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8614

B.ed 1.5 year (Allama Iqbal Open University)

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ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD

STUDENT NAME: KIRAN BASHEER
STUDENT ID: 0000059538
COURSE: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS (8614)
SEMESTER: AUTUMN,2022
LEVEL: B.ED(1.5 YEARS)
ASSIGNMENT NO.1
Q.1 Why is statistics important for teacher or researcher?
Ans
Statistics:
The word “statistics” is derived from the Latin word “status”, which
means political condition or status.
Statistics is the discipline that concerns the collection, organization,
analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data. In applying statistics
to a scientific, industrial, or social problem, it is conventional to begin
with a statistical population or a statistical model to be studied.

Importance of statistics for teacher or researcher:

The process of gathering, processing, interpreting, and presenting data
is the focus of the field of statistics. In any sector of education, each
discipline has a distinct and important role. The Importance of Statistics

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in Education is defined as "the essential and significance of statistics to

every discipline of learning" in the context of mathematics, education,
business, science, computer, history, etc., with a focus on the
significance and use of statistics in educational research.
The existence of several types of intelligence in various domains is most
likely demonstrated by no subject other than statistics. So, if properly
understood, statistics is a fascinating subject with enormous relevance
to computer, philosophy, mathematics, the life sciences, psychology,
and education in general.
Statistics are significant in a learning environment for the following
reasons:
Using descriptive statistics, statistics enables educators to comprehend
student achievement.
By using data visualization, statistics enables teachers to identify trends
in students' academic achievement.
By utilizing hypothesis testing, statistics enables educators to compare
various instructional strategies.
Statistics helps in the collection and presentation of data in a
calculated and systematic manner:
The use of statistics in education facilitates the organised collecting and
display of data. In other words, statistics in education aids in the
systematic organisation of processed and unprocessed data. Data are
collections of facts that serve specific functions and paint a partial
picture of reality. The nature of the information the data are
communicating, how the data can be used, and what has to be done to
include more meaningful information must continuously be taken into
account, regardless of the method of data collecting. Since most data
are only available to researchers in their raw form, they must be
condensed, arranged, and examined in order to be properly

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interpreted. This implies that data that are disorganized or unanalyzed

are more likely to be unreliable and false. Additionally, each data set
must be presented in a certain fashion based on its intended usage.
Prior to properly processing raw data, it is crucial to plan the
presentation of the data. Statistics makes it easier to evaluate,
comprehend, and communicate all of these in a straightforward
empirical way.
Statistics improves the effectiveness of teaching and learning:
Education statistics increase the effectiveness of teaching and learning
in the classroom. The assessment and evaluation of concepts, as well as
statistics in education, are crucial components of the teaching and
learning process.
Scores are obtained and analysed during this procedure to help with
decision-making. Therefore, one may analyse these scores objectively
using statistics. It improves the effectiveness of teaching and learning.
The precise type of description can be provided and shown with the
use of statistics:
The precise type of description can be provided with the aid of statistics
in education. Practically speaking, it aids teachers in accurately
describing data. This might be seen in situations where a student is
being administered to or when a child is being watched. The use of
statistics could be a helper in the process of analysis and presentation
to make any description of an idea verifiable and compelling.
The clearest information about everything that can be described is
provided by statistics. Therefore, whenever statistical methodologies
are used, the end or result is automatically made simpler and easier to
understand, even by a layman.
In education, statistics are a dependable source of historical
information:

