Mathematics Used in Physics 1

2 MECHANICS
ALGEBRA
Common Identities
(i) (a + b)2 = a2 + b2 + 2ab = (a – b)2 + 4ab
(ii) ( a – b)2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab = (a + b)2 – 4ab
(iii) a2 – b2 = (a + b) (a – b)
(iv) (a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3ab(a + b)
= a3 + b3 + 3a2b + 3ab2
(v) (a – b) = a3 – b3 – 3ab (a – b)
3

= a3 – b3 – 3a2b + 3ab2
(vi) a3 + b3 = (a + b) (a2 – ab + b2)
= (a + b)3 – 3ab(a + b)
(vii) a – b = (a – b) (a2 + ab + b2)
3 3

= (a – b)3 + 3ab (a – b)
(viii) (a + b)2 + (a – b)2 = 2(a2 + b2)
(ix) (a + b)2 – (a – b)2 = 4ab.
QUADRATIC EQUATION
An algebraic equation of second order (highest power of variable is 2) is called a quadratic equation
e.g.
ax 2 + bx + c = 0, a¹0
It has solution for two values of x which are given by

-b ± b2 - 4ac
x =
2a
2
The quantity b – 4ac, is called discriminant of the equation.
BINOMIAL THEOREM
(i) The binomial theorem for any positive value of n

( x + a)n = x n + n C1ax n -1 + n C2 a 2 x n - 2 + .......... + n Cr a r x n -r + ......... + a n

n!
where a is constant and n =
Cr r !(n - r )!

Here n! = n(n - 1)(n - 2)..............3 ´ 2 ´ 1

So 5! = 5 ´ 4 ´ 3 ´ 2 ´ 1 = 120

n(n - 1) 2 n( n - 1)( n - 2) 3
(ii) (1 + x) n = 1 + nx + x + x + .....
2! 3!

For x << 1 , we can neglect the higher power of x.

So (1 + x)n ; 1 + nx

Similarly, (1 - x)n ; 1 - nx

(1 + x) - n ; 1 - nx

(1 - x) - n ; 1 + nx
Here n may have any value.
 Mathematics Used in Physics 3
Ex. 1 Evaluate (1.01)

Sol. (1.01)1/ 2 = (1 + 0.01)1/ 2

1
; 1+ ´ 0.01
2
= 1.005

ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION (A.P.)

A sequence like a, a + d, a + 2d, ........... is called arithmetic progression. Here d is the common
difference.
(i) The nth term of an A.P. is given by
an = a + (n - 1)d
(ii) The sum of first n term of an A.P. is given by
n n
Sn =
2
[ I term + last term ] = 2 (a1 + an )
Here a1 = a and an = a + (n – 1)d
n
\ Sn = [2a + (n - 1)d ]
2

GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION (G.P.)

The progression like, a, ar, ar2, .......... is called geometric progression, here r is called geometric ratio or
common ratio.
(i) The nth term of G.P. is given by
an ar n -1
=
(ii) The sum of the first n terms of G.P. is given by

a(r n - 1)
Sn = for (r > 0)
(r - 1)

(1 - r n )
and Sn = a for (r < 0)
(1 - r )
(iii) The sum of infinite term of G.P. for r < 1, is given by

Ist term
S =
1 - Geometric ratio

a
or S =
1- r

1 1 1
Ex. 2 Find sum of the progression; 1, , , , .........¥.
2 4 8
a
Sol. We have S =
1- r
1
Here, a = 1, r =
2
1
\ S = =2
1 - 1/ 2
4 MECHANICS

EXPONENTIAL SERIES
n
æ 1ö 1 1 1
The value of e ; e = lim ç 1 + ÷ = 1 + + + + .........¥
n®¥ è nø 1! 2! 3!

