaining digits:
415
382 .
830
3320
1245

158530

Thirty Rewritten

Can you write 30, using any three identical digits except 5s?
Here are three solutions:

6066 = 16309323.
3093 1330

Dividing the Cake

Three men were travelling in a railway compartment. One of them

was a very wealthy businessman. The other two had food with
them and invited the businessman to join them in their meal.
One man had brought 5 chapathis and the other had 3. The three
of them ate together and the food was shared equally.
On parting, the businessman gave 8 gold coins to the two men,
as a token of his appreciation of their hospitality, and told them
to share the coins in proportion to their contribution of food.
An argument started. The man who had brought 5 chapathis
felt that he should get 6 coins and the other man should get 2
 Tricks and Puzzles 149
coins. But the man who had brought 3 chapathis felt that he
- should get 3 coins and the other man should get 5 coins.
As the argument continued a crowd gathered. Then a wise old
man, who was listening, intervened and offered to settle the
dispute. He heard both sides of the case and declared that the
man who had brought 5 chapathis should get 7 coins and
the man who had brought 3 chapathis should get only one. The
people in the crowd protested and demanded an explanation.
His explanation was this: the food was shared equally by three
men. Each chapathi was portioned into three equal parts. There-
fore the 8 chapathis together were portioned into 24 equal pieces.
Of the 24 pieces, each man ate 8 pieces. The man who had
brought 5 chapathis contributed 15 pieces, and the man who had
brought 3 chapathis contributed 9 pieces. Out of the 15 pieces,
the man who had brought 5 chapathis himself ate 8 pieces and
contributed to the guest 7 pieces. And out of the 9 pieces, the
man who had brought 3 chapathis, himself ate 8 pieces and
contributed to the guest only 1 piece.
So the man with the 5 chapathis gets 7 coins and the man with
3 chapathis gets only 1.

All the Digits

Do you notice anything interesting in the following multiplica-

tion?

138 x 42 = 5796

There are nine digits and all are different. Can you think of other
such combinations?
Here is a group of nine:
150 Figuring
12 x 483 = 5796
18 x 297 = 5346
39 x 186 = 7254
48 x 159 = 7632
27 x 198 = 5346
28 x 157 = 4396 *
4 x 1738 = 6952
4 x 1963 = 7852

Another Impossible Proof

Can you prove 45 — 45 = 45?

Write down the figures from 9 to 1

987654321 add up the digits

9+84+74+64+54+443+42+1=45
Subtract 123456789 Add up the digits
14+24+34+44+54+64+748+9=45

Result 864197532 Add up the digits

8+64+4414+947454+342=45
Therefore 45 — 45 = 45

Dwindling Gifts

Two fathers gave their sons some money. One father gave his
son £300 and the other gave his son £150. When the two sons
counted up their money, they found that between them they had
only £300. How do you explain this?
While there are two fathers and two sons, there are only three
people - grandfather, father and son. The grandfather gave his
son £300. Out of this £300 the father gave his son £150. Thus
between the father and the son — two sons - they have only £300.
 Tricks and Puzzles 151
Making the Signs Right

3328 = 18

This looks absurd, but it can be made sense of by the insertion

of mathematical signs, without altering any of the figures, or
the position of the equals sign. Here is the solution:

V332 —8 = 18

Five Digits

Can you arrange the digits 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 in such a way that,

with the aid of simple mathematical signs, they will make 111,
222, 333 and 999. Here is the solution:

135 — 24= 111

214+5+3 = 222
345 — 12= 333
(5? x 4 x 2) —-1= 999

Making One Hundred

Can you, with only the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 and the addi-
tion and subtraction signs make 100?

86 +2+44+54+7-1-—3=100

Smallest Integer

Can you spot the smallest integer that canbe written with two
digits?
A
1
 152 Figuring
One from Ten

Can you write 1, by using all the ten digits?

148 35
796+ 797!
All Nines

Using only five nines, can you write 10?

There are several ways of doing this:

99 99 9
Guay Be talsSeg
95 “ 9. 9 :

(0+
2)oma
One Hundred from Ten

Can you write 100 by using all the ten digits? Give four different
solutions.
9 3
1S USE Seri

1 38
=
5) — = 10 0

4 12
—
teria — = 100
0

ee 3
0 —+19-=
+ ar 100
 Tricks and Puzzles 153
_ Magic and Thirty-seven

Write 37 on a piece of paper and keep it in your pocket. Ask

someone to suggest any number formed of three identical figures.
Ask him to add up these three figures and divide the original
number by the answer.
Whatever number he chose you will always have the answer -
37 - on the paper in your pocket.

555 divided by 5 + 5 + 5 gives 37

999 divided by 9 + 9 + 9 gives 37
888 divided by 8 + 8 + 8 gives 37
and so on.

Hare and Tortoise

Two cars do the journey between cities 200 miles apart. One car
at 50 miles an hour one way and 40 miles an hour on the return
journey. The other car at 45 miles an hour on both journeys.
Which of the two cars covers the distance in less time?
The speed of the second car is the average between the speed
of the first and second journeys of the first car. But they do not
cover the distance in the same time.
The first car takes, on its first journey, 200 ~ 50 = 4 hours,
and on its second journey 200 + 40 = 5 hours. A total for both
journeys of 9 hours. The second car, on both journeys, takes
400 ~ 45 = 8 hours and 53 minutes.
The second car covers the distance in a shorter time.