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One of the most trustworthy ways to confirm any given history is

through statistics. This is due to the fact that statistical documentation
is always factual and clear. As a result, statistical techniques used to
describe and analyse facts, concepts, and other things many years ago
can be revived and used as an empirical source for a trustworthy piece
of knowledge about any history in the present.
Statistics helps in the Summary of Results:
Because it permits the calculation and proper description of results in a
comprehensible and practical manner, statistics is significant in
education because it gives the data structure.
Once more, statistics aids in expressing facts in a way that is clear to the
parties concerned and that is precise, succinct, and relevant.
Data in statistics is more transparent and less ambiguous. It is simpler
and more empirically observable when the statistical technique is
introduced in the records or summary of outcomes.
The use of statistics facilitates the process of making precise
predictions:
Statistics demonstrate its significance in calculations and ideas.
Sometimes a teacher's descriptions of the students' performance are
imprecise due to a lack of technical knowledge. However, utilising the
right terminology and symbols to describe the performance is made
easier by statistics. These statistical methods allow for the development
of a precise and definitive interpretation.Once more, statistics provide
direction for all thinking efforts. One thinks correctly and is more likely
to reach satisfying conclusions fast when they do so through a
measured analysis and statistics.
Statistics helps in the analysis of some causal factors:

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Teachers can use statistics to examine some of the underlying causes of

complicated and otherwise perplexing situations. For example, it is
common knowledge that the behavioural outcome is the product of
multiple causative factors.
Numerous factors, which differ from student to student, may
contribute to a particular student's low performance in a certain topic.
Therefore, using the proper statistical techniques, it is possible to
control for these unimportant variables and determine what factors led
a student to fail a certain topic.
Statistics makes studies to be highly responsive and empirical:
Statistics play a highly delicate function in the gathering of data and
information. A wide range of information can be accessed using reliable
statistical data. With this, handling and manipulating the data
appropriately is simple. Consider statistics as an academic discipline
that deals with economic inquiries, both theoretically and practically.
For instance, if the university administration protects the information
of all of its lecturers, they will be able to quickly determine which
subject area each professor excels in and assign them to teach courses
in that area.
Additionally, after the university administration has all of the student
information, they may choose the finest courses to offer them, and
even.
Using descriptive statistics, comprehend student performance:
Data can be described using descriptive statistics.
For her class of students, a teacher in an educational setting might
compute the following descriptive statistics:
.the average score on a certain test.

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.the average standard deviation of test results.

.the range of results on a certain test.
.the proportion of students who passed a particular test.
.the examination's 90th percentile of marks
These metrics can help the teacher better understand how the pupils in
her class did on a particular exam. If too few students pass the exam,
she can then determine whether she needs to change her teaching
strategy or possibly provide more tutoring chances for students who
perform poorly on the exam, etc.
Every level of schooling uses these kinds of descriptive data. Descriptive
statistics, for instance, can be used by a principal to track exam results
throughout the entire school. Or, a state department of education can
track exam results for all students across the state by using descriptive
statistics.
Spot Trends Using Data Visualization:
The use of data visualizations like line charts, histograms, boxplots, pie
charts, and other charts is another prominent method that statistics are
utilized in teaching. Educators frequently use charts of this type to
identify trends in their classes. To illustrate the average exam score
throughout the course of the year and the performance of each
student, let's say a teacher makes the bar chart shown below.

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The instructor may see that the average exam score of her class is
gradually declining over the course of the year just by looking at this
bar chart. This can enable the teacher to enhance her teaching
techniques or possibly provide her students a survey to seek for
feedback.
Q.2 Discuss different types of data. Also elaborate difference between
primary and secondary data?
Answer
Data:
Data are the facts and figures that are collected, analyzed, and
summarized for presentation and interpretation. Data may be classified
as either quantitative or qualitative.
In the discipline of data science, data is crucial. Large-scale experiments
using raw data are conducted to produce insightful results that support
numerous business objectives. Having a better understanding of the
various statistical data kinds can help you choose the one that best
meets your needs.
Types of data:

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In statistics, various forms of data are gathered, examined, explained,

and presented. The data are the discrete items of factual information
that have been recorded and are employed in the analysis process.
Presentation and interpretation are the two steps in data analysis.
Analysis of data yields statistics. Data handling and classification are
crucial activities since they require a variety of tags and labels to specify
the data's integrity and secrecy.
The data is classified into majorly four categories:
Nominal data
Ordinal data
Discrete data
Continuous data

1.Categorical or Qualitative Data:

The data that falls into categories is referred to as qualitative data, also
known as categorical data. Data with a qualitative component lack
numbers. Categorical variables that describe characteristics like a
person's gender or hometown are included in the categorical
information. Rather than being specified in terms of numbers,
categorical measures are defined in terms of plain language
requirements.