1 1 1
= 1 + 1+ + + + .......¥ = 2.718
2 6 24

x x 2 x3
\ ex = 1 + + + + ..........¥
1! 2! 3!

x x 2 x3
and e- x = 1 - + - + ..........¥
1! 2! 3!
LOGARITHMIC SERIES

x 2 x3 x 4
loge (1 + x ) = x - + - + ..............¥
2 3 4
1 1 1
loge (2) = log e (1 + 1) = 1 - + - + ..............¥
2 3 4

x2 x3 x4
log(1 - x ) = - x - - - - ..............¥
2 3 4
TRIGONOMETRIC SERIES

x3 x 5
sin x = x- + - ...........
3! 5!

x 2 x4
cos x = 1- + - ...........
2! 4!
LOGARITHMS
For a positive real number a and a rational number m, we have, am = b. The another way of expressing
the same fact in that of logarithms of b to the base a is m
i.e., log a b = m
There are two bases of logarithms that are used these days. One is base e and the other base 10. The
logarithms to base e are called natural logarithms. The logarithms to base 10 are called the common
logarithms.
Thus we can write
(i) 1000 on the base of 10 as 103, and in logarithms it is; log101000 = 3.
(ii) Similarly ex = y can be written as
loge y = lny = x
Here log e ® ln
log a 1 = 0 ; log1010 = 1; log10 2 = 0.693; log e10 = 2.303

LAWS OF LOGARITHMS
Ist Law log a (mn) = log a m + log a n

æ mö
IInd Law loga ç ÷ = log a m - log a n
è nø

IIIrd Law log a (m)n = n log a m

 Mathematics Used in Physics 5
ANGLES
(i) Degree measure
One sixtieth of a degree is called a minute, and written 1¢,
and one sixtieth of a minute is called second, written as 1¢¢.
Thus 1° = 60¢
and 1¢ = 60¢¢ Figure. 0.1

(ii) Radian measure

1 radian : An angle with its vertex at the centre of a circle which intercepts an arc equal in length
to the radius of the circle is said to have a measure of 1 radian.
The circumference, s, of a circle of radius r is 2pr.
Thus one complete revolution subtends an angle
2 pr
q = = 2p rad
r
Thus if a circle of radius r, an arc of length l subtends an angle q radian at the centre, we have
l
q =
r
(iii) Relationship between degree and radian
2p radian = 360°
or p radian = 180° Figure. 0.2
180°
or 1radian = ; 57°16 '
p

degree 30° 45° 60° 90° 180° 270° 360°

p p p p 3p
radian p 2p
6 4 3 2 2

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION
In a right angled triangle ABC, we can define that
y
sin q =
r
x
cos q =
r
y
tan q =
x
x
cot q = y

r
cosecq =
y
r
secq =
x Figure. 0.3
From above ratios, we have
1
(i) cosecq =
sin q
1
sec q =
cosq
1
and tan q =
cot q
6 MECHANICS

(ii) For small angle (q ® 0) , r ® x and y ® 0

\ sin q = tan q
and cos q ® 1
(iii) sin 2 q + cos 2 q = 1
1 + tan 2 q = sec2 q
1 + cot 2 q = cosec 2 q
TRIGONOMETRIC RATIO

Angle 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 135° 150° 180°

1 1 3 3 1 1
sin 0 1 0
2 2 2 2 2 2
3 1 1 1 1 3
cos 1 0 - - - –1
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1
tan 0 1 3 ¥ - 3 -1 - 0
3 3

THE VALUE OF TRIGONOMETRIC RATIO IN DIFFERENT QUADRANTS

Angle -q 90° - q 90° + q 180° - q 180° + q 270° - q 270° + q 360° - q 360° + q

sin - sin q cos q cos q sin q - sin q - cos q - cos q - sin q sin q

cos cos q sin q - sin q - cos q - cos q - sin q sin q cos q cos q

tan - tan q cot q - cot q - tan q tan q cot q - cot q - tan q tan q

RATIO OF DIFFERENT TRIGONOMETRIC ANGLE

(i) Consider an arc BC length l which subtends an angle q radian at A. Draw a perpendicular on AC,
we have
»
BC
q =
AB
BD
and sin q =
AB