All Threes

Can you take four 3s and simple mathematical signs and arrange
them so that they will make in turn 11, 37, 80 and 100.
154 Figuring

aac

345 =37
ileS on \

:x io 100

The Chess Board

Perhaps the most famous of the stories about people who were
caught out by the way repeated doubling quickly leads to huge
totals is that of King Purushottama and the learned Pandit.
The king, proud of his abilities at chess, had challenged and
beaten all comers until, after a long struggle, the Pandit beat
him.
The apparently insignificant reward he asked was 1 grain of
rice for the first square of the chess board, 2 for the second,
4 for the third, 8 for the fourth and so on.
When the sack of rice was slow in coming the king called for his
ministers and asked why.
The total number of grains — 18446744073709581615 — was
not only beyond the means of his granaries, but beyond the means
of the granaries of all the world. The formula for arriving at this
number — 264 — 1 - turns up in another famous legend....

The Tower of Brahma

This, so the legend has it, is a temple in Benaras. They say that
when the great lord Brahma created the world he put up three
 Tricks and Puzzles 155
diamond sticks, mounted on a brass plate, beneath the dome that
’ marks the centre of the world. Upon one of the sticks he placed
64 gold discs. The biggest at the bottom, all decreasing in size,
with the smallest at the top. The temple priests have the tasks
of transposing the discs from one stick to the other, using the
third as an aid. They work day and night, but must transpose only
one disc at a time and must not put a bigger disc on top of a
smaller one. When their task is complete, the legend says, the
world will disappear in a clap of thunder.
Now the total number of transpositions needed to shift the
64 discs is, again, 2° — 1, or 18446744073709581615. If every
transposition takes a second it will still take 500000 million years
to get the job done.

129

This is known as Ramanujam’s number. When the great Indian

mathematician was lying ill in hospital, Professor Hardy, who
had been instrumental in bringing him to Cambridge, came to
visit him. The taxi I came in, he said to Ramanujam, had a very
boring number - 1729.
Ramanujam’s face lit up. No, he said, that is not a boring
number at all, it is the only number that is the sum of two cubes
in two different ways.
10° + 93 = 1729 and 123+ 1? = 1729

Diminishing Remainders

Can you name the smallest number, which when divided by 10

gives a remainder of 9, when divided by 9 gives 8 as the
remainder, when divided by 8 gives 7 as the remainder and so on,
down to a remainder of 1 when divided by 2?
If X is the number, the problem can be set out thus:
156 Figuring
X = multiple of 10 — 1
X = multiple of 9 — 1
X = multiple of 8 — 1
X = multiple of 7 — 1
X = multiple of 6 — 1
X = multiple of 5 41
X = multiple of 4 —1
X = multiple of 3 — 1
X = multiple of 2 — 1

Therefore

“X + 1 = multiple of 10 |
X + 1 = multiple of
X + 1 = multiple of
X + 1 = multiple of
X + 1 = multiple of
X + 1 = multiple of
X + 1 = multiple of
X + 1 = multiple of
X + 1 = multiple of rh
CO
~1
mw
UD

Now we find the LCM of the ten numbers. That gives

Dot O20

Therefore the required number is:

2520 — 1 = 2519
 CONCLUSION

Mathematical discoveries, like all others, may come from the

need to solve practical problems. But a more important motive
is the pure delight some individuals take in invention and
discovery.
A mathematician tries to extend his powers. He knows a trick
which allows him to solve one sort of problem — but might there
not be other sorts that can be solved in the same way? He tries
to find out how his tricks work, to group problems in families,
to classify them. When a new problem comes up he will often be
able to see immediately what family it belongs to, and what
methods are likely to solve it.
In this book I have tried to arouse this active state of mind,
to encourage mental adventurousness.
If my readers have come to share this feeling for the subject
my objective has been attained.

157
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The problem the author is shown solving in
the photograph on the back of the jacket
looks like this :

91674867692003915809866092758-
53801624831066801443086224071-
26516427934657040867096593279-
205767480806790022783016354924-
852380335745316935111903596577-
547340075681688305620821016129-
132845564805780158806771

The answer is 546372891

The design on the front of the jacket shows

the ‘revolving number’ - 142857 (see
page 115).

Jacket design by Peter Campbell

ANDRE DEUTSCH
105 Great Russell Street London WC1

233 96591 2
SHAKUNTALA DEVI lives in Calcutta in India, but spends much of her life
travelling round the world giving demonstrations of her talents. Incredibly,
in addition to travelling Miss Devi has found time to write novels, cookery
books and an account of Hindu astrology. The photograph shows her
concentrating on working out the twenty-third root of the number on
the blackboard, which contains 201 digits — it took her fifty seconds. The
problem was set by students at the Southern Methodist University in .
Dallas, Texas; but in order to check her answer they had to consult a Univac
1108 computer at the National Bureau of Standards in Washington pc. It
took the computer a full minute to confirm that she was right — but it had to
be given over 13,000 instructions before it started on the problem.