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Categorical data can occasionally contain numerical values (quantitative

values), although those values don't always make sense mathematically.
The categories of data include things like birthdate, favorite sport, and
school postcode. The birthdate and school postcode in this case contain a
quantitative value, but they have no numerical significance.
Nominal data:
One category of qualitative information that aids in labelling variables
without providing a numerical value is nominal data. The nominal scale
is another name for nominal data. It cannot be measured or ordered.
However, both qualitative and quantitative data can be present at times.
Nominal data examples include letters, symbols, words, gender, etc.
The grouping method is used to analyse the nominal data. The frequency
or percentage of the data can then be determined using this method,
which groups the data into categories. The pie charts are used to visually
portray these facts.
Ordinal Data:
A type of data called an ordinal variable or data follows a natural order.
The important characteristic of the nominal data is that there is no
established difference between the data values. This variable is primarily
present in questionnaires, financial and economic surveys, and other
similar contexts.
A bar chart is a frequent visual representation of ordinal data. Numerous
visualization technologies are used to analyze and interpret these data.
Tables can be used to convey the data, with each row displaying a
different category.
2.Quantitative or Numerical Data:
Quantitative data is also known as numerical data which represents the
numerical value (i.e., how much, how often, how many). Numerical data
gives information about the quantities of a specific thing. Some
examples of numerical data are height, length, size, weight, and so on.

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The quantitative data can be classified into two different types based on
the data sets. The two different classifications of numerical data are
discrete data and continuous data.
Discrete Data:
Discrete data can take only discrete values. Discrete information
contains only a finite number of possible values. Those values cannot be
subdivided meaningfully. Here, things can be counted in whole
numbers.
Example: Number of students in the class
Continuous Data:
Continuous data is data that can be calculated. It has an infinite number
of probable values that can be selected within a given specific range.
Example: Temperature range
Types of data in research:
In research, different methods are used to collect data, all of which fall
into two categories, i.e. primary data and secondary data. It is a common
classification based upon who collected the data.
Primary data:
For the first time, the researcher creates primary data to solve his study
challenge. It also goes by the name first-hand raw data. Numerous
techniques can be used to gather the data, including surveys,
observations, physical examinations, postal questionnaires,
questionnaires completed and sent by enumerators, in-person and
telephone interviews, focus groups, case studies, etc.
Secondary data:
Any dataset gathered by a party other than the one using it is referred to
as secondary data (also known as second-party data). Secondary sources
of information are quite helpful. They make it possible for researchers

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and data analysts to create sizable, superior databases that aid in the
resolution of corporate issues. Examples of secondary data are censuses
data, publications, internal records of the organizations, reports, books,
journal articles, websites etc.
Difference between primary and secondary data:
Primary data Secondary data
1. Primary data refers to the data Secondary data is already
originated by the researcher for existing data, collected by other
the first time. researchers, agencies, and
organizations
2. Primary data is real time data Secondary data relates to past
3. Primary data is collected to The purpose behind collection of
address the problem in hand secondary data is different from
the problem in hand
4. Collection of primary data is a Collection of secondary data is
laborious process. easy and rapid.
5. Sources of primary data are Sources of secondary are
survey, observations, physical censuses data, publications,
testing, mailed questionnaire, internal records of the
questionnaire filled and sent by organizations, reports, books,
enumerators, personal journal articles, websites etc.
interviews, telephonic
interviews, focus groups
discussion, case studies, etc.
6. Collection of primary data Collection of secondary data is
requires a large amount of expensive and easily available
resources like time, cost, and
human resources.
7. Primary data is specific to the Secondary data is neither specific
researcher’s needs. He can to researcher needs nor has he
control the quality of research. control over the quality of data
8. Primary data is available in the Secondary data has undergone
raw form. some statistical procedures and is
refined from primary data.