sin q BD
\ = »
Figure. 0.4 q BC
sin q
» = BD
When q ® 0, BC lim = 1
q® 0 q

(ii) In a right triangle of sides 3, 4, 5, we have

4
sin 53° = = 0.8 , cos 37° = 0.8
5
3
and cos 53° = = 0.6 , sin 37° = 0.6.
Figure. 0.5 5
 Mathematics Used in Physics 7
IMPORTANT TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAE
(i) sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
(ii) sin (A – B) = sin A cos B – cos A sin B
(iii) cos (A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B
(iv) cos (A – B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B

tan A + tan B
(v) tan (A + B) =
1 - tan A tan B

tan A - tan B
(vi) tan (A – B) =
1 + tan A tan B
For A = B
(vii) sin 2A = 2sin A cos A
(viii) cos 2A = cos2 A – sin2A

2 tan A
(ix) tan 2A =
1 - tan 2 A
SUM AND DIFFERENCE FORMULAE

A+ B A-B
(i) sin A + sin B = 2sin .cos
2 2

A+ B A- B
(ii) sin A – sin B = 2 cos .sin
2 2

A+ B A-B
(iii) cos A + cos B = 2cos .cos
2 2

A+ B B- A
(iv) cos A – cos B = 2sin .sin
2 2
PRODUCT FORMULAE
(i) 2 sin A cos B = sin (A + B) + sin (A – B)
(ii) 2 cos A sin B = sin (A + B) – sin (A – B)
(iii) 2 cos A cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A – B)
(iv) 2 sin A sin B = cos (A – B) – cos (A + B)
PROPERTIES OF TRIANGLE

(i) Laws of sines

The sides of a triangle are proportional to the sines of the opposite angle,

a b c
i.e., = = .
sin A sin B sin C
(ii) Laws of cosines
In any triangle, the square of any side is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides Figure 0.6
minus twice the product of these two sides into the cosine of their included angle,
i.e., a 2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos A
b 2 = a2 + c2 – 2ac cos B
and c 2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab cosC
8 MECHANICS
1 foot = 12 inch
1 yard = 3 feet = 91.44 cm
1 mile = 1609 m
1 ton = 1000 kg
1 hectare = 10000 m2
1 m3 = 1000 litre

AREA AND VOLUME

(i) Area of triangle of height h and base b;
1
A = bh
2

Figure. 0.7

(ii) Area of trapezium

1
A = (a + b)h
2

Figure. 0.8

(iii) Area of circle

A = pR 2

Figure. 0.9

(iv) Surface area of cone, A = pR l

pR 2 h
Volume of cone, V =
3

Figure. 0.10

(v) Surface area of sphere, A = 4pR 2

4 3
Volume of sphere, V= pR
3
DIFFERENTIATION
If y is the function of x, then we can write
Figure. 0.11
y = f (x)
Here x is the independent variable and y is the dependent variable. If x varies from x to x + Dx, then
 Mathematics Used in Physics 9
y + Dy = f ( x + Dx)
\ Dy = ( y + Dy ) – y
= f ( x + Dx ) – f ( x )
Dy f ( x + Dx ) - f ( x)
And the ratio =
Dx Dx
Taking limits on both sides of above expression, we have
æ Dy ö f ( x + Dx) - f ( x )
lim ç lim
Dx ÷ø
=
Dx ®0 è Dx ® 0 Dx

æ Dy ö æ dy ö
The quantity lim ç ÷ is called differentiation of y w.r.t. x and we can written as ç dx ÷ .
Dx ®0 è Dx ø è ø
Thus we write,
dy f ( x + Dx) - f ( x )
= lim
dx Dx ® 0 Dx

Ex. 3 Given y = 3x2 + 5, differentiate y w.r.t. x. (iv) Differentiation of quotient of two functions :
u
Sol. Step - I Substitute (x + Dx) in place of x in the given function , Suppose y =
so we have v

y + Dy = 3( x + Dx )2 + 5 æuö é du dv ù
dy
dç ÷
è vø êëv dx - u dx úû
Step -II Dy = ( y + Dy ) - y = =
dx dx v2
= [3( x + Dx )2 + 5] - [3 x 2 + 5] (v) Differentiation of a function of a function :

or Dy = 2 2
[3( x + Dx + 2 xDx ) + 5] - [3 x + 5] 2 dy æ dy ö æ du ö
We can write = çè ÷ø ´ çè ÷ø
dx du dx
= 3( Dx 2 + 2 x Dx)
dy
2
Ex. 4 Given, y = (ax + b )2 , evaluate .
Dy 3( Dx + 2 xDx) dx
Step -III =
Dx Dx Sol. Method -I
= 3( Dx + 2 x ) Substituting (ax + b) = u
du d ( ax + b )
æ Dy ö Then = =a
Step - IV lim çè ÷ø = 3(0 + 2 x ) dx dx
D x ® 0 Dx

= 3 × 2x dy d (ax + b) 2 d (u )2
and = = = 2u
= 6x du du du

dy d [3 x 2 + 5] dy dy du
That is = = 3 ´ 2 x 2 -1 + 0 = 6 x \ = ´ = 2u ´ a = 2(ax + b) a
dx dx dx du dx
Similarly, we can get = 2a (ax + b)

d Method - II y = ( ax + b )2
(i) ( ax n + b) = anx n -1
dx = a 2 x 2 + b 2 + 2abx
Where n may have any value.
dy d é 2 2
(ii) Differentiation of sum or difference of two or more function: Then = a x + b 2 + 2abx ù
dx dx ë û
Suppose y = u ± v, u and v are function of x.
d 2 2 d d
dy d du dv = ( a x ) + (b 2 ) + (2abx)
Then = (u ± v ) = ± dx dx dx
dx dx dx dx
(iii) Differentiation of the product of two functions : d ( x )2 dx
Suppose y = uv = a2 + 0 + 2ab
dx dx
dy d (uv ) dv du
Then = =u +v = a2 × 2x + 2ab × 1
dx dx dx dx
= 2a (ax + b)
10 MECHANICS
DIFFERENTIATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION

dy
Let y = sin x, then find .
dx
Step -I Substitute x + Dx in place of x in the function,
we have y + Dy = sin (x + Dx)
Step - II Dy = ( y + Dy ) - y
= sin( x + Dx ) - sin x

æ x + Dx + x ö æ x + Dx - x ö
= 2 cos ç ÷ sin ç ÷
è 2 ø è 2 ø

æ 2 x + Dx ö æ Dx ö
= 2cos ç ÷ sin ç ÷
è 2 ø è 2 ø

æ 2 x + Dx ö æ Dx ö
Dy 2cos ç ÷ sin ç ÷
Step - III = è 2 ø è 2 ø
Dx Dx

æ Dx ö
sin ç ÷
æ 2 x + Dx ö è 2 ø
= cos ç ÷
è 2 ø Dx
2

ì æ Dx ö ü
ï sin ç ÷ï
Dy ì æ 2 x + Dx ö ü ï è 2 øï
Step - IV lim = í lim cos ç ÷ ý ´ í lim ý
Dx ®0 Dx î Dx®0 è 2 ø þ ï Dx®0 æ Dx ö ï
ïî ç 2 ÷ ï
è ø þ

æ 2x + 0 ö
= cos ç ÷ ´1
è 2 ø
= cos x
dy d d cos x
(i) Thus = (sin x ) = cos x (ii) = - sin x
dx dx dx
Similarly, we can get
d d
(iii) (tan x ) = sec 2 x (iv) (cot x ) = -cosec 2 x
dx dx

d d
(v) (cosec x ) = - cot x cosec x (vi) (sec x ) = tan x sec x
dx dx

d –1 1 d –1 1
(vii) dx (sin x) = (viii) dx (cos x ) = -
1 - x2 1 - x2

DIFFERENTIATION OF LOGARITHMIC AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