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9. Data collected from primary Less reliable and accurate

sources are more reliable and
accurate.

Q.3 Explain ‘pictogram’ as a technique to explore /explain data?

Answer
Pictogram:
A pictogram is a graphical symbol that conveys its meaning through its
pictorial resemblance to a physical object.
A pictogram may include a symbol plus graphic elements such as
border, back pattern, or color that is intended to covey specific
information s. we can also say that a pictogram is a kind of graph that
uses pictures instead of bars to represent data under analysis. A
pictogram is also called “pictograph”, or simply “picto”.
A pictogram or pictograph represents the frequency of data as pictures of
symbols. Each picture or symbols may represent one or more units of
data.
Pictograms form a part of our daily lives. They are used in transport,
medication, education, computers etc. they indicate, in iconic form,
places, directions, actions or constraints on actions in either the real
world (a road, a town, etc) or in virtual world (computer, internet etc.).
Background:
Pictographic visualization was pioneered in the early twentieth century
by Marie and Otto Neurath and Gerd Arntz. Their aim was to educate
people about the world by making statistics more accessible. Indeed, the
word “isotype” was their acronym (or possibly backronym), for
“International System Of Typographic Picture Education”.
Pictogram as a technique to explain data:

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This uses pictures to represent statistics information or data. The

pictogram is also called an ideograph. A pictogram uses pictures or
drawings to give a quick and easy meaning to statistical data. A
pictogram is a simple way of representing data in which a number of
indentical drawings or pictures and used to show the data. It is useful to
use pictures which can easily be divided into halves, quarters and do on.
A pictogram must have a key to show that each picture stands for.
Pictogram makes simple data more visually interesting, more
memorable, or more engaging.
Parts:
The following parts must be present for a pictograph to be complete.
Title
Typically, the graph’s title appears at the top. What the graph is about is
clear from the title.
Symbols or Pictures
A certain amount of data is represented by the symbols.
Categories or Labels
The categories identify the exact type of data in the graph.
Key or Legend
How much each image stands for is denoted by a key.
Making of pictogram:
Collect the data
The first step in creating a pictograph is to gather the relevant data that
we want to show. Once the data has been collected, arrange it in a table
or list. The data categories must also be correctly specified.
Selecting the appropriate symbols

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Select visual representations for the data, such as symbols or images.

The most relevant symbols or visual representations of the provided data
must be used. Fractions can be drawn for the symbols if the frequency is
not a whole number.
Assign a key
Use a key to indicate the value of each image when displaying the data
using images because one image cannot adequately depict the data if the
frequency of the data is too high. As a result, the “key” numerical value,
which must also be written with the pictograph, is used.
Use columns
When making a pictogram, use columns to indicate the category and
data. Create a pictogram that represents the frequency of data using
symbols and/or images.
Examine the data
Once the pictograph has been created, check that the categories or
labelling and the images must accurately reflect the data.
Pictogram indicate progress to a goal:
Pictograms can also be used to indicate status or progress toward a goal.
Documents like project plans, product roadmaps, and project status
reports can all benefit from a visual indicator of progress in the form of a
pictogram.
Survey pictogram
Pictograms are a great way to showcase impactful survey results in an
infographic. You can use them as visual tallies, to demonstrate things
like basic demographic data (like job title or role). They’re also a fun
way to emphasize the magnitude of various numbers.
Refreshing resume with pictogram skills summaries

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The infographic resume is emerging as a creative way to communicate

your skills visually and experience to potential employers. Since
pictograms work so well for showing proportions, they make a great
addition to the skills summary portion of an infographic resume.
Example:

Let us now learn how to understand a pictograph with the following

example.
1. Number of red colored boxes sold by William, a shopkeeper, in six
days of a week. See the picture graph or pictograph to answer the
questions.

Information gathered from the above table:

(i) Number of red boxes sold:
Monday – 4, Tuesday – 2, Wednesday – 3, Thursday – 5, Friday – 8,
Saturday – 1
Therefore, sale during the week = 23
(ii) Lowest sale – on Saturday, only 1 box was sold.
Maximum sale on Friday is 8 boxes were sold.
We can easily get more information by looking at this picture-graph.

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Q.4 Pie Chart is common way to depict data. Discuss its usage and
drawbacks?
Answer
Pie chart:
A pie chart is a type of graph that represents the data in the circular
graph. The slices of pie show the relative size of the data, and it is a type
of pictorial representation of data. A pie chart requires a list of
categorical variables and numerical variables. Here, the term “pie”
represents the whole, and the “slices” represent the parts of the whole.
The “pie chart” is also known as a “circle chart”, dividing the circular
statistical graphic into sectors or sections to illustrate the numerical
problems. Each sector denotes a proportionate part of the whole. To find
out the composition of something, Pie-chart works the best at that time.
In most cases, pie charts replace other graphs like the bar graph, line
plots, histograms, etc.
Types:
Donut Plot
A donut plot is a variation of the pie chart where the center portion of
the chart is removed.

3D Pie Chart

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The 3D form is often used to improve the aesthetics of the pie chart.

Exploded Pie Chart

In this variation, one or more slices of the pie chart are pulled apart from
the center to give emphasis.

Formula:
The pie chart is an important type of data representation. It contains
different segments and sectors in which each segment and sector of a pie
chart forms a specific portion of the total(percentage). The sum of all the
data is equal to 360°.
The total value of the pie is always 100%.
To work out with the percentage for a pie chart, follow the steps given
below:
Categorize the data
Calculate the total
Divide the categories
Convert into percentages
Finally, calculate the degrees

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Therefore, the pie chart formula is given as

(Given Data/Total value of Data) × 360°

Uses:
A pie chart is a circle that is divided into areas, or slices. Each slice
represents the count or percentage of the observations of a level for the
variable. Pie charts are often used in business. Examples include
showing percentages of types of customers, percentage of revenue from
different products, and profits from different countries. Pie charts can be
helpful for showing the relationship of parts to the whole when there are
a small number of levels.
Advantages of a Pie Chart:
.A simple and easy-to-understand picture.
.It represents data visually as a fractional part of a whole, which can be
an effective communication tool for the even uninformed audience.
.It enables the audience to see a data comparison at a glance to make an
immediate analysis or to understand information quickly.
.The need for readers to examine or measure underlying numbers
themselves can be removed by using this chart.
.To emphasize points you want to make, you can manipulate pieces of
data in the pie chart.
Drawbacks of using Pie Chart:
.Pie charts lose their effectiveness when they contain too many pieces of
information.

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.If there are too many pieces of data, they may become congested and
difficult to understand, and even adding data labels and numbers may
not help.
.As this chart only displays one data set, you will need a series to
compare multiple sets.
.This may make it harder for readers to quickly comprehend and digest
material
.Comparing the data slices presents challenges because the reader must
account for angles and contrast non-adjacent slices.
.Readers draw incorrect conclusions when decisions are based on visual
impact rather than data analysis.
Q.5 What do you understand by ‘measure of dispersion’? Also
briefly discuss some common measures of dispersion?
Answer:
Dispersion:
Dispersion refers to the ‘distribution’ of objects over a large region. The
degree to which numerical data are dispersed or squished around an
average value is referred to as dispersion in statistics. It is, in a nutshell,
the dispersion of data. A vast amount of data will always be widely
dispersed or firmly packed. Data that is widely dispersed – 0, 30, 60, 90,
120, With tiny data grouped densely – 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4…
Understanding Dispersion:
The term “dispersion” refers to how dispersed a set of data is. The
measure of dispersion is always a non-negative real number that starts at
zero when all the data is the same and rises as the data gets more varied.
The homogeneity or heterogeneity of the scattered data is defined by
dispersion measures. It also refers to how data differs from one another.
Measures of Dispersion:

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As the name suggests, the measure of dispersion shows the scatterings of

the data. It tells the variation of the data from one another and gives a
clear idea about the distribution of the data. The measure of dispersion
shows the homogeneity or the heterogeneity of the distribution of the
observations.
Characteristics of Dispersion Measures:
A dispersion measure should have a strict definition.
It must be simple to compute and comprehend.
not much impacted by the variations in observations
Considering every observation
Some common measures of dispersion:
The Measure of Dispersion in Statistics is divided into two main
categories and offer ways of measuring the diverse nature of data. It is
mainly used in biological statistics.