d (e x )
(i) Let y = ln x (ii) = ex
dx

dy d (ln x) 1
Then = =
dx dx x
 Mathematics Used in Physics 11
OR
dy
Ex. 5 Given y = sin 2x, then find . dy d
dx = (sin 2 x )
dx dx
dy d
Sol. dx
=
dx
(sin 2 x ) d
sin(2 x ) ´
d (2 x)
=
d (2 x ) dx
d (sin u ) du = cos 2 x ´ 2 = 2cos 2 x
= ´
du dx
dy
Here u = 2x Ex. 6 Given y = ln (ax + b), then find .
dx
du d (2 x ) d (sin u ) dy d
\ = = 2 and = cos u
dx dx du Sol. dx
=
dx
ln( ax + b)

dy d ln(ax + b) d (ax + b)
\ = cos u ´ 2 = ´
dx d (ax + b) dx
= 2 cos 2x a
=
ax + b

SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION

dy
is called differentiation of y w.r.t. x or first derivative of y.
dx

d2y d æ dy ö
= ç ÷ is called second derivative of y and so on.
2 dx è dx ø
dx

dy d 2 y d3 y d2y d
Ex. 7 y = x 3 – 4 x 2 + 5 , find , and . and = (3x 2 - 8 x)
dx dx 2 dx 3 dx 2 dx
d d
dy d 3 = (3 x 2 ) - (8 x)
Sol. = ( x - 4 x 2 + 5) dx dx
dx dx
= 3 × 2x – 8
= 6x – 8
d ( x3 ) d d
= - (4 x 2 ) + (5)
dx dx dx d3y d
Also = (6 x - 8)
= dx3 dx
3x 2 - 4 ´ 2 x + 0
d d
= 3x2 - 8 x = (6 x ) - (8)
dx dx
= 6
GEOMETRICAL MEANING OF DIFFERENTIATION
Figure represents the graph of y versus x. Choose two points P(x, y) and
Q(x + Dx, y + Dy) on the curve. The slope of line PQ is given by
Dy
= tan q
Dx
If point Q approaches P, the slope tan q of the line PQ approaches the
slope of the tangent at P. Thus we have

æ Dy ö dy
lim ç
Dx ÷ø
=
Dx ®0 è dx
= tan q
æ dy ö
i.e., ç ÷ at any point of the curve gives slope of the tangent at that point.
è dx ø Figure 0.12
12 MECHANICS

INTEGRATION
The integration is the inverse operation of differentiation. Thus if the differentiation of a function f (x)
w.r.t. x is f ¢(x), then the integration of f '(x) w.r.t. x will be f (x). That is
d
f ( x) = f '( x)
dx

Then ò f '( x)dx = f ( x)

Constant of integration : The differentiation of a constant is zero, therefore in integration there may
involve constant of integration, let C. Thus we can write ò f '( x ) dx = f ( x ) + c

(i) ò dx = x + c ò
(vii) sin x dx = - cos x + c

(ii) ò c dx = c ò dx = cx ò
(viii) cos x dx = sin x + c

x n+1
(iii) ò x n dx =
(n + 1)
+c (n ¹ -1) ò
2
(ix) sec x dx = tan x + c

òx ò
-1 2
(iv) dx = ln x + c (x) cosec x dx = - cot x + c

(v) ò (u + v) dx =ò (u) dx + ò (v) dx + c ò

(xi) cosec x cot x dx = - cosec x + c
where u and v are function of x.

òe ò
x
(vi) dx = e x + c (xii) sec x tan x dx = sec x + c

INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION dx
Ex. 9 Find value of ò .
(ax + b)
Ex. 8 Find value of ò (ax + b)3/2 dx . Sol. Substitute (ax + b) = z in the given function.
Sol. Substitute (ax + b) = z in the given function. d
( ax + b)
dz
Also =
d dz dx dx
Also, ( ax + b) =
dx dx dz
or a =
dx
dz
or a = dz
dx \ dx =
a
dz
dx
\
ò (ax + b)
( dz / a )
ò
dx =
a and =
z
dz
and
ò (ax + b) 3/ 2
dx = òz 3/ 2
´
a =
1
a òz
dz

1 3/ 2
=
a ò
z dz =
1
a
ln z + c

Substitute back for z, we get

æ3 ö
çè +1÷ø dx
ò (ax + b)
2 1
= 1 z = ln( ax + b ) + c
+c a
a æ3 ö
çè + 1÷
2 ø Ex. 10 Find value of ò sin2 x dx.
1 z5 / 2 Sol. Substitute 2x = z in the given function.
= +c
a 5/2 d dz
Also (2 x ) =
Substitute back for z, we get dx dx
2 dz
ò (ax + b) 3/ 2
dx =
5a
(ax + b )5 / 2 + c or 2 =
dx
 Mathematics Used in Physics 13
dz 1
\ dx = = ( - cos z ) + c
2 2
Substitute back for z, we get
æ dz ö
and ò sin 2x dx = ò sin z ç ÷
è 2ø
ò sin 2x dx =
1
( - cos 2 x) + c
2
1
=
2òsin z dz

DEFINITE INTEGRAL
When a function is integrated between lower and upper limit, it is called definite integral.
If a and b are the lower and upper limits of variable x, then
b

ò f '( x)dx = [ f ( x) + c]ba

a

= { f (b) + c} - { f (a) + c}
= f(b) – f(a)
Here constant of integration c get cancelled so there is no need to place it in definite integration.
i i
di dz /( - R ) i
Ex. 11 Given, di
ε–L
dt
= iR , find the value of i at any time t in
and ò ( e - iR ) = ò z
æ 1 ö
= ç
è - R ÷ø òz
dz

terms of constant e, L and R. At t = 0, i = 0. 0 0

0

di æ 1ö i
Sol. We have, e-L = iR = çè - ÷ø ln z 0
dt R

di æ 1ö i
or ( e - iR ) = L = çè - ÷ø ln(e - iR) 0
dt R
æ 1ö
di dt = çè - ÷ø { ln(e - iR) - ln(e - 0)}
or = ....(i) R
( e - iR) L
Integrating both sides of the equation (i), we get æ 1 ö (e - iR )
= çè - ÷ø ln ....(ii)
di R e
ò
dt
( e - iR)
=
L ò t
dt
Here limit of time varies from 0 to t and corresponding limits of i varies
from 0 to i.
and RHS òL
0
æ 1ö t 1
= çè ÷ø t 0 = (t - 0) =
L L
t
L
i t From equations (i) and (ii), we have
di dt
\ ò ( e - iR ) = ò L
æ 1 ö æ e - iR ö
çè - ÷ø ln çè ÷ =
t
0 0 R e ø L
For integration of LHS, substitute e – iR = z.
æ e - iR ö R
ln ç - t
d
( e - iR ) =
dz or è e ÷ø = L
Also
di di
Rt
æ e - iR ö -
dz dz or çè ÷ = e L
or (0 – R ) = \ di = e ø
di (-R) tR
e -
or i = (1 - e L )
R
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
In physics, we often come across quantities which depend on two or more variables. For example
electric potential V depends on x, y coordinates as : V = xy. For given pair of value of x and y, V has a
definite value. If we differentiate quantity V w.r.t. x keeping y constant, then it is known as partial
¶V
differentiation and represented by . Similarly differentiation of V w.r.t. y keeping x is constant is
¶x
¶V
represented by .
¶y
14 MECHANICS

¶V ¶ ( xy )
Thus = =y
¶x ¶x

¶V ¶ ( xy )
and = =x
¶y ¶y
In general if f is a function of n variables x1, x2,......xn, then partial differential coefficient of f with respect
¶f
to x1, keeping all the variables except x1 as constant can be written as .
¶x1

Ex. 12 Given f = ( )
a x 2 + y 2 + bz 2 , where a and b are con- ¶f
¶y
=
¶ é
¶y ë
( )
a x 2 + y 2 + bz 2 ù
û
stants. Find partial differentiation of f w.r.t. x, y and z.
= a × 2y = 2ay,
Sol.
¶f
¶x
=
¶ é
¶x ë
( )
a x 2 + y 2 + bz 2 ù
û and
¶f
=
¶ é
( )
a x 2 + y 2 + bz 2 ù
¶z ¶z ë û
= a × 2 x = 2 ax,
= b × 2z = 2bz
SOME USEFUL PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
(i) Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 m/s2
(ii) Speed of light, c = 3 × 108 m/s
N - m2
(iii) Universal gravitation constant, G = 6.67 ´10-11
kg 2
TERRESTRIAL CONSTANTS
(i) Mean radius of Earth, R = 6.37 × 106 m ; 6.4 ´106 m
(ii) Mass of the Earth, M = 6 × 1024 kg
(iii) Mass of the Sun, Ms = 1.99 × 1030 kg
(iv) Mass of the Moon, M m = 7.34 × 1022 kg
(v) Earth – Moon distance = 3.84 × 108 m
(vi) Earth – Sun distance = 1.49 × 1011 m.
Nature of curve
The nature of curve along which the particle move can be understood by making the relationship
between x, y coordinates of the curve. Some of the common curves are;

1. Straight line : y = mx + c

Figure 0.13

2. Circle : x2 + y2 = R2

Figure. 0.14
 Mathematics Used in Physics 15
3. Parabola : The following may be the equations of a parabola.
y

y = kx2

(i)
Figure 0.15

x2 y2
4. Ellipse : + =1
a2 b2

b2
Also eccentricity, e = 1-
a2

2b 2
Latus rectum, AB =
a

5. Rectangular hyperbola : xy = constant Figure 0.16

Figure 0.17

6. Sinusoidal curve :
(a) y = A sinx

Figure 0.18
16 MECHANICS
(b) y = A cosx

Figure 0.19

Some Important Constants

Name Symbol Value
Speed of light in vacuum c 2.9979 ´ 10 ms– 1
8

Charge of electron e 1.602 ´ 10 –19 C

Gravitational constant G 6.673 ´ 10 –11 N m2 kg–2
Planck constant h 6.626 ´ 10 –34 J s
Boltzmann constant k 1.381 ´ 10 –23 J K– 1
Avogadro number NA 6..022 ´ 10 23 mol–1
Universal gas constant R 8.314 J mol –1 K– 1
Mass of electron me 9.110 ´ 10 –31 kg
Mass of neutron mn 1.675 ´ 10 –27 kg
Mass of proton mp 1.673 ´ 10 –27 kg
Electron-charge to mass ratio e/mr 1.759 ´ 10 11 C/kg
Faraday constant F 9.648 ´ 10 4 C/mol
Rydberg constant R 1.097 ´ 10 7 m–1
Bohr radius a0 5.292 ´ 10 –11 m
Stefan-Boltzmann constant s 5.670 ´ 10 –8 W m–2 K–4
Wien’s Constant b 2.898 ´ 10 –3 m K
e0 8.854 ´ 10 –12 C2 N –1 m–2
Permittivity of free space
1/4p e0 8.987 ´ 10 9 N m 2 C2
Permeability of free space 4p ´ 10 –7 T m A–1
m0
@ 1.257 ´ 10 –6 Wb A–1 m–1
Other useful Constants
Name Symbol Value
Mechanical equivalent of heat J 4.186 J cal –1

Standard atmospheric pressure 1 atm 1.013 ´ 10 5 Pa

Absolute zero 0K –273.15° C
Electron volt 1 eV 1.602 ´ 10 –19 J
Unified Atomic mass unit 1u 1.661 ´ 10 –27 kg
Electron rest energy mc2 0.511 MeV
Energy equivalent of 1 u 1 uc2 931.5 MeV
Volume of ideal gas(0° C and 1 atm) V 22.4 L mol–1
Acceleration due to gravity
g 9.78049 ms –2
(sea level, at equator)