1.Range:
Range refers to the difference between each series’ minimum and
maximum values. The range offers us a good indication of how

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dispersed the data is, but we need other measures of variability to

discover the dispersion of data from central tendency measurements. A
range is the most common and easily understandable measure of
dispersion. It is the difference between two extreme observations of the
data set. If X max and X min are the two extreme observations then
Range = X max – X min
Merits of Range
• It is the simplest of the measure of dispersion
• Easy to calculate
• Easy to understand
• Independent of change of origin
Demerits of Range
• It is based on two extreme observations. Hence, get affected by
fluctuations
• A range is not a reliable measure of dispersion
• Dependent on change of scale
2.Quartile deviation:
The quartiles divide a data set into quarters. The first quartile, (Q 1) is the
middle number between the smallest number and the median of the data.
The second quartile, (Q2) is the median of the data set. The third
quartile, (Q3) is the middle number between the median and the largest
number.
Quartile deviation or semi-inter-quartile deviation is
Q = ½ × (Q3 – Q1)
Merits of Quartile Deviation
• All the drawbacks of Range are overcome by quartile deviation
• It uses half of the data
• Independent of change of origin
• The best measure of dispersion for open-end classification

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Demerits of Quartile Deviation

• It ignores 50% of the data
• Dependent on change of scale
• Not a reliable measure of dispersion
3.Mean Deviation
Mean Deviation is also known as an average deviation; it can be
computed using the Mean or Median of the data. Mean deviation is
represented as the arithmetic deviation of a different item that follows
the central tendency.
Formula:
As mentioned, the Mean Deviation can be calculated using Mean and
Median.
Mean Deviation using Mean: ∑ | X – M | / N
Mean Deviation using Median: ∑ | X – X1 | / N
Merits of Mean Deviation
• Based on all observations
• It provides a minimum value when the deviations are taken from
the median
• Independent of change of origin
Demerits of Mean Deviation
• Not easily understandable
• Its calculation is not easy and time-consuming
• Dependent on the change of scale
• Ignorance of negative sign creates artificiality and becomes useless
for further mathematical treatment
4.Standard Deviation
Standard deviation is the most commonly used and the most important
measure of variation. It determines whether the scores are generally near
or far from the mean, i.e. are the scores clustered together or scattered.

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In simple words, standard deviation tells how tightly all the scores are
clustered around the mean in a data set. When the scores are close to the
mean, standard deviation is small. And large standard deviation tells that
scores are spread apart. Standard deviation is simply square root of
variance, i.e.
Standard deviation Ϭ = √ Variance
Or
Ϭ = √ Ʃ (X – X)2 / n
Ϭ is a Greek letter “Sigma”
Merits of Standard Deviation
• Squaring the deviations overcomes the drawback of ignoring signs
in mean deviations
• Suitable for further mathematical treatment
• Least affected by the fluctuation of the observations
• The standard deviation is zero if all the observations are constant
• Independent of change of origin
Demerits of Standard Deviation
• Not easy to calculate
• Difficult to understand for a layman
• Dependent on the change of scale

Varience(σ2):
In simple terms, the variance can be calculated by obtaining the sum of
the squared distance of each term in the distribution from the Mean, and
then dividing this by the total number of the terms in the distribution.
It basically shows how far a number, for example, a student’s mark in an
exam, is from the Mean of the entire class.
Formula:
(σ2) = ∑ ( X − μ)2 / N